HEAT TRANSFER WITH

PHASE CHANGE
 Heat Transfer with Phase Change
So far we have discussed heat transfer due to a
temperature gradient/difference
Q TH  TC
H  kA
T L
• When a phase change takes place, the temperature
on one side is CONSTANT, but the presence of
boiling/condensing fluids affects heat transfer.
• Important in evaporation, distillation
• LARGE h
 Heat Transfer with Phase Change
Energy transfer processes associated with phase
change may achieve relatively high heat transfer
rate although the accompanying temperature
differences are quite small. These convective
heat-transfer processes are difficult to describe
because of additional considerations of latent
heat of vaporization, surface characteristics and
other properties of two-phase systems.
 Heating Curve for Water

Water temperature with heating

200
150 Water boils steam
temperature (C)

100
50 Ice melts Liquid water
0
-50 ice
-100
0.0E+00 1.0E+06 2.0E+06 3.0E+06 4.0E+06
heat input (J/kg)
 Phase Change
• Potential energies:
Solid < Liquid < Gas
• During a phase change, potential energy, not
kinetic energy (temperature) changes.
• Heating or cooling a changing phase does not
change its temperature!
 Phase Change
• Potential energy of phase change (energy
required to change the phase of 1 kg of
substance)
• Water’s latent heat of fusion (melting):
335,000 J/kg
• Water’s latent heat of vaporization:
2,255,000 J/kg
 Phase Change
• More energetic jostling = higher temperature
• An especially fast molecule at the surface may
detach!
 Phase Change
• More energetic jostling = higher temperature
• An especially fast molecule at the surface may
detach!
 Evaporation
• Evaporating molecules carry away energy
• KE PE
• Remaining liquid cools (KE decreases)
 Condensation
Condensation occurs when a vapor contacts a surface
which is at a temperature below the saturation
temperature of the vapor. When the liquid
condensate forms on the surface, it will flow under
the influence of gravity. The flow maybe laminar or
turbulent, depending on the fluid, rate of
condensation, tube size and other factors. The film
tends to thicken as it flows to the bottom of the tube,
and the weight of the fluid may cause ripples to form.
These will cause deviations from pure laminar flow.
 Condensation
Physical Mechanisms:
(A) surface condensation
- In industrial equipment, the process results from the contact between the
vapor and a cool surface
- the latent energy of the vapor is released, heat is transferred to the surface
and the condensate is formed

(a) Film condensation

(b) Dropwise condensation

(B) homogeneous condensation

- the vapor condenses out as droplets suspended in a gas phase to form a fog

(C) direct contact condensation

- occurs when the vapor is brought in contact with a cold liquid
 Condensation
Droplet Condensation: drops
form in cracks, pits and cavities
on the surface and may grow
and coalesce thru condensation.
More than 90% of the surface is
covered by drops, ranging from a
few micrometers in diameter to
agglomerations visible to the
naked eye. The droplets flow
from the surface due to gravity.
Heat transfer for droplet
condensation is higher than film.
To be conservative, most design
calculations assume film.
 Condensation
Film Condensation:
Liquid film covers
surface and flows
continuously from the
surface. Characteristic
of clean,
uncontaminated
surfaces.
The presence of the
liquid film reduces the
heat transfer.
 Condensation

Homogeneous condensation or fog formation

resulting from increased pressure due to
expansion.
 Condensation

Direct contact condensation.

 Surface Condensation
1. Film Condensation
• the dominant form of condensation in which a liquid film
covers the entire condensing surface and under the
action of gravity the film flows continuously from the
surface
• is generally characteristic of clean, uncontaminated
surfaces
• it is the layer of liquid interposed between the vapor and
the wall of the tube that provides resistance to heat flow
and therefore fixes the magnitude of the heat transfer
coefficient
 Surface Condensation
2. Dropwise condensation
• the condensate begins to form at microscopic nucleation sites
such as cracks, tiny pits, scratches and cavities on the surface
• the drops grow and coalesce with their neighbors to form
visible fine drops
• the fine drops, in turn, coalesce into rivulets, which flow down
the tube under the action of gravity
• occurs if the surface is coated with a substance that inhibits
wetting
• the average heat transfer coefficient for dropwise condensation
may be 5 to 8 times that for film-type condensation
Laminar Film Condensation on a Vertical
Plate
Assumptions
 Condensation
For vertical surfaces in laminar flow:
1/ 4
hL   L (  L   v ) gh fg L
 3

