WEEK 1

Historical Antecedents of
Science and Technology and
Society
 History of Science and
Technology in Ancient Cultures
The history of science in early cultures refers to the
study of protoscience in ancient history before the
development of science in the Middle Ages. In prehistoric
times, advice and knowledge were passed from generation
to generation in an oral tradition. The development of
writing systems allowed various societies to store and
communicate knowledge. At present, we are still reaping
the benefits of recorded knowledge as we are still
discovering ancient evidence of scientific advances.
 Writing coincided with the development of
agriculture, which allowed for a surplus of food. It
became possible for early civilizations to develop.
They were able to dedicate more time to tasks other
than survival, such as searching for knowledge for
knowledge’s sake.
Mesopotamia
The Mesopotamian civilization
developed around 3500 BC in
Sumer, now known as the country
Iraq. The Mesopotamian people
recorded some observations of the
world using extremely detailed
numerical data. An example would
be the records of the Pythagoras’
law on the Mesopotamian
cuneiform tablet dating back as
early as the 18th century BC
 Astronomy is a science that
focuses on recording and
studying observations of the
heavenly bodies: the
Mesopotamian scribes left
vigorous notings of the motions
of the stars, planets, and the
moon in thousands of clay
tablets.
Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt developed their
scientific knowledge in
astronomy, mathematics, and
medicine. Geometry developed
when there was a need to
layout where certain privately-
owned farmland began and
ended. Marking the perimeter
of farmlands was also
necessary to prepare these
lands for the Nile River’s annual
flood.
 Rules of geometry such as the
3-4-5 right triangle and other
rules of thumb were developed
to represent rectangular
structures, including reinforcing
structural posts and openings.
Egypt also became a center of
alchemical research in the
ancient western world.
 Egyptian hieroglyphs, a phonetic writing system,
served as the basis for the Egyptian Phoenician
alphabet. Later on, the Egyptian Phoenician
alphabet evolved into Hebrew, Greek, Latin,
Arabic, and Cyrillic alphabets. The city of
Alexandria retained preeminence with its library,
which was entirely destroyed by fire when it fell
under Roman rule before 642. With it, a vast
amount of antique literature and knowledge was
lost.
 The Edwin Smith papyrus is one
of the first medical documents still
surviving and perhaps the earliest
record that attempts to describe
and analyze the brain: it might be
seen as the beginning of modern
neuroscience.
Persia
In the Sassanid period (226 to 652 AD), the
Persians gave great attention to mathematics
and astronomy. The Academy of Gundishapur
is a prominent example in this regard.
Astronomical tables, such as the Shahryar
Tables, date to this period, and Sassanid
observatory was later imitated by Muslim
astronomers and astrologers of the Islamic
period.
 In the mid-Sassanid era, an influx of
knowledge came to Persia from the West in
the form of views and traditions of Greece,
which, following the spread of Christianity,
accompanied Syriac (the official language of
Christians and the Iranian Nestorians). The
Christian schools in Iran produced great
scientists such as Nersi, Farhad, and
Marabai.
 Also, a book was left by Paulus Persa,
head of the Iranian Department of Logic and
Philosophy of Aristotle, written in Syriac and
dictated to Sassanid King Anushiravan. In
the Early Middle Ages, Persia became a
stronghold of Islamic science.
 Greco-Roman World
Scientific thought in Classical Antiquity became
more practical from the 6th century BC in pre
Socratic philosophy, headlined by Thales and
Pythagoras.
In 385 BC, Plato founded the Academy, where his
students participated in the “scientific revolution” of
the Hellenistic period using discourse. Scholars
would discuss some practical issues by using a
conversational and reasoning process. These
scholars include Eratosthenes, Euclid, Aristarchus of
Samos, Hipparchus, and Archimedes. (3rd to 2nd
centuries
 A reliable calendar, cures for various
illnesses, and abstract thought experiments
known as natural philosophy developed in
Classical Antiquity. These developments
resulted from wondering how the universe
works while practicing a skilled profession
(for example, physicians), generating
rationalthinking through discourse, or
following religious traditions (temple
healers).
 The important legacy of this period included
substantial advances in factual knowledge,
especially in anatomy, zoology, botany,
mineralogy, geography, mathematics, and
astronomy; an awareness of the importance of
some scientific issues, especially those related
to the problem of change and its causes; and
a recognition of the methodological
significance of applying mathematics to natural
phenomena and of undertaking empirical
research.
