Chapter 3 Cryptography P3

Cryptography - P3
Chapter 3
Asymmetric key algorithms (cont’d.)
 Rivest-Shamir-Alderman (RSA) is an algorithm for

asymmetric/public-key cryptography.
 It was the first algorithm known to be suitable for signing as well
as encryption, and one of the first great advances in public key
cryptography.
 RSA is widely used in electronic commerce protocols, and is
believed to be secure given sufficiently long keys and the use of
up-to-date implementations.
Asymmetric key algorithms (cont’d.)
 The security of the RSA cryptosystem is based on two mathematical

problems:
 the problem of factoring large numbers
 the RSA problem.
 Full decryption of an RSA ciphertext is thought to be infeasible on the
assumption that both of these problems are hard, i.e., no efficient
algorithm exists for solving them.
 RSA keys are typically 1024–2048 bits long. Some experts believe that
1024-bit keys may become breakable in the near term (though this is
disputed); few see any way that 4096-bit keys could be broken in the
foreseeable future.
 RSA is much slower than DES and other symmetric cryptosystems.
Professor Ronald Lorin Rivest is cryptographer and a
Professor of Computer Science at MIT. He earned a
Bachelor's degree in Mathematics from Yale
University in 1969, and a Ph.D. in Computer Science
from Stanford University in 1974.
Adi Shamir is a cryptographer and professor. Shamir

received a BS in Mathematics from Tel Aviv University
in 1973 and obtained his MSc and PhD in Computer
Science from the Weizmann Institute in 1975 and 1977
respectively.
Leonard Max Adleman is a theoretical computer

scientist and professor of computer science and
molecular biology at the University of Southern
California. He received his BA in Mathematics in 1968
and his Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering and Computer
Sciences in 1976.
Hashing algorithms
 Mathematical algorithms that generate message summary/digest
to confirm message identity and confirm no content has changed.
 Use of keys not required; message authentication code (MAC)
may be attached to a message.
 Used in password verification systems to confirm identity of
user.
 Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA-1), Message Digest (MD5, MD4,
MD2), Hash Message Authenticating Code (HMAC), Hash of
Variable Length (HAVAL)
Hashing algorithms (cont’d.)
 For digital signatures, the sender hashes the message (using a
cryptographic hash function) and then signs the resulting "hash
value".
 Before verifying the signature, the recipient also computes the
hash of the message, and compares this hash value with the
signed hash value to check that the message has not been
tampered with.
Hashing algorithms (cont’d.)
Digital Signature
 Message digest encrypted +users private key
 Asymmetric Encryptipn
 Sender encrypt hash +private key send +public key
Public Key Infrastructure
 Public Key Infrastructure (PKI): integrated system of software,
encryption methodologies, protocols, legal agreements, and third-
party services enabling users to communicate securely
 PKI systems based on public key cryptosystems; include digital

certificates and certificate authorities (CAs)
 A PKI consists of client software, server software, hardware (e.g.,
smart cards), legal contracts and assurances, and operational
procedures.
Public Key Infrastructure (cont’d.)
PKI protects information assets in several ways:

 Authentication. Digital certificates in a PKI system permit
parties to validate the identity of other of the parties in an
Internet transaction.
 Integrity. A digital certificate demonstrates that the content
signed by the certificate has not been altered while being
moved from server to client.
 Privacy. Digital certificates keep information from being
intercepted during transmission over the Internet.
 Authorisation. Digital certificates issued in a PKI

environment can replace user IDs and passwords, enhance
security, and reduce some of the overhead required for
authorisation processes and controlling access privileges.
 Non-repudiation. Digital certificates can validate actions,
making it less likely that customers or partners can later
repudiate a digitally signed transaction.
 A certificate authority or certification authority (CA) is an entity

which issues digital certificates for use by other parties. It is an
example of a trusted third party.
 CAs are characteristic of many public key infrastructure (PKI)
schemes.
 There are many commercial CAs that charge for their services.
Institutions and governments may have their own CAs, and
there are also free CAs.
 DigiCert is a CA in Malaysia (http://www.digicert.com.my) .
Secure communications protocols
 Secure Electronic Transactions (SET) was developed by