N Nu   1.13   N Re  1800
kL   L k L T 
where the subscripts L refers to the liquid and v refers to the vapor.
h fg is the latent heat of vaporization for the liquid.
T  Tsat  Tw
All properties, except h fg , are evaluated at the film temperature.
The Reynolds number is defined by
4m
N Re  for a vertical tube of diameter, D
 DL
4m
N Re  for a vertical plate of width, W
W L
Frequently,  v  L and can be neglected.
 Condensation

For turbulent flow, N Re  1800,

1/ 3
hL  g L 
2 3

  N Re 
0.4
N Nu   0.0077  L

  
2
kL L

The solution is by trial and error since the

Reynolds number must be known.
Condensation

For tubes, the liquid

thickens as the
condensate flows down
the tube.
For banks of tubes, the
liquid may flow as a film
to the lower tube, or it
may drip to the lower
tubes.
Condensation
 Condensation
For a vertical tier of N horizontal tubes placed one below the other,
the average convective coefficient over the N tubes is given by,
  L   L  v  gh fg D
1/ 4
hD
3

N Nu   0.725  
kL  N  L k L T 
This equation works also for N  1.
Steam saturated at 68.9 kPa is condensing on a vertical
tube 0.305 m long having an OD of 0.0254 m and a surface
temperature of 86.11OC. Calculate the average heat
transfer coefficient using English and SI units.
Tsat = 89.44OC Tw = 86.11OC
Tf = Tw +Tsat = 89.44 + 86.11 = 87.8OC
2 2
Latent Heat, λ = 2283.2 kJ/kg
ρl = 996.7 kg/m3 ρv = 0.391 kg/m3
μl = 3.24 x 10-4 Pa.s kl = 0.675 W/m.K L = 0.305 m
ΔT = Tsat – Tw = 89.44 – 86.11 = 3.33 K
Assume Laminar flow
Nu = 1.13 ρl (ρl – ρv) gλL3 1/4

μlklΔT

= 1.13 996.7(996.7– 0.391) 9.81(2.2832x10 6)(0.305)3 1/4

(3.24x10-4)(0.675)(3.33K)
= 6130.88
ho = 6130.88(0.675) = 13568.34 W/m2.K
0.305
A = ΠDL = Π(0.0254)(0.305) = 0.0243 m2
 q = hAΔT = ṁλ
ṁ = 13568.34 W/m2.K (0.0243 m2)(3.33 K)
2.2832x106 J/kg
ṁ = 4.81 x 10-4 kg/s

Check assumption:
Re = 4ṁ = 4 (4.81 x10 -4 kg/s) = 18.60
ΠDμl Π(0.0254m)(3.24x10-4kg/m.s)

Laminar!
Saturated steam condenses on the outside of a 5
cm-diameter vertical tube, 50 cm high. If the
saturation temperature of the steam is 302 K, and
cooling water maintains the wall temperature at 299
K, determine: (i) the average heat transfer
coefficient, (ii) the total condensation rate, and (iii)
the film thickness at the bottom of the tube.
From Table of water properties:

h  2.432106 J/kg ρ v  0.03kg/m3

fg
Also, for water
k  0.611 W/mK
l
ρ  996 kg/m3
l
ν  0.8710-6 m2/s
l
Nu = 1.13 L3 (ρl – ρv) gλ 1/4

νlΔTkl

h = 1.13 (996 – 0.03)(9.81)2.432 x106(0.50)3 1/4

0.611
(0.87 x 10-6)(0.611)(302 – 299) 0.50

h = 9071.44 W/m2.K
(ii) The total condensation rate is :
Q h AT (9071.44)(3) (0.05)(0.5) 4
m     8 . 79  10 kg/s
h fg h fg (2.432  10 )
6

(iii) The film thickness is

1/ 3
 3 l  
     v   l
 l g 
The mass flow rate per unit width of film  is :
m (8.79  10  4 )
   5.60  10 3 kg/ms
D ( )(0.05)

