Defense Mechanisms of the Body

By Nasir Khan
Defense Mechanisms of the body

• Defense Mechanisms: In biology, the defense mechanism of a body is ‘’a form of

adaptation that promotes the survivability of an organism by protecting it from its
natural enemies, such as predators (Anti-predator adaptation) or pathogens
(Immune system)’’.
• Natural barriers include the skin, mucous membranes, tears, earwax, mucus, and
stomach acid.
• Also, the normal flow of urine washes out microorganisms that enter the urinary
tract
• To identify and eliminate organisms that get through the body's natural barriers.
Immunity

• Immunity is the ability of the body to protect against all types of foreign bodies
like bacteria, virus, toxic substances etc, which enter the body and cause a disease.
• It is also called disease resistance.
• Lack of immunity is known as susceptibility.
• Immunity is done by immune system which is a complex network of cells and
proteins that defends the body against infection.
• There are two types of immunity:
1. Innate immunity
2. Adaptive Immunity
1. Innate immunity:
• Innate, or nonspecific, immunity is the defense system with which you were born.
• It is also called natural or native immunity, consist of mechanisms that exist
before infection and are capable of rapid responses to microbes.
• It is comprises four types of defense barriers;
a. Anatomical barriers
b. Phagocytic barriers
c. Blood proteins and
d. Cytokines.
2. Adaptive Immunity:
• Acquired or adaptive immunity is the immunity that is developed by the host in its
body after exposure to an antigen/pathogen or after transfer of antibodies or
lymphocyte from an immune donor.
• Characteristics of Acquired Immunity
a. Antigenic Specificity
b. Immunologic memory
c. Self/non-self recognition
• Types of Acquired Immunity;
• Acquired Immunity is of two types- active and passive immunity.
1. Active immunity: It is induced by exposure to a pathogen or by
vaccination. It can be categorized into two types- Naturally acquired and
Artificially acquired active immunity.
2. Passive immunity: Passive immunity is achieve by transfer of immune
products, such as antibody or T-cells, from an immune individual to non- immune
one. It is of two types- Naturally acquired and Artificially acquired passive
immunity.
Humoral and cell mediated Immunity
• Humoral Immunity:
• Results in production of proteins called immunoglobulins or antibodies.
• When body exposed to “foreign” material or “antigen” which may be harmful to body:
virus, bacteria, etc.
• Antigen has bypassed other protective mechanisms, i.e, first and second line of defense.
• Cell mediated Immunity:
• The immunity developed by cell-mediated response.
• Also called cellular immunity or T cell immunity.
• It involves several types of cells such as T lymphocytes, macrophages and natural killer
cells and hence the name cell mediated immunity.
• Cell-mediated immunity does not involve antibodies.
• Cellular immunity is the major defense mechanism against infections by viruses, fungi
and bacteria.
 Antigens and Antibodies
• An antigen is any substance that causes your
immune system to produce antibodies against it.
• Antibodies are proteins in nature, produced by B
cells in order to identify and neutralize harmful
agents such as infectious bacteria, fungi, and
viruses.
• Antibodies are also called Immunoglobulins.
• These Y-shaped proteins contain antigen-binding
sites that specifically bind to their target antigens.
• Once antibodies effectively bind to their target
antigen, they can either neutralize their target
antigen directly or they can induce other immune
cells or molecules that promote the antigens
removal or destruction.
Classes of antibodies

• There are five classes of antibodies are present.

