Classification of AM

technologies
 Vat polymerization

Vat polymerization (a.k.a Vat photopolymerization) is a 3D printing technology,

which relies on selectively curing a liquid photopolymer contained in a vat (or tank)

by a light source. Light is used to cure or solidify the resin where required, while a

platform moves the built object downward (or upward) after each new layer is cured.

The process continues curing the photopolymer layer by layer until building of a 3D

physical object is completed. After completion, the resin in the vat is drained and the

object is removed. Usually, photopolymerized samples are postcured under ultravio-

let (UV) light to achieve complete curing and maximum strength.

The majority of the photocurable resins consist of mixtures of monomers
combined with oligomers (a few units of monomers) and photoinitiators. As
shown in Figure, oligomers and monomers are disconnected in uncured
liquid photopolymer resins. As UV light is applied on these photopolymers,
photoinitiators are activated and cross-link the monomer and oligomer
units. This chemical process, known as photopolymerization or
photocuring, transforms liquid photopolymers into solid components.
Schematic of photopolymerization process
Depending on the type of photoinitiator and the polymerization process, there are two major
photopolymerization types:

(1) free-radical polymerization and

(2) ionic photopolymerization.

 Free-radical photopolymerization is commonly used in photo-polymerization-based AM
technologies (Vat polymerization, material jetting). Free-radical photopolymerization process
takes place in multiple steps including activation of the photoinitiator upon exposure to
radiation within an appropriate wavelength range, formation of free radicals by reacting the
photoinitiator and monomer molecules, and the propagation by forming long polymer chains
to cross-link. In the final step, cross-linking process or photopolymerization is terminated
where polymerization comes to an end, usually by one of three mechanisms, including
recombination (two chains combine), disproportionation (canceling of one radical by another
without joining), or occlusion (free radicals become trapped by the polymer network). The
most widely used UV-curable resins are based on acrylate, which show high reactivity and
short reaction times (fraction of a second), and these resins are available in wide range of
different monomer and oligomer types.
Although free-radical polymerization is the most commonly used photopolymerization
process, ionic curing systems are finding increasing applications in AM. The same
photopolymerization steps, photoinitiator activation by UV light, propagation, and
termination steps, exist in ionic photopolymerization process.

The difference, however, is that in ionic curing process, instead of free radicals, reactive
ions are the cross-linking agents for the monomers and oligomers. The termination
takes place when the ion is neutralized or stabilized. Ionic photopolymerization has
distinct advantages over free radicals including no inhibition with oxygen, minimal
sensitivity to water, and the ability to polymerize vinyl ethers, epoxides, and other
heterocyclic monomers that do not polymerize by a free-radical mechanism.
There are four classifications for Vat polymerization technologies. Although
the main concept of the polymerization is the same in all of these
techniques, differences in the type of light source and the curing process
for the polymer material lead to this classification.
(A) Schematic of part fabrication in Vat polymerization technology and (B) different
types of Vat polymerization process (SLA, DLP, and CLIP).
Stereolithography (SLA)

Stereolithography (SLA) is the oldest AM technology. As a result, it is widely adopted

by AM community today. In this method, a focused UV laser beam is directed on pho-

tosensitive resin using motor-controlled mirrors. As the light contacts the liquid resin,

chemical reaction takes place curing the resin and creating a solid layer of the desired

3D object.
 Digital light processing ( DLP)
This Vat polymerization technique differs from SLA since the light is projected on liquid
polymer in terms of a 2D image rather than rastering a focused beam. A digital projector is
used to reflect the image over the resin curing the entire 2D layer. Since the entire layer is
solidified at once, digital light processing (DLP) process can achieve faster print times
compared to SLA process. A modified version of DLP photopolymerization has been
developed recently where DLP projector is replaced by a liquid crystal display (LCD) screen.
This screen acts as a mask for the UV light coming from an array of light emitting diodes
(LEDs) shining through the LCD screen. Similar to the projector, photopolymerization of 2D
layer occurs at once resulting in higher speeds compared to SLA. Using LCD screens instead of
projectors have significantly reduced the cost and sizes of the projector-based DLP
 Continuous liquid interface production (CLIP)