1/ 3
 3(0.87  10 )(4.67  10 ) 
-6 3
Hence,      1.14  10  4 m
 (996)(9.81) 
Saturated steam condenses on the outside of a 5 cm
diameter vertical tube, 50 cm high. If the saturation
temperature of the steam is 302 K, and cooling water
maintains the wall temperature at 299 K, determine:
(i) the average heat transfer coefficient,
(ii) (ii) the total condensation rate, and
(iii) (iii) the film thickness at the bottom of the tube.
Given: Film condensation of saturated steam
Required: (i) Average heat transfer coefficient, (ii) total
condensation rate, (iii) and film thickness
1. Effect of tube curvature negligible
2. Effect of liquid sub cooling negligible
3. Laminar
 y

x
Tsat
y

A g

T
The Average heat transfer coefficent is given by :
 (x) Condensate Film
 '
1/ 4
_ h g (  v )k 3 
 
h  0.943 fg l l 
L(Tsat  Tw )v 


l 


Evaluate hfg at the saturation temperature of 302 K

From Table of water properties :

h  2.432106 J / kg  v  0.03kg / m3
fg
Also, for water
k l  0.611 W/mK
 l  996 kg/m3
 l  0.87  10-6 m 2 /s

 h fh g  l   v k 
3 1/ 4
l
h  0.943 
 LTsat  Tw  l 
 ( 2.432  10 )(9.81)996  0.03(0.611)
1/ 4
6 3

 0.943 6   7570 W/m 2 K
 ( 0 .5)( 3)( 0. 87  10 ) 

(ii) The total condensation rate is :

Q h AT (7570)(3) (0.05)(0.5) 4
m     7. 33  10 kg/s
h fg h fg ( 2.432  10 )
6
(iii) The film thickness is
1/ 3
 3 l  
     v   l
 l g 
The mass flow rate per unit width of film  is :
m (7.33  10 4 )
   4.67  10 3 kg/ms
D ( )(0.05)

1/ 3
 3(0.87  10 )( 4.67  10 ) 
-6 3
Hence,      1.08  10 4 m
 (996)(9.81) 
Air free saturated steam at 85OC condenses on the outer
surfaces of 225 horizontal tubes of 1.27 cm OD, arranged
in a 15 x 15 array. Tube surfaces are maintained at a
uniform temperature of 75OC. Calculate the condensate rate
per one m length of tube.

Tsat = 85OC Tw = 75OC

Tf = Tw +Tsat = 85 + 75 = 80OC
2 2
DO = 0.0127 m
Latent Heat, λ = 2296 kJ/kg
ρl = 974 kg/m3 ρv = neglected
μl = 3.55 x 10-4 Pa.s kl = 0.668 W/m.K L = 1 m
ΔT = Tsat – Tw = 85 – 75 = 10 K
 Nu = 0.725 ρl (ρl – ρv) gλD3 1/4

NμlklΔT

hD = 0.725 (974)2 (9.81)(2.296x106)(0.0127)3 1/4

kl 15(3.55x10 -4)(0.668)(10 K)
= 135.7865
hi = 135.7865 (0.668) = 7142.15 W/m 2.K
0.0127
A = ΠDL = Π(0.0127)(1) = 0.0399 m2
 q = h n A ΔT = ṁλ

ṁ = 7142.15 W/m2.K (225) (0.0399 m2)(10 K)

2.296 x106 J/kg

ṁ = 0.2793 x 10-3 kg/s

Air free saturated steam at 90OC condenses on the outer
surfaces of 2.5-cm OD 6 m long vertical tube, where outer
surface temperature is maintained at a uniform temperature
of 60OC. Calculate the total rate of condensation of steam at
the total surface.

Tsat = 90OC Tw = 60OC

Tf = Tw +Tsat = 90 + 60 = 75OC
2 2
DO = 0.025 m
Latent Heat, λ = 2283 kJ/kg
ρl = 974.8 kg/m3 ρv = neglected
μl = 3.805 x 10-4 Pa.s kl = 0.671 W/m.K L = 1 m
ΔT = Tsat – Tw = 90 – 60 = 30 K
Assume Laminar flow
Nu = 1.13 ρl (ρl – ρv) gλL3 1/4

μlklΔT

Nu = 1.13 (974.8)2 9.81(2.283x106)(6)3 1/4

(3.805 x 10-4)(0.671)(30 K)
= 31451.67376
hi = 31451.67376(0.671) = 3517.3455 W/m 2.K
6
A = ΠDL = Π(0.025)(6) = 0.471239 m2
 q = hAΔT = ṁλ
ṁ = 3517.3455 W/m2.K (0.471239 m2)(30 K)
2.283 x 106 J/kg
ṁ = 0.0218 kg/s

Check assumption:
Re = 4ṁ = 4 (0.0218 kg/s)
ΠDμl Π(0.025m)(3.805 x 10-4kg/m.s)
Re = 2915.3249
NOT Laminar!
 Nu = 0.0077 gρl2 L3 1/3
Re0.4
μl2