1) Immunoglobulin G (IgG)
2) Immunoglobulin M (IgM)
3) Immunoglobulin A (IgA)
4) Immunoglobulin D (IgD)
5) Immunoglobulin E (IgE)
1) IgG:
• They makes up approximately 80% of the serum antibodies.
• Their half-life is 7-23 days.
• IgG is a monomer and has 2-epitope binding sites.
• This is the only class of antibodies that can cross the placenta and enter the fetal circulation.
• Functions: Immunity to newborn and neutralization of toxins.
2) IgM:
• They makes up approximately 13% of the serum antibodies.
• Their half-life is about 5 days.
• Most of the IgM are pentamer and has 10-epitope binding sites.
• Some are monomers.
• It is the first immunoglobulin class produced in a primary response to antigen.
• Functions: Activation of classical pathway.
• Defense against multivalent antigens and act as opsonin.
3) IgA:
• They makes up approximately 6% of the serum antibodies.
• Their half-life is approximately 5 days.
• IgA is a dimer and has 4-epitope binding sites.
• Found mainly in body secretions such as saliva, mucous, tears and milk.
• Functions: Effective against virus that causing influenza and prevent attachment
of bacteria and virus to mucosal surfaces. They are secretory antibodies.
4) IgD:
• They makes up approximately 0.2% of the serum antibodies.
• IgD is a monomer and has 2-epitope binding sites.
• Found on the surface of B-lymphocytes.
• Function: B cell activation and act as a receptor for antigen binding.
5) IgE:
• Present in very low concentration in blood.
• It contain small percentage of lymphocytes
• Functions: Responsible for Immediate hypersensitivity
-- Plays a critical role in the allergic inflammatory process.
-- Binds to Fc receptor on basophils and mast cells.
-- Release of substance like histamine ,vasoactive mediators
Hypersensitivity
• Hypersensitivity (also called hypersensitivity reaction or intolerance) refers
to undesirable reactions produced by the normal immune system, including
allergies and autoimmunity.
• Usually referred to as an over-reaction of the immune system and these reactions
may be damaging and uncomfortable.
• Delayed hypersensitivity; An inflammatory response that develops 24 to 72 hours
after exposure to an antigen that the immune system recognizes as foreign.
• This type of immune response involves mainly T cells rather than antibodies
(which are made by B cells).
• Immediate hypersensitivity: Hypersensitivity reactions are known as immediate
hypersensitivity reactions because they occur within 24 hours of exposure to the
antigen or allergen.
First line of defense