Continuous liquid interface production (CLIP) is a relatively recent technology

introduced by Carbon3D, in 2015, as a novel concept using an oxygen-permeable
bottom plate to help speed up the printing process . In SLA and DLP processes,
the solidification process occurs at the very bottom of a vat with a clear bottom
window. To eliminate the resin to adhere the window surface, the platform is
moved up and down creating significant suction to break the adhesion between
the object and the window. Recent developments by Carbon3D company and the
creation of the
CLIP process have resulted in inhibiting the solidification of the resin within a certain zone
around the clear bottom of the vat, which eliminates this suction force. In CLIP technique,
part of the vat bottom is transparent where UV light beam shines through using an LCD
screen. While the object is lifted slowly, resin flows under and maintains contact with the
bottom of the object. An oxygen-permeable membrane lies below this resin field and
creates a dead zone where photopolymerization is inhibited. This liquid interface
prevents the resin from attachment of the cured object to the bottom plate. Unlike
standard SLA and DLP, the 3D printing process is continuous and therefore much faster.
Continuous printing process makes CLIP as one of the fastest AM method. However,
similar to all other Vat polymerization techniques, postprocessing is necessary to clean
the printed part and fully solidify it via additional postcuring process.
 Volumetric Vat manufacturing

In 2017, volumetric Vat AM was introduced where photopolymerization is

performed in a 3D form rather than traditional layer-by-layer fashion .
Volumetric Vat manufacturing is similar to the computed tomography (CT)
technique where a series of X-ray scans are acquired at different orientations
and these 2D images are then processed with a computer algorithm in order to
reconstruct the 3D image of the object.
 Volumetric Vat manufacturing
Unlike CT imaging, in volumetric Vat 3D printing, 3D CAD model is input as the
initial step and this model is converted into 2D projections at different
orientations using tomography algorithms. When all these projections are
displayed into a homogeneous volume of absorbing material, the cumulative
absorbed dose distribution due to the projections reproduces the shape of the
3D object inside the material . When the light is projected in 3D volume at
different intensities (different doses), the photopolymer where a high dose of
light is applied will solidify whereas other locations will remain below the
solidification threshold.
Therefore, in volumetric Vat process, light is projected in 3D increasing the
speed of the photopolymerization significantly. This technique is still under
development stage and better control of the light projection and the
photopolymerization processes are expected in near future.
Vat polymerization is advantageous over other AM techniques since it is
capable of fabricating parts at a high resolution down to the nanoscale level.
It is also capable of fabricating large parts using vats with big volumes. Near-
transparent objects can also be fabricated with this technique, which are
usually not possible with other AM technologies where interface region
between the layers leads to high level of light diffraction.
Disadvantages include applicability of this technology to only a limited
number of UV-curable resins that are not very robust materials in terms of
durability, strength, or stability. In addition, this technique usually needs a
post-curing process under UV light to complete the curing process. Some
photocurable resins have health implications; hence, special gloves and
ventilation are needed for the printing and postprocessing steps for these
toxic materials until full curing is achieved. Depending on the geometry of
the part, support structures may be required which adds to the material
waste and the fabrication time.
Material jetting
 Material jetting

Material jetting is a 3D printing manufacturing technique which is similar to the

standard inkjet document printing process. However, instead of dispensing ink

onto a paper, photopolymer or wax material is sprayed (or jetted) onto a build
tray.

As the polymer resin droplets are deposited to the build platform, they are cured

and solidified using UV light. The process continues to deposit material layer by

layer until the 3D object is created. The material jetting process allows fabrication

of different materials within the same object.

(A) Schematic of material jetting technology and (B) fully colored parts
fabricated by a material jetting system.
Material jetting processes require support, which is often 3D printed simultaneously from a
dissolvable material. The support material is then removed during the post processing step.

Depending on the type of the support material used and the support removal technique,
there are two patented technologies;

polyjet printing (PJP) and multijet printing (MJP) used by Stratasys and 3D Systems
companies.
In polyjet technology, the support material is a combination of propylene,
acrylic monomer, polyethylene, and glycerin . To remove support material,
pressurized water is sprayed over the part and the remaining support
material is removed chemically by dipping the part into chemical solvent.
On the other hand, MJP technology uses meltable paraffin wax as the
support structure. To remove the wax support, the printed sample is
heated in an oven over melting temperature of the wax followed by wiping
out of the wax material out of the sample.
Material jetting 3D printing technology is a great choice for making realistic pro-

totypes, providing an excellent level of details, high accuracy, and smooth surface

finish. Material jetting allows a designer to print a design in multiple colors and with

a number of materials in a single print. These manufacturing systems offer wide

range of materials and their combinations to choose from, including rigid to rubber-

like materials, opaque to transparent materials, and materials with acrylonitrile buta-

diene styrene-simulating performance. The main drawbacks to printing with material

jetting technologies are the high cost of the UV-activated photopolymers and the deg-

radation of the mechanical properties of these materials over time.

