‎⁨مناعة 1⁩

Nursing College/ Second Stage
Immunology
Assist.Professor Dr. Mays Hadi
 Immunology is the study of the immune system and is a
very important branch of the medical and biological
sciences.
 The immune system protects us from infection through
various lines of defence. If the immune system is not
functioning as it should, it can result in disease, such as
autoimmunity, allergy and cancer.
 In immunology, an antigen (Ag) is a molecule or molecular
structure, that can be bound to by an antigen-specific
antibody (Ab) or B cell antigen receptor (BCR).
 The presence of antigens in the body normally triggers an
immune response.
Also, an antigen is a molecule that binds to Ag-
specific receptors.
Antigens are usually proteins, peptides (amino

acid chains) and polysaccharides (chains of
monosaccharides/simple sugars).
Why Antigens are not necessarily Immunogens?
While all immunogens are antigens, not all antigens are

immunogens. This is because some antigens are too
small or difficult to bind to be easily detected by the
immune system
Furthermore, for a peptide to induce an immune response

(activation of T-cells by antigen-presenting cells) it must
be a large enough size, since peptides too small will also
not elicit an immune response.
O Function of The Immune System:-
O The main function of the immune system is

to prevent or limit infections due to viruses, bacteria,
protozoa, and worms.
O The first line of defense against microorganisms is
the barrier, Barriers include physical, chemical and

biological barriers.
O The epithelial surfaces form a physical barrier that is
impermeable to most infectious agents, acting as the first

line of defense against invading organisms. skin
epithelium also helps remove bacteria and other
infectious agents that have adhered to the epithelial
surfaces.
O The epithelia covering our skin, respiratory,

gastrointestinal, and genitourinary tracts provide the first
line of defense against microbes in the external world.
O The gut flora can prevent the colonization of pathogenic
bacteria by secreting toxic substances or by competing

with pathogenic bacteria for nutrients or attachment to
cell surfaces.
O The flushing action of tears and saliva helps prevent
infection of the eyes and mouth.
O The barrier causes activation of local and systemic
innate inflammation, followed by recruitment of

adaptive immunity.
O Then a second line of defense is available to rapidly
detect foreign material and destroy any harmful agents.

These components of the immune system are preformed
and encoded in the genome, and therefore, this arm of
host defense is called innate immunity
O Innate arm is nonspecific in that it can

recognize patterns shared among many microorganisms.
For example, a neutrophil can sense, ingest, and destroy
many different kinds of bacteria by exploiting features
common among bacterial cells.
O Some microbes can mutate to resist of innate
immunity. For these microbes, there is a more

targeted immune protection that is specific for
individual infectious agents, which is provided
by the adaptive (acquired) arm of the immune
system
O The adaptive arm (often considered the third line
of defense). takes days to become fully

functional, but once engaged, it remembers an
infectious agent and responds more quickly to
repeat encounters. For example, after receiving the
first dose of the pneumococcal vaccine, it takes 7 to
10 days to produce protective levels of antibodies,
but when you get a booster, this takes only 2 to 3
days.
 There are two subsystems within the immune system,
known as the innate (non-specific) immune system and

the adaptive or acquired (specific) immune system,
The latter is further divided into humoral (or antibody)
and cell-mediated components.
O - Innate immune system provides a general defense
against harmful germs and substances, so it’s also

called the non-specific immune system.
O It mostly fights using immune cells such as natural
killer cells (NK) and phagocytes (“eating cells”).
O The main job of the innate immune system is to fight
harmful substances and germs that enter the body, for

instance through the skin or digestive system.
O The mechanisms of innate immunity, including their role
in host defense and in driving inflammation. Unlike the

lymphocytes that make up the adaptive immune system,
which can be tuned to sense and respond in different ways
to different infections, components of the innate immune
system have a limited number of ways to sense and respond
to infections.
O However, the advantage of the innate immune system is
that it is activated rapidly and targeted at patterns that are

widely shared among microbes.
 The major functions of the innate immune system
include:
 Recruiting immune cells to sites of infection through the
production of chemical factors, including specialized
chemical mediators called cytokines
O Activation of the complement cascade to identify
pathogen. form holes in the plasma membrane of the
pathogen, resulting in cytolysis of the pathogen cell,
causing the death of the pathogen.
O The complement system, also known as complement
cascade, is a part of the immune system that enhances
the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear
microbes and damaged cells from an organism, promote
inflammation, and attack the pathogen's cell membrane.
 Identification and removal of foreign substances present
in organs, tissues, blood and lymph, by specialized
white blood cells The different white blood cell types are
classified in standard ways; two pairs of broadest
categories classify them either by structure (granulocytes
or agranulocytes)
 Or by cell lineage (myeloid cells or lymphoid cells)
These broadest categories can be further divided into 5
types: neutrophils, eosinophils (acidophiles), basophils
, lymphocytes, and monocytes. These types are
distinguished by their physical and functional
characteristics. Monocytes and neutrophils are
phagocytic function within the immune system by
identifying and eliminating pathogens that might cause
infection and Activation of the adaptive immune system
through a process known as antigen presentation
Monocyte is a type of white blood cell that circulates in
the blood and lymph and differentiates into macrophages
after it moves into infected tissue.
Dendritic cells (DCs) are antigen-presenting cells (also
known as accessory cells) of the mammalian immune
system. Their main function is to process antigen
material and present it on the cell surface to the
T cells of the immune system. They act as messengers
between the innate and the adaptive immune systems.
O Inflammation is the body's normal response to injuries or infections.
O The inflammatory response (inflammation) occurs when tissues are
injured by bacteria, trauma, toxins, heat, or any other cause. The