MasterCard and Visa in 1997 to provide protection from
electronic payment fraud.
 SET works by encrypting the credit card transfers with DES for
encryption and RSA for key exchange, much as other algorithms
do.
 SET provides the security for both Internet-based credit card
transactions and the encryption of swipe systems of those credit
cards in retail stores.
Secure communications protocols
 Secure Socket Layer (SSL) was developed by Netscape in 1994

to provide security in online electronic commerce transactions.
 It uses a number of algorithms, but mainly relies on RSA for key
transfer and IDEA, DES or 3DES for encrypted symmetric key-
based data transfer.
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol over Secure Sockets Layer (HTTPS)
uses port 443 to negotiate encrypted communication sessions
between web servers and browser clients.
 SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) is a standard security
technology for establishing an encrypted link between a
server and a client—typically a web server (website) and a
browser, or a mail server and a mail client (e.g., Outlook).
 Transport Layer Security (TLS) is a protocol that ensures
privacy between communicating applications and their
users on the Internet. When a server and client
communicate, TLS ensures that no third party may
eavesdrop or tamper with any message. TLS is the
successor to the Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)
 The SSL or TLS handshake enables the SSL or TLS
client and server to establish the secret keys with which
they communicate. This section provides a summary of
the steps that enable the SSL or TLS client and server to
communicate with each other: Agree on the version of
the protocol to use.
 SSL/TLS-
-combining
digital certificates for authentication with public key data
encryption
 Over TCP /IP connection.
 SSL/TLS Server driven –web browswer
 Support SSL or TLS
OSI MODEL
E-mail security protocols
 A number of encryption cryptosystems have been adapted in an
attempt to inject some degree of security into e-mail, a
notoriously unsecured medium.
 S/MIME builds on the Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions
(MIME) encoding format by adding encryption and
authentication through digital signatures based on public key
cryptosystems.
How Digital Certificates Are Used for
Digital Signatures
 Digital certificates and digital signing of an e-mail
message

Digital Signatures
 Digital certificates and verifying a digital signature of
an e-mail message
Message Encryption
 Digital certificates and encryption of an e-mail
message
 Digital certificates and decrypting a an e-mail message
How Digital Certificates Are Used for Digital
Signatures and Message Encryption
 Digital certificates and digitally signing and encrypting
of an e-mail message
Digital certificates and decrypting an e-
mail message and verifying a digital
signature

E-mail security protocols (cont’d.)
 Privacy Enhanced Mail (PEM) was proposed by the Internet

Engineering Task Force (IETF) as a standard to function with
the public key cryptosystems.
 PEM uses 3DES symmetric key encryption and RSA for key
exchanges and digital signatures
E-mail security protocols (cont’d.)
 Pretty Good Privacy (PGP): hybrid cryptosystem designed in
1991 by Phil Zimmermann
 Combined best available cryptographic algorithms to become
open source de facto standard for encryption and authentication
of e-mail and file storage applications
 Freeware and low-cost commercial PGP versions are available
for many platforms
 PGP security solution provides six services: authentication by
digital signatures; message encryption; compression; e-mail
compatibility; segmentation; key management
The End

Chapter 3 Cryptography P3

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Cryptography - P3

 Rivest-Shamir-Alderman (RSA) is an algorithm for

 The security of the RSA cryptosystem is based on two mathematical

Adi Shamir is a cryptographer and professor. Shamir

Leonard Max Adleman is a theoretical computer

 PKI systems based on public key cryptosystems; include digital

PKI protects information assets in several ways:

 Authorisation. Digital certificates issued in a PKI

 A certificate authority or certification authority (CA) is an entity

 Secure Electronic Transactions (SET) was developed by

 Secure Socket Layer (SSL) was developed by Netscape in 1994

 Privacy Enhanced Mail (PEM) was proposed by the Internet

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