 Binder jetting
Binder jetting is an AM process where a binding material is sprayed (or
jetted) over powder particles to bond them to form a 3D object one layer at a
time. Metals and ceramics in powder form are commonly used materials in
binder jetting process. During the binder jetting process, inkjet nozzles (similar
to the paper inkjet printers) on the printer head spray droplets of a binding
material on the powder printbed and bond the powder particles in these areas
together. When the layer is complete, the build platform moves down and
another powder layer is spread over the printed surface. The process is
repeated until the entire part is complete.
Schematic of binder jetting technology
Some printed parts such as sand-casting cores and molds are typically ready to use
after binder jetting process. However, a postprocessing step is required for most
applications. This is because binder jetted parts have poor mechanical properties and a
high porosity when they come out of the printer. In terms of post-processing, metallic
parts are sintered at a high temperature enhancing the adhesion between the metal
particles or infiltrated with a low melting temperature metal such as bronze . Ceramic
parts also usually undergo similar sintering and infiltration postprocessing steps to
enhance their mechanical strength and reduce porosity stemming from the removal of
the binder material. Acrylic coating application on the printed parts is also a common
practice to im- prove visualization and vibrancy of the colors in multicolor printed
parts.
 Binder jetting is a great choice for the applications requiring appealing
aesthetic properties and parts for visualization such as architectural models,
toys, and figurines since this technique can produce full color 3D-printed parts
at a high resolution similar to the material jetting process. The low cost of the
powder material feedstock and the high speed of the process are the major
benefits of this technology. Binder jetting is generally not suited for functional
applications due to the brittle nature of the parts; however, metal-based binder
jetting parts have relatively good mechanical properties if the infiltration
and/or sintering postprocessing steps are taken.
 Since the printing process takes place at room temperature in binder
jetting, dimensional distortions and warping due to thermal stresses are
not a problem in this process. As a result, the build volume of binder
jetting machines are larger compared to the all other AM technologies.
This allows manufacturing of multiple parts and large objects such as
casting molds. Similar to the powder bed fusion systems, binder jetting
requires no support structures since the surrounding powder provides
the necessary support.
 Material extrusion

According to ISO/ASTM definition: “material extrusion, is an additive manufacturing process

in which material is selectively dispensed through a nozzle or orifice” .

Material extrusion is the most commonly adopted AM technology due to the simplicity of
this technique, wide range of material selection, low cost of the printer instrument and the
feedstock materials, and the functionality of the printed parts.

Although there are various different extrusion processes, all of these can be categorized into
two major groups:

• fused filament fabrication (FFF)

• paste extrusion
 Fused filament fabrication

In this technique, a filament preform of thermoplastic material is

inserted in an ori- fice where it is melted and extruded through a nozzle.
Once deposited, it cools down rapidly and solidifies into a single line (a.k.a
road) as shown in Figure. The nozzle and/or the printing platform can move
in x-, y-, and z-axes simultaneously to deposit material into 3D geometry
matching the digitally designed CAD drawing. Most desktop AM machines
currently in use are of this type and this is the AM process when most
people refer to 3D printing due to its common adoption.
Fused filament fabrication
(FFF )
 Paste extrusion
This method is commonly known as direct write (DW), liquid deposition
modeling (LDM), or robocasting.

In this extrusion method, viscous paste-like material is extruded through a

nozzle (or tip). Unlike the melting-based extrusion (FFF), in DW, material is a
viscous fluid, not solid when deposited on the printbed. This method relies on
the fluid’s yield stress to form self-supporting structures. Fluid viscosity and
yield strength are adjusted using rheological modifiers such as nanoclay and
fumed silica. The fluid can be extruded via pressure controlled or
displacement-controlled system as shown in Figure.
In displacement-controlled extrusion, a stepper motor precisely moves
the piston plunger downward toward the printbed extruding the
material. In the pressure-controlled systems, a pump is utilized to apply
pressure directly on the material to push it toward the nozzle. Pressure
level or the microstep number of the stepper motor is adjusted to
control the speed of the extrusion.
Direct write (DW)
 In DW, rheological properties of the extruded material determine the
printability. Highly viscous pastes are preferred as the printing materials since
these materials can resist deformation after printing and they can hold shape. In
DW, shear thinning is a commonly observed behavior as shown in Figure, where
material viscosity is decreased as a function of shear rate. In shear thining
behaving materials, during extrusion, material viscosity drops significantly, and
material can be extruded into an intended geometry at high flowability. After
extrusion, material viscosity is recovered (preferably at high speed), and the
extruded material can hold its shape under gravitational force without sagging.
 Powder bed fusion