Assume Re = 2500
h D = 0.0077 (974.8)2 (9.81) (6)3 1/3
(2500)0.4
kl (3.805x10 -4)2
Nu = 42339.74335
hi = 42339.74335 (0.671) = 4734.995 W/m 2.K
6
A = ΠDL = Π(0.025)(6) = 0.4712 m2
 q = hAΔT = ṁλ
ṁ = 4734.995 W/m2.K (0.471239 m2)(30 K)
2.283 x 106 J/kg
ṁ = 0.0293 kg/s

Check assumption:
Re = 4ṁ = 4 (0.0293 kg/s)
ΠDμl Π(0.025m)(3.805 x 10-4kg/m.s)
Re = 3924.5640
Re = 3924.5640 ≠ assumed 2500
 Nu = 0.0077 gρl2 L3 1/3
Re0.4
μl2

Assume Re = 5300
h D = 0.0077 (974.8)2 (9.81) (6)3 1/3
(5300)0.4
kl (3.805x10 -4)2
Nu = 57185.05
hi = 57185.05 (0.671) = 6395.20 W/m 2.K
6
A = ΠDL = Π(0.025)(6) = 0.4712 m2
 q = hAΔT = ṁλ
ṁ = 6395.20 W/m2.K (0.471239 m2)(30 K)
2.283 x 106 J/kg
ṁ = 0.0396 kg/s

Check assumption:
Re = 4ṁ = 4 (0.0396 kg/s)
ΠDμl Π(0.025m)(3.805 x 10-4kg/m.s)
Re = 5300.61
Re = 5300.61 ≈ assumed 5300
Saturated steam at atmospheric
pressure condenses on a 2-cm
tube whose surface is maintained
at 340 K. Determine the rate of
condensation and the heat transfer
coefficient for the case of 1.5-m
long tube oriented vertically.
 Boiling

A: Free convection; B: Nucleate boiling; C: Transition Boiling;

D: Film boiling
 Boiling
Modes of Pool Boiling Excess Temperature (deg. C)
Free Convection: <5
Nucleate Boiling: 5 – 25
Transition Boiling: 25 – 120
Film Boiling: > 120

The excess temperature is the surface temperature above

the boiling point of the liquid.
 Nucleate Boiling

Bubbles form at surface and separate, mixing the fluid. As temperature

increases, the bubbles join to form bubble columns or jets. These
eventually merge to form slugs. This type of boiling is the most
desirable for a chemical process due to the high heat rates.
 Transition Boiling

Film begins to form at surface. Surface changes from nucleate

to film boiling.
 Film Boiling

Surface completely covered with film blanket.

 Nucleate Boiling Correlations
T  Tw  Tsat o
K or o F Pressure Correction: multiply by
P 0.4 where P is in atm.
For horizontal surfaces:
English (h : BTU/hr-ft 2 -o F) Metric (h : kW/m 2 )
h  151 T  h  1043  T 
1/ 3 1/3
q / A  5000 q / A  16
h  0.168  T  h  5.56  T 
3 3
q / A  5000 q / A  16
q / A  75, 000 q / A  240
For vertical surfaces:
English (h : BTU/hr-ft 2 -o F) Metric (h : kW/m 2 )
h  87  T  h  537  T 
1/ 7 1/7
q / A  1000 q/ A3
h  0.240  T  h  7.95  T 
3 3
q / A  1000 q/ A  3
q / A  20, 000 q / A  63
 Nucleate Boiling Correlations
For forced convection inside tubes,
English: h  0.077  T  e P / 225
3
T : o F; h : BTU/hr-ft 2 -o F P : psia
h  2.55  T  e P /1551
3
Metric: T : K; h : W/m 2 K P : kPa
 Film Boiling Correlations
1/ 4
hD  g ( l   v )h fg D
 3

N Nu C  Film boiling not

kv  vv kv (Ts  Tsat ) desirable! Better to
where C  0.62 for horizontal cylinders have nucleate!