• The first line of defense (or outside defense system) includes physical and
chemical barriers that are always ready and prepared to defend the body from
infection.
• Pathogenic (disease-causing) microorganisms must pass this first line of defense
to cause an infection.
• If this defense is broken, the second line of defense within your body is activated.
• These physical and chemical barriers include your skin, tears, mucus, cilia,
stomach acid, urine flow, 'friendly' bacteria and white blood cells called
neutrophils.
• Skin: Skin is the largest organ of your body that acts as a physical barrier
between invaders (pathogens) and your body.
• Composed of three layers of closely packed cells, the Epidermis, Dermis and
Hypodermis.
• The epidermal cells are packed with keratin which makes the skin’s surface
mechanically tough and resistant to degradation by bacterial enzymes.
• Keratin also helps make the outer skin surface relatively waterproof, helps keep
the skin surface dry, reduces microbial growth.
• Fatty acids on the skin’s surface create a dry, salty, and acidic environment that
inhibits the growth of some microbes and is highly resistant to breakdown by
bacterial enzymes.
• Oleic acid produces as a result of sebum degradation by many microbes can create
acidic environment which can affect the pathogenic microbes.
• Infections can occur when the skin barrier is broken.
• Tears, mucus and saliva:
• Your nose, mouth and eyes are obvious entry points for pathogens.
• However, tears, mucus and saliva contain an enzyme (lysozyme) that breaks down
the cell wall of many bacteria.
• Those that are not killed immediately are trapped in mucus and swallowed.
• Special cells line and protect the nose, throat and other passages within your body.
• The inner lining of your gut and lungs also produces mucus to trap invading
pathogens.
• Mucus secretions also contain antimicrobial peptides.
• Microbes trapped in dead skin cells or mucus are removed from the body by
mechanical actions such as shedding of skin cells, coughing etc.
• Cilia: Very fine hairs like structures (cilia) lining your windpipe move mucus and
trapped particles away from your lungs. Particles can be bacteria or material such
as dust or smoke.
• Stomach acid: Stomach acid kills bacteria and parasites that have been
swallowed.
• Stomach mucosa secretes hydrochloric acid and protein-digesting enzymes, which
are deadly to microorganisms.
• Urine flow: Your urine flow flushes out pathogens from the bladder area.
• Friendly (beneficial) bacteria: You have beneficial bacteria growing on your
skin, in your bowel and other places in the body (such as the mouth and the gut)
that stop other harmful bacteria from taking over.
Second line of defense
• Nonspecific resistance that destroys invaders in a generalized way without
targeting specific individuals: Phagocytic cells ingest and destroy all microbes
that pass into body tissues.
• The second line of defense is a group of cells, tissues and organs that work
together to fight against the pathogens and protect the body.
• This is the immune system.
• Immune system is a complex network of cells and proteins that defends the body
against infection.
• The immune system keeps a record of every germ (microbe).
• Cells: The cells involved are white blood cells (leukocytes), which seek out and
destroy disease-causing organisms or substances.
• There are different types of leukocytes and each of these cell types has a specific
function, but they all work together to protect the body.
• Neutrophils: When microorganisms, such as bacteria or viruses, enter the body,
neutrophils are one of the first immune cells to respond.
• Travel to the site of infection, destroy the microorganisms by ingesting them and
releasing enzymes that kill them.
• Neutrophils also boost the response of other immune cells.
• Neutrophils only last a few days in the body (before they self-destruct), but
our bone marrow produces more every day.
• Some bacteria avoid neutrophils by hiding inside cells.
• T helper cells: These cells are like the bosses.
• They give instructions to other cells by producing signals.
• Each T helper cell only looks out for one type of pathogen.
• Many T helper cells are needed to watch for many different diseases or invaders.
• Cytotoxic (killer) T cells: These are killer cells.
• Cytotoxic T cells kill virally infected cells and tumors.
• They punch holes in the walls of the pathogen cell so that the contents ooze out.
• Macrophages: Macrophage means ‘big eater’.
• These cells ‘eat’ (ingest) or clean up the mess of dead cells.
• Dendritic cells: These cells are like the spies.
• They notice if there is an invader and then present evidence of the invader to T cells.
• B cells: Produce antibodies, which lock onto the antigen of invading bacteria and
immobilize them until the macrophage consumes them.
• Some B cells become memory cells after being activated by the presence of antigen.
• These cells can live for a long time and can respond quickly following a second
exposure to the same antigen.
• Suppressor T cells: When the infection is gone, the immune system needs to be
calmed down (or the killer cells may keep killing).
• The suppressor T cells slow down or turn off the immune system to prevent
damage to good cells.
Third line of defense
• The third line of defense is immune cells that target specific antigens.
• The third line of defense is specific, targeted resistance, which is acquired immunity.
• This immunity is not present at birth but is learned due to its attack on specific
antigens because it remembers them.
• The immune cells that play a role in the third line of defense are B-cells and T-cells,
both are white blood cells.
• The B-cells produce antibodies.
• The T-cells help identify pathogenic cells and destroy targeted cells.
• It has two main roles:
• Identify and destroy specific pathogens.
• Build long-lasting immunity against the pathogens in case they infect the body again.
Third line of defense cont’d..
• The first two lines of defense respond in a general way that treats all pathogens
equally.
• The third line of defense targets the specific pathogen that has invaded the body.
• A strength of the third line of defense is that it can develop an effective weapon
against a particular pathogen.
• It can also remember that pathogen if it ever shows up in the body again. It can
then use the same weapons to defeat it more quickly.
• Special cells called dendritic cells are the
point of communication between innate
and adaptive immunity.
• When macrophages identify and engulf
the pathogen and then sound the alarm,
the dendritic cells responds.
• They travel to the site of infection, where
they phagocytose and break off small
parts of the pathogen.
• They carry these parts to your lymph
nodes, where adaptive immunity begins.
Phagocytosis
• Phagocytosis is a cellular process for ingesting and eliminating different particles
including microorganisms or foreign substances etc.
• Stages of phagocytosis;
1. The virus and the cell need to come into contact with each other.
2. The virus binds to the cell surface receptors on the macrophage.
3. The macrophage starts to surround the virus and engulf it into the cell.
4. The surrounded virus becomes completely enclosed in a bubble-like structure,
called a “phagosome”, within the cytoplasm.
5. The phagosome fuses with a lysosome, becoming a “phagolysosome”.
6. Phagolysosome lowers the pH to break down its contents.
7. Once the contents have been neutralized, the phagolysosome forms a residual body
that contains the waste products from the phagolysosome
The process of phagocytosis
Good health protect against microbial infection

• A healthy individual will have a healthy immune system and natural barriers
which can defeat invading/entering disease-causing germs (or pathogens), such as
bacteria, viruses, parasite as well as cancer cells and protecting healthy tissue.
• Poor diet/malnutrition or a diet lacking in one or more nutrients can impair the
production and activity of immune cells and antibodies.
• Chronic diseases: Autoimmune and immunodeficiency disorders attack and
potentially disable immune cells.
• So, a balanced diet is having a key role in someone good health and can help in
the production of immune cells against any pathogenic microbe invading the
body.
Q & A?