Powder bed fusion is an AM method where a heat source is used to melt and fuse the

powder particles together to form a 3D object. As shown in Figure, a thin layer

of powder is spread over the build platform and heat is directed on the selected re-

gion to fuse powder in these areas together. Afterwards, the platform is moved down

and another layer of powder is spread across the previous layer using a roller, and

the heat-induced powder fusion process is applied again on this layer. The process

continues until the entire model is built. After the fabrication is complete, unfused

powder is removed and the printed part is detached from the build plate.
Schematic of powder bed fusion technology
The heat source facilitating the fusion process can be a laser, an electron
beam, or a heat lamp.

Ceramics, polymers, and metals can be fabricated in 3D geometry with

this technology.

Powder bed fusion is remarkable at producing overhangs and downward

facing surfaces where support structures are not needed as the
unbound/unfused powder act as integrated support structure.
Cost of powder feedstock and the powder based fusion machines have reduced significantly
over the recent years. In addition, this technology allows recycling of the unfused powder
provided that the powder contamination and degradation are closely monitored to achieve
the desired part quality.

Selective laser sintering (SLS) and selective laser melting (SLM) are the most commonly used
powder-based fusion technologies.

In SLS, powders are heated near the melting temperatures leading to partial melting and
sintering together as shown in Figure B. Figure C represents an octopus figurine fabricated
with the SLS process.

In SLM, however, material is heated above its melting temperature and complete melt of the
powder is achieved creating a homogenous, nonporous structure.
(B) laser sintering in progress, and (C) octopus figurine fabricated via powder bed
fusion (SLS).
There are multiple limitations of powder bed fusion technologies. First, high
temperatures and heat introduced into the part may cause warpage and residual
thermal stresses. In addition, powder bed fusion is one of the slowest AM techniques
since it commonly includes powder preheating (to speed up the process/enhance
powder fuse), vacuum generation, and material cooling off period. Postprocessing also
is common adding to the manufacturing time and cost. Since the parts are made by
fusing material powder together, surface quality depends on the grain size of the
powder and would be very similar to manufacturing processes like sand or die casting.
The parts are manufactured over a build plate; hence, support removal postprocessing
is necessary. Since material melting is necessary (partially or fully), this technique uses
significant amount of energy to create parts compared to other AM techniques.
 Directed energy deposition

Directed energy deposition (DED) is a process where metal wire or powder is

melted onto a build plate or an existing part using an energy source as shown in
Figure schematically. A typical DED system consists of a nozzle mounted on a
multiaxis arm inside a closed frame, which deposits melted material onto the
workpiece surface, where it solidifies. These robotic arms allow to build objects
very quickly from multiple directions as long as the built location is within the
reach of the arm. Therefore, the process is similar in principle to the material
extrusion AM technique, but unlike FFF, filament is melted right at the deposition
surface.
(A) Schematic of DED additive manufacturing process
In addition, nozzles of DED systems can move in multiple directions, up to
five different motion axes are utilized compared to only three for most
FFF machines. Material deposition can be accomplished in DED process at
a high speed and therefore, this process is claimed to be the fastest AM
technology . Fully dense parts in complex geometries can be achieved
using roboticarms and no support is required for overhanging features. In
addition, DED process can effectively be used to add metal materials to
existing metal parts, which makes this technique preferable for welding
and repair applications.
Different metals can be 3D printed through DED AM technique including
aluminum, copper, titanium, tantalum, copper nickel alloys, and steel alloys. The
main drawback with this process is the poor surface finish resulting from the
melt pools. As the metal melt pools cool down, they leave a very rough surface
finish and for this reason, most DED parts require postprocessing steps, usually
in the form of secondary machining to improve surface finish. Since the DED
process involves local heating of the object at elevated temperatures, thermal
stresses are commonly observed. To alleviate these stresses and thermally
induced implications, hot isostatic pressure and heat treatment postprocessing
steps are usually taken.
(B) metallic parts fabricated via DED technology
 Sheet lamination
Sheet lamination is an AM process which is significantly different from the other AM
processes since the material feedstock is not a liquid resin, a filament, or powder.