C  0.67 for spheres

 is the density
h fg is the enthalpy change from liq. to vapor
D is the diameter of the pipe
v is the specific volume
k is the thermal conductivity
Ts is the surface temperature
Tsat is the boiling point temperature of the liquid
Subscript v refers to the vapor
Subscript l refers to the liquid.
Water is being boiled at 1 atm abs pressure in a
jacketed kettle with steam condensing in the jacket
at 115.6OC. The inside diameter of the kettle is
0.656 m and the height is 0.984 m. the bottom is
slightly curved but it will be assumed to be flat.
Both the bottom and the sides up to the height of
0.656 m are jacketed. The kettle surface for heat
transfer is 3.2 mm stainless steel with a k of 16.27
W/m.K. the condensing steam coefficient hi inside
the jacket has been estimated as 10200 W/m.K.
predict the boiling heat transfer coefficient ho for
the bottom surface of the kettle.
Assume Tw = 110OC
ΔT = Tw – Tsat = 110 – 100 = 10OC
Using the simplified equation for horizontal surfaces:
ho = 5.56 ΔT3 = 5.56 (10)3 = 5560 W/m2.K
q/A = h ΔT = 5560(10) = 55600 =55.6 kW/m2
Check assumed Tw:
Ri = 1/hiA = 1/(10200)(1) = 9.8 x 10-5
Rw = Δx = 3.2/1000 = 19.66 x 10-5
kA 16.27 (1)
Ro = 1/hoA = 1/(5560)(1) = 17.98 x 10-5
ΣR = 47.44 x 10-5
ΔT = ΔTo ΔTo = Ro(ΔT) = 17.98 x 10-5 (115.6 – 100)
ΣR Ro ΣR 47.44 x 10-5
ΔTo = 5.9 = (Tw – 100) ; Tw = 105.9 OC ≠ 110OC

Reassume Tw and Recompute Tw…

Assume Tw = 108OC
ΔT = Tw – Tsat = 108 – 100 = 8OC
Using the simplified equation for horizontal surfaces:
ho = 5.56 ΔT3 = 5.56 (8)3 = 2846.72 W/m2.K
q/A = h ΔT = 2846.72(8) = 28467.2 = 28.4672 kW/m2
Check assumed Tw:
Ri = 1/hiA = 1/(10200)(1) = 9.8 x 10-5
Rw = Δx = 3.2/1000 = 19.66 x 10-5
kA 16.27 (1)
Ro = 1/hoA = 1/(2846.72)(1) = 3.51 x 10-4
ΣR = 6.4588 x 10-4
ΔT = ΔTo ΔTo = Ro(ΔT) = 3.51 x 10-4 (115.6 – 100)
ΣR Ro ΣR 6.4588 x 10-4
ΔTo = 8.48 = (Tw – 100) ; Tw = 108.48 OC ≈ 108OC
A vessel with a flat bottom and 0.1 m 2 in area is
used for boiling water at atmospheric pressure.
Find the temperature at which the vessel must be
maintained if a boiling rate of 80 kg/h is desired.
Assume that the vessel is made of copper and the
boiling is nucleate. Take ρV = 0.60 kg/m3
Latent Heat, λ = 2257 kJ/kg
ρl = 960.6 kg/m3 ρv = 0.60 kg/m3
μl = 2.824 x 10-4 Pa.s
q = hAΔT = ṁλ q/A = ṁλ /A

q/A = 80 kg/h (1h/3600 s) 2.257 x 10 6 J/kg

0.1
q/A = 501.556 kW/m 2 m2
ho = 5.56 ΔT3
501555.5556 W/m2 = h (Tw – Tsat)

501555.5556 W/m2 = 5.56 (Tw – Tsat)4

501555.5556 W/m2 = 5.56 (Tw – 100)4
Tw = 117.33 OC
Calculate the heat transfer coefficient and the mass
flow rate during stable film boiling of water from a
0.9 cm diameter horizontal carbon tube. The water
is saturated and at 100OC. The tube surface is at
1000OC.
Tsat = 100OC Tw = 1000OC
Tf = Tw +Tsat = 100 + 1000 = 550OC
2 2
DO = 0.009 m
Latent Heat, λ = 2257 kJ/kg
ρl = 960.63 kg/m3 ρv = 0.4005 kg/m3
νv = 4.70 x 10-5 m2/s kv = 0.0379 W/m.K
ΔT = Tw – Tsat = 1000 – 100 = 900 K
Film Boiling in horizontal tubes
Nu = 0.62 g (ρl – ρv) λD3 1/4
νvkvΔT

Nu = 0.62 9.81(960.63 – 0.4005)(2.257x106)(0.009)3 1/4

(4.70 x 10-5)(0.0379)(900 K)
= 34.5718
hi = 34.5718(0.0379) = 145.5859 W/m 2.K
0.009
A = ΠDL = Π(0.009)(1) = 0.0283 m2
 q = hAΔT = ṁλ

ṁ = 145.5859 W/m2.K (0.0283 m2)(900 K)

2.283 x 106 J/kg

ṁ = 1.6414 x 10 -3 kg/s