Countable Sets

Discrete Structures
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It use sets to keep the elements of the system Sets and Propositions Experts systems
Pascal Triangle
C(n,0) = C(n,n) = 1 C(n,k) = C(n-1,k-1) + C(n-1,k) 4 = 3 + 3 2 1 2
Pascal Triangle
0 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 5 1 4 1 5 2 3 1 4 2 5 3 2 1 3 2 4 3 5 4 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 1 1 5 1 4 10 3 6 10 3 4 5 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1
Pascal Triangle
C(n,k)
K-element subset A of an n-set say n+

nA

Two cases of C(n,k)
A = B {n}, Where B is a (k-1)-subset of (n-1)+
n A
A is a k-subset of (n-1)+
Recurrence Equation
S(n,k) = S(n-1,k-1) + k . S(n-1,k) S(n,1) = S(n,n) = 1 S(5,4) = S(4,3) + 4* S(4,4)

S(5,4) = { S(3,2) + 3*S(2,2)} + 4*1 S(5,4) = {{S(2,1)+2*S(2,2)} + 3*1} + 4 S(5,4) = (1 + 2*1 + 3) + 4 S(5,4) = 6 + 4 S(5,4) = 10
Recurrence Equation
k n 1 2 3 4 5 1 1 15 1 7 25 1 3 6 10 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 4 5
Recurrence Relation
The Stirling numbers can be characterized in terms of the following recurrence relation: subject to the following initial conditions: there is only one way to partition n objects into 1 group (everything is in that group), and only one way to partition n objects into n groups (every object is a group all by itself).
Recurrence Relation
Proceeding recursively, a division of n objects a1, a2, ,an-1, an into k groups can be achieved by only one of two basic maneuvers:
We could partition the first n-1 objects into k groups, and then add object an into one of those groups. There are k * S(n-1,k). We could partition the first (n-1) objects into (k-1) groups and then add object an as a new, 1 element group. This gives an additional S(n-1,k-1) ways to create the desired partition
Countable Sets
A set is countable if there is a bijection from that set to N. An alternate way to define countable is: If there is a way to enumerate the elements of a set, then the set has the same cardinality as N and is called countable A set that is infinite and not countable is called uncountable.
Countable Sets
Example
C=Z
1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 -1 2 -2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6
C = B*
0 0 1 00 01 10
Countable Sets
1st Principle of Countability
A subset of countable set is countable
2nd Principle of Countability
A set product of two countable sets is countable
3rd Principle Of Countability
The countable union of countable sets is countable
Algebra And Algorithms
An Algorithm is a specification of a mechanical or systematic procedure for carrying out a computation. An Algorithm is a finite set of precise instructions for performing a computation or for solving a problem
Algebra And Algorithms
Integers and Induction Recursion Algebras and proposition Algebraic Expressions Algebraic Structures Algebraic Flowchart Language Syntax and Semantics
Principle of Mathematical Induction

1.
2.
P(k) = is true For all n k; P(n) => P(n+1) Then the principle asserts that
P(n) is true for all n k.
1.
2.
The proposition is true for the smallest integer under consideration (in this case k) The assumption (inductive hypothesis) that the proposition is true for some integer n k implies that it is true for the next largest integer n + 1
Induction
Induction is like heridity: If Adam had big feet, and big feet are heriditary then every person (except possibly Eve) has/had big feet
Example
The sum of first n odd positive integers is n2 P(1) = 12 = 1 P(k) = 1 + 3 + 5 + + (2k-1) = k2 P(k+1) = 1 + 3 + 5 + + (2k-1) + (2k+1) = {1+3+5++(2k-1)} + (2k+1) = k2 + 2k + 1 = (k+1)2
Example
Now apply the principle to verify that
P(1) = 1(2) /2 = 2/2 = 1 P(n+1) = (n+1)((n+1)+1) /2 = (n+1)(n+2) / 2 = (n+1) + = (n+1) + n(n+1) /2 = (2n + 2 + n2 + n) / 2 = (n2 + 3n + 2) / 2 = (n+1)(n+2) / 2
Example
For all n 1 = n(n+1)(2n+1) / 6
P(k) = k(k+1)(2k+1)/6 P(n+1)= (n+1)(n+2)(2n+3)/6
Example
=(n+1)2 + = (n+1)2 + n(n+1)(2n+1)/6
= (n2+2n+1) + (n2+n)(2n+1)/6 = [6n2+12n+6) + (2n3+n2+2n2+n)]/6 = (2n3 + 9n2 +13n + 6)/6 = (n+1)((n+1)+1)(2(n+1)+1)/6
Division Algorithm
n divides m (n|m) if there exists an integer q such that m = q.n that is, if m is an integer multiple of n We can define the integer quotient m / n = tr (m.n) E.g. m = 22 and n = 5
m/n = tr(22/5) = tr(4.4) = 4 22 = q.5 => q = 5
Division Algorithm
Similarly, remainder can be defined as r = a b.q Division Algorithm
For any integers a, b Z+, there exist unique integers q and r such that a = b.q + r and 0 r < b
Division Algorithm
Example
Let a = 22, b = 5 q = a / b = tr(22/5) = tr(4.4) = 4 r = a b.q = 22 20 = 20 Then