However, as the name implies, sheets of material are laminated or bonded together building
up a 3D component. The process can be applied to a variety of different material types
including paper, PVC polymer, metal, or ceramic. As shown in Figure material sheets or foils
are bonded together initially and 2D outline of the desired part is obtained by cutting the
laminate using a laser or blade. Alternatively, material can be machined away using
conventional CNC milling. After cutting (or machining) process, the next sheet is placed on
the top of the existing piece. Sheet placement, bonding, and cutting process continue until
the desired 3D object is created.
(A) Schematic of sheet lamination technology
If paper sheets are used as a feedstock, bonding is achieved with an adhesive or
glue, whereas for PVC sheets, a thermoplastic polymer melting is used to bond
the sheets together. In metal lamination, a localized energy source, laser or
ultrasonic waves are used to bond a stack of precision cut metal sheets to form a
3D object.

Ultrasonic bonding which is also known as ultrasonic AM or ultrasonic

consolidation is the most commonly used metal sheet lamination technique. By
applying ultrasonic wave and mechanical pressure on sheet metal stacks at room
temperature, the contacting interface surfaces of stacked sheets are bonded by
diffusion in atomic scale rather than melting.
This process is great for making low cost, full color prints which does not require
high geometrical complexity. The process can also be used to fabricate parts
with internal structures without using a support structure. Additionally, this
process is extremely useful for metal printing processes where the thermal
stress of melting metal powder would be problematic such as powder bed
fusion methods.

Thermal stress is minimal in sheet lamination process; however, in order to

further reduce thermal residual stress that might take place during bonding, an
external cool-ing procedure is applied for a short period time between the
lamination of each layer.
Compared to other AM technologies, sheet lamination is less commonly utilized
due to the high cost of the sheet lamination systems, very specialized
applications, and limited geometrical freedom of parts fabricated with this
technology.

An aluminum heat exchanger block with an internal channel is shown in Figure B.

Internal channels can be fabricated in any layer and at different complexity as

shown in FigureC. This figure represents an X-ray image of the sheet laminated
component illustrating the ability for complex internal flow paths, which are
impossible with traditional manufacturing methods.
 (B) aluminum heat exchanger fabricated via sheet lamination technology, (C) x-ray image
of the aluminum heat exchanger showing internal channels
 Comparison of AM technologies
AM method Materials Resolution Advantages Disadvantages
Vat UV Curable 25–100 Excellent surface Limited
polymerization Photopolymers µm quality, high mechanical
(Acrylates/ resolution, no properties, aging
Epoxides) porosity, isotropic
properties

Material UV Curable 25–100 µm Fast, allows Low viscosity ink

jetting Photopolymers multimaterial, required
(Acrylates/ multicolor printing
Epoxides)
Binder jetting Starch 50–100 µm Fast, allows Limited
PLA multimaterial printing mechanical
Metals properties, rough
Ceramics surfaces
AM method Materials Resolution Advantages Disadvantages

Sheet PVC 200–300 Low cost, low thermal Limited

lamination Paper µm stress geometrical
Sheet metals freedom

Directed Metals 200–300 Fastest AM Poor surface

energy (aluminum, µm technology finish,
deposition copper, titanium, requires
tantalum, copper, postprocessing,
nickel, and steel thermal stresses
alloys) in
the parts
AM method Materials Resolution Advantages Disadvantages

Powder bed Thermoplastics 50–100 Best mechanical Rough surfaces,

fusion (PA6,PA12, PEEK) µm properties, less thermal stress in
Metals(stainless anisotropy, applicable the printed part,
steel, titanium) to broad range of poor powder
materials reusability

FFF Thermoplastic 100–150 Compact, inexpensive Limited materials,

polymers (ABS, µm 3D printers, good high temperature,
PLA,nylon, PC, resolution porosity, and
PETG, anisotropy
PEEK)
Direct write Thermosets 100µm–1cm Broad range of Low surface
(epoxy, materials, quality,
cyanate ester, room temperature
bismaleimide) printing
Composites
Hydrogels
Biomaterials