India
Excavations at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, and other
sites in the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) have
uncovered evidence of the use of practical
mathematics. To develop building blocks that would
make dwellings more durable, the people of the IVC
manufactured bricks whose dimensions were in
proportion 4:2:1. This meant that they found a way
to compute bricks' dimensions to support a given
weight by developing standard ratios. They mass-
produced weights in regular geometrical shapes,
including hexahedra, barrels, cones, and cylinders,
thereby demonstrating basic knowledge of
geometry.
 The inhabitants of the Indus civilization also
tried to standardize the measurement of length
to a high degree of accuracy. They designed a
ruler — the Mohenjo-daro ruler — whose unit of
length (approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4
centimeters) was divided into ten equal parts.
Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro
often had dimensions that were integral
multiples of this unit of length.
 Alchemy (Rasaśāstra in Sanskrit) was
popular in India. The Indian alchemist and
philosopher Kanada introduced the
concept of ‘anu’, which he defined as
matter that cannot be subdivided. This
thinking is analogous to the concept of
the atom in modern science.
China
The first recorded observations of solar
eclipses and supernovae were discovered in
China. On July 4, 1054, Chinese astronomers
observed a supernova guest star, the remnant
now known as the Crab Nebula. Korean
contributions include similar records of
meteor showers and eclipses, particularly
from 1500-1750 in the Annals of the Joseon
Dynasty. Traditional Chinese Medicine,
acupuncture, and herbal medicine were also
practiced, with similar medicine practiced in
Korea.
 Among the earliest inventions were the
abacus,the public toilet, and the “shadow
clock”. Joseph Needham noted the “Four
Great Inventions” of China as among the most
critical technological advances; these were
the compass, gunpowder, papermaking, and
printing. In particular, the Chinese developed
many innovations in the Tang dynasty (AD 618
- 906). Later, up to the Qing Dynasty, an
exchange of ideas occurred between
Europeans and Chinese. These inventions
were adopted in Europe much later, by the
end of the Middle Ages
History of Science and Technology
in Medieval Ages
The Middle Ages (500 to 1400) is now
considered a period with limited scientific
advances in Europe. Still, modern scholars
regard this period as the Golden Age of Islam
and the enlightenment of the Byzantine
Empire. When the civilization of Rome became
powerless, Europe had to adjust by keeping
peace and empire-building. Europeans did not
have enough time and resources to develop
scientific learning.
Despite this, Charlemagne tried to establish a
learning tradition by assigning scribes to
record known knowledge. The later Middle
Ages saw advancements in the philosophy of
science and the development of the scientific
method.
After the fall of the Roman Empire, many
historians and scientists regard Western
Europe as entirely devoid of interest in
scientific discovery
Contemptuously, the Romans caused medieval
Europe to fall into the Dark Ages, a period when
there was a rise of many unhealthy and
illiterate peasants and rulers. Superstition
reemerged in Western
The Dark Europe,
AgesThe Dark AgesThe regressing
Dark AgesThe Dark AgesThe from
the scientific progress brought about by the
Dark AgesThe Dark Ages

Greek and Roman ages of reason and high

philosophy
The Dark Ages
Some historians believe that Europe
regressed into war and barbarism during the
Dark Ages because of the severe inequality and
lack of scientific advancement in the previous
period. To keep the peace, the Christian Church
became more controlling, further stifling
scientific development
 Some historians have the opposing view
because the lack of written records on
scientific development from the Dark Ages does
not mean there was no scientific advancement.
The Dark Ages were only relatively slow in
progress compared to the Roman Empire’s
focus on meticulous record_x0002_keeping.
Developments in science can be seen in the
Middle East instead of Europe. Modern scholars
now regard this period as the Golden Age of
Islam and the enlightenment of the Byzantine
Empire outside of Europe.
Early Medieval Society - The Dark
Ages after the Collapse of Rome
The Early Medieval period (about AD 500 to
1000) in Europe is actually regarded as the real
Dark Ages. In this period, medieval society fell
into barbarism and ignorance. As records show,
Norse sailors could not develop the compass as
early as the Chinese did. Still, they were master
navigators and could use the stars and a few
instruments to navigate to Iceland, Greenland,
and Vinland.
However, monastic study kept some of the
scientific processes alive, even if records
were confined to the Bible’s content. To cure
the sick, the monks of Western Europe
studied medicine. To set dates for church
holidays such as Easter, the monks observed
the stars and developed the discipline of
astronomy. Monks and scribes preserved the
rules of mathematics and geometry when
analyzing the movements of the heavenly
bodies.