damaged cells release chemicals including histamine and
prostaglandins. These chemicals cause blood vessels to leak fluid into
the tissues, causing swelling.
O The Signs of an inflammation:-
 Redness.
 Heat.
 Swelling.
 Pain.
 Loss of function.
O Symptoms of acute inflammation last a few days. Subacute inflammation lasts 2–6 weeks.
O Chronic inflammation can continue for months or years. It either has or may have links to
various diseases, such as:

O diabetes
O cardiovascular disease (CVD(
O arthritis and other joint diseases
O allergies
O When inflammation is present in the body, there will be higher levels of substances known
as biomarkers.
O An example of a biomarker is C-reactive protein (CRP). If a doctor wants to test for
inflammation, they may assess CRP levels., a standard CRP test, a normal reading is less
than 10 milligram per liter (mg/L)
O CRP levels tend to be higher in older people and those with conditions such as cancer and
obesity.
O Complement system:-
O The complement system is a biochemical cascade of the immune
system, It is a part of the immune system that enhances

(complements) the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear
microbes and damaged cells from an organism. It is part of the innate
immune system, and does not change during an individual's lifetime.
The complement system can, however, be recruited and brought into
action by antibodies generated by the adaptive immune system.
O The cascade is composed of many plasma proteins, synthesized in
the liver, primarily by hepatocytes.

O The proteins work together to:
 trigger the recruitment of inflammatory cells
 "tag" pathogens for destruction by other cells by opsonizing, or

coating, the surface of the pathogen
 form holes in the plasma membrane of the pathogen, resulting in

cytolysis of the pathogen cell, causing the death of the pathogen
 Remove the body of neutralised antigen-antibody complexes.
 Some complement proteins can complement the activity of

antibody
 Some complement proteins lyse cells without antibody being

present
Immune complex is the term used to refer to the combination of an antibody
with its antigen. Immune complexes must be removed from tissues and kept
from accumulating in the circulation and forming deposits throughout the
body.
Failure to clear immune complexes can lead to autoimmune disease
Complement fixation to immune complexes facilitates their removal by
phagocytes.
It also prevents deposits by facilitating their binding to erythrocytes, which
transport immune complexes to the spleen and the liver where resident
phagocytes such as macrophages dispose of them.

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Nursing College/ Second Stage

Antigens are usually proteins, peptides (amino

While all immunogens are antigens, not all antigens are

Furthermore, for a peptide to induce an immune response

O The main function of the immune system is

O The first line of defense against microorganisms is

the barrier, Barriers include physical, chemical and

impermeable to most infectious agents, acting as the first

O The epithelia covering our skin, respiratory,

bacteria by secreting toxic substances or by competing

O The flushing action of tears and saliva helps prevent

infection of the eyes and mouth.

O The barrier causes activation of local and systemic

innate inflammation, followed by recruitment of

detect foreign material and destroy any harmful agents.

O Innate arm is nonspecific in that it can

immunity. For these microbes, there is a more

of defense). takes days to become fully

known as the innate (non-specific) immune system and

against harmful germs and substances, so it’s also

O It mostly fights using immune cells such as natural

killer cells (NK) and phagocytes (“eating cells”).

O The main job of the innate immune system is to fight

harmful substances and germs that enter the body, for

in host defense and in driving inflammation. Unlike the

O However, the advantage of the innate immune system is

that it is activated rapidly and targeted at patterns that are

O The inflammatory response (inflammation) occurs when tissues are

injured by bacteria, trauma, toxins, heat, or any other cause. The

various diseases, such as:

O cardiovascular disease (CVD(

O arthritis and other joint diseases

O The complement system is a biochemical cascade of the immune

system, It is a part of the immune system that enhances

the liver, primarily by hepatocytes.

 trigger the recruitment of inflammatory cells

 "tag" pathogens for destruction by other cells by opsonizing, or

 form holes in the plasma membrane of the pathogen, resulting in

 Remove the body of neutralised antigen-antibody complexes.

 Some complement proteins can complement the activity of

 Some complement proteins lyse cells without antibody being

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