a = b.q + r 22 = 5.4 + 2
and 0 2 < 5
Application of Division Algorithm
Greatest common divisor (gcd)

d = gcd(a,b)
1. 2.
d|a , d|b c|a, c|b => c|d a = b.q1 + r1 b = r 1 . q 2 + r2 r1 = r 2 . q 3 + r3 rk-2 = rk-1. qk + rk rk-1 = rk. qk+1 0 r1 <b 0 < r2 < r 1 0 < r3 < r 2 0 < rk < rk-1 0 = rk+1
Given a, b whose gcd is sought, we write
Division Algorithm
Every common divisor of a, b also divides remainder ri.
gcd(a,b) = gcd(b,r1) = gcd(r1,r2)==gcd(rk-1,rk) = rk
Division Algorithm
Example
Let a = 252 ; b = 180 q = a/b = tr(a/b) and 252 = 180*1 +72 180 = 72*2 + 36 72 = 36*2 + 0 So
r = a b.q (a = b.q1 + r1) (b = r1. q2 + r2) (r1 = r2. q3 ; r3 =0)
gcd(252,180) = gcd(180,72) = gcd(72,36) = 36

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Countable Sets

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Discrete Structures

Application Speed (fast) Examples (should be added)

Predicate Logic Fuzzy Logic Genetic Algorithms Neural Network

How to handle linguistic variables?

Sally is tall It is very hot today

C(n,0) = C(n,n) = 1 C(n,k) = C(n-1,k-1) + C(n-1,k) 4 = 3 + 3 2 1 2

K-element subset A of an n-set say n+

Two cases of C(n,k)

A = B {n}, Where B is a (k-1)-subset of (n-1)+

S(n,k) = S(n-1,k-1) + k . S(n-1,k) S(n,1) = S(n,n) = 1 S(5,4) = S(4,3) + 4* S(4,4)

1st Principle of Countability

A subset of countable set is countable

2nd Principle of Countability

A set product of two countable sets is countable

3rd Principle Of Countability

The countable union of countable sets is countable

Algebra And Algorithms

Algebra And Algorithms

Principle of Mathematical Induction

Now apply the principle to verify that

For all n 1 = n(n+1)(2n+1) / 6

P(k) = k(k+1)(2k+1)/6 P(n+1)= (n+1)(n+2)(2n+3)/6

= (n2+2n+1) + (n2+n)(2n+1)/6 = [6n2+12n+6) + (2n3+n2+2n2+n)]/6 = (2n3 + 9n2 +13n + 6)/6 = (n+1)((n+1)+1)(2(n+1)+1)/6

m/n = tr(22/5) = tr(4.4) = 4 22 = q.5 => q = 5

Similarly, remainder can be defined as r = a b.q Division Algorithm

Let a = 22, b = 5 q = a / b = tr(22/5) = tr(4.4) = 4 r = a b.q = 22 20 = 20 Then

Application of Division Algorithm

Greatest common divisor (gcd)

Given a, b whose gcd is sought, we write

Every common divisor of a, b also divides remainder ri.

gcd(a,b) = gcd(b,r1) = gcd(r1,r2)==gcd(rk-1,rk) = rk

r = a b.q (a = b.q1 + r1) (b = r1. q2 + r2) (r1 = r2. q3 ; r3 =0)

gcd(252,180) = gcd(180,72) = gcd(72,36) = 36

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