The Middle Ages -
Charlemagne, Science, and
Learning
During the 9th Century, these small embers of
preserved knowledge leaped to life. As Western
Europeans tried to systemize education, rulers
and church leaders realized that education was the
key to maintaining unity and peace. This period
was known as the Carolingian Renaissance, when
Charles the Great, often known as Charlemagne,
tried to reestablish knowledge as a cornerstone of
medieval society.
Often depicted as the Golden Hero of the
Church, he was a brutal man of war, but he was
also a great believer in the power of learning. He
instigated a revival in art, culture, and learning,
using the Catholic Church to transmit knowledge
and education. He ordered the translation of
many Latin texts to Middle English and promoted
astronomy, a field that he loved to study, despite
his inability to read. The teaching of logic,
philosophy, and theology would enhance the
thinking process of some Christian thinkers in
Western Europe as medieval society moved into
the High Middle Ages
The High Middle Ages - The Rebirth
of Science and Scholasticism
From 1000 until 1300, this era saw Western
Europe slowly begin to crawl out of the endless
warring, as populations grew and the shared
Christian identity gave some unity of purpose,
from Ireland to Italy and from Denmark to Spain.
However, trade and sharing ideas were common,
and merchants and mercenaries brought back
ideas from Moorish Spain, the Holy Land, and
Byzantium.
The Muslims translated many of the Ancient
Greek texts into Arabic. In the middle of the
11th Century, scholars from all around Europe
flocked to Spain to translate these books from
Arabic into Latin. This translation process
provided a conduit for the Greeks' knowledge
to pass into Europe, where the schools set up
by Charlemagne were now blossoming into
universities. Many of these scholars, such as
Gerard of Cremona (c. 1114-1187), learned
Arabic so that they might complete their task.
 By the 12th Century, centers of learning,
known as the Studium Generale, sprang up
across Western Europe, drawing scholars away
from the Ancient Greeks' knowledge and
combining Classical Antiquity’s discoveries with
the great Muslim philosophers' and scientists'
findings. This period may not have seen the
Greeks, Romans, Chinese, Persians, or Muslims'
significant technological advances. Still, the
contribution of great thinkers such as Thomas
Aquinas, Grosseteste, Francis Bacon, and
William of Ockham to the creation of the
Scientific Method cannot be underestimated.
 Aquinas and Grosseteste are considered to be
the Fathers of Scholasticism and the Scientific
Method. While more interested in using
philosophy to prove the existence of God, Thomas
Aquinas
oversaw a shift from Platonic reasoning towards
Aristotelian empiricism. Meaning, Aquinas became
an expert in reasoning by citing evidence using the
senses. Robert Grosseteste, one of the significant
contributors to the scientific method, founded
the Oxford Franciscan School and began to
promote the dualistic scientific method first
proposed by Aristotle.
 His idea of resolution and composition
involved experimentation and prediction; he
firmly believed that observations should be used
to propose a universal law. This universal law
should be used to predict outcomes. This idea
was very similar to the concept of ancient
astronomers, who used observations to discern
trends and used these trends to create
predictive models for astronomical events.
 Roger Bacon, also known as the Shining Light of
Science in Medieval Society, is one of the great minds
behind the scientific method's development. The
scientific method was also improved through the
learnings of Aristotle, Avicenna, Galileo, and Newton.
Bacon took the work of Grosseteste, Aristotle, and
the Islamic alchemists and used it to propose the idea
of induction as the cornerstone of empiricism, the
philosophy that conclusions should be made with
evidence. He described the method of observation,
prediction (hypothesis), and experimentation, adding
that results should be independently verified,
documenting his results in sufficient detail so that
others might repeat the experiment.
The Late Middle Ages - Scholasticism
and the Scientific Method
The Late Middle Ages, from 1300 until 1500, saw
progress speed up as thinkers continued the work of
scholasticism, adding to the philosophy underpinning
science. The Late Middle Ages made sophisticated
observations and theories that were sadly superseded by
later scientists' work. Finally, many of the scholastic
philosophers sought to remove divine intervention from the
process of explaining natural phenomena, believing that
scholars should look for a more direct, natural cause
rather than stating that it must be the work of divine
providence.
The Black Death - The Destroyer of
Medieval Society and Scholasticism
It seems strange that the advances of many of these
philosophers and scholars became forgotten and
underplayed in favor of the later thinkers that would drive
the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment. However,
the first Renaissance of the Middle Ages was halted by a
natural phenomenon, the Black Death, which killed over a
third of Europeans, especially in the growing urban areas.
The mass disruption to medieval society caused by the
plague set the progress of science and discovery back, and
the knowledge would not reemerge until the Renaissance.