RAYA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

WORK STUDY AND ERGONOMICS (MaEng5291)

CHAPTER – ONE

INTRODUCTION TO WORK STUDY AND ERGONOMICS

LECTURE DELIVERED BY:

1
HAILAY G. (MSc.)
 INTRODUCTION TO WORK STUDY
 It is the systematically examination of human work in all its contents and leads to the
investigation of all factors which affects the efficiency and economy of the work being
reviewed in order to effect improvement .
 It is widely known as “Time and motion study ”. Provides us with a scientific approach to
investigate in to all forms of work, with a view to increase productivity.
 The primary goal of work study is to enhance productivity by eliminating unnecessary or
redundant motions, reducing wastage of time and resources, and optimizing work methods.
By analyzing and streamlining work processes, organizations can achieve higher
efficiency, reduced costs, improved quality, and increased employee satisfaction.

2
 OBJECTIVES
The primary objective of work study is to improve productivity and efficiency in an organization.
Here are the specific objectives of work study:
 Increase Productivity: Work study aims to identify and eliminate wasteful activities, inefficiencies,
and bottlenecks in work processes. By streamlining operations and improving work methods, it
seeks to increase productivity and output without compromising quality.
 Standardize Work Methods: Work study seeks to establish standardized work methods that are
efficient, consistent, and reliable. Standardization helps in reducing variations in performance,
improving quality, and enabling better planning and control of work activities.
 Enhance Workplace Safety and Ergonomics: Work study considers the health and safety aspects
of work processes. It identifies potential hazards, ergonomic issues, and risks associated with
specific tasks and suggests remedial measures to create a safe and comfortable working
3
environment.
 BENEFITS OF WORK STUDY
 Increased productivity and operational efficiency
 Reduced manufacturing costs
 Improved work place layout
 Better manpower planning and capacity planning
 Fair wages to employees
 Better working conditions to employees
 Improved work flow
 Reduced material handling costs
4
5
 METHOD STUDY
METHOD STUDY IS THE TECHNIQUE OF SYSTEMATIC RECORDING AND CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF EXISTING AND PROPOSED WAYS OF DOING WORK AND
DEVELOPING AN EASIER AND ECONOMICAL METHOD .

 Objectives of Method Study  BASIC PROCEDURE FOR METHOD STUDY

 Improvement of manufacturing processes The basic procedure for conducting method study is as
follows:
and procedures.  Select the work to be studied.
 Improvement of working conditions.  Record all facts about the method by direct
 Improvement of plant layout and work place observation.
layout.  Examine the above facts critically(purpose, place,

 Reducing the human effort and fatigue. simplify, eliminate and combine)
 Develop-reexamine and select the best method
 Reducing material handling  Evaluate different alternatives to developing new
 Improvement of plant and equipment design. improved method comparing the cost effectiveness
 Improvement in the utility of material,  Define the new method (method, procedure and
machines and manpower. materials)
6
 Install the new method (plan arrange and implement)
 Standardization of method.
 Maintain the new method (verify at regular intervals
 Improvement in safety standard. that the improved is in use)
 WORK MEASUREMENT
WORK MEASUREMENT IS A TECHNIQUE TO ESTABLISH THE TIME REQUIRED FOR A QUALIFIED
WORKER TO CARRY OUT A SPECIFIED JOB AT A DEFINED LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE .

 Objectives of work measurement  Uses of work measurements

 To reduce or eliminate non-productive 1. To compare the efficiency of alternate
time. methods. When two or more methods are
 To fix the standard time for doing a job. available for doing the same job, the time
for each method is found out by work
 To develop standard data for future
measurement. The method which takes
reference.
minimum time is selected.
 To improve methods.
2. Standard time is used as a basis for wage
incentive schemes.
7
  TECHNIQUES OF WORK
CONTI… MEASUREMENT
3. It helps for the estimation of cost. Knowing
The different techniques used in
the time standards, it is possible to work out the
work measurement are
cost of the product. This helps to quote rates for
1. Stop watch time study.
tenders.
2. Production study.
4. It helps to plan the workload of man and
3. Work sampling or Ratio
machine.
delay study.
5. It helps to determine the requirement of men 4. Synthesis from standard data.
and machine. When we know the time to
5. Analytical estimating.
produce one piece and also the quantity to be
6. Predetermined motion time
produced, it is easy to calculate the total
requirement of men and machines. system.

8
 Time and Motion study
 Time study is a quantitative analysis leading to the
establishment of a time standard. A stop watch is used for the
purpose of recording the actual time taken by the worker under
observation to perform various elements of the work or task.
 Motion study is a qualitative analysis of a work station leading
to the design or improvement of an operation /activity. 9
 CONCEPT OF PERFORMANCE RATING
 Performance Rating can be defined as the procedure in
which the time study engineer compares the performance
of operator(s) under observation to the Normal
Performance and determines a factor called Rating Factor.

10
 METHOD TIME MEASUREMENT (MTM)
 It is a predetermined motion time system that is used primarily in industrial
settings to analyze the methods used to perform any manual operation or task
and, as a product of that analysis, set the standard time in which a worker
should complete that task.
 The unit in which movements are measured for MTM is TMU (time
measurement unit):1 TMU = 36 milliseconds ; 1 hour = 100,000 TMU

(1sec = 1000millisecond)

11
 INTRODUCTION TO ERGONOMICS
 Ergo means “work” and nomos means “principles or laws”,
 Ergonomics mean principles and laws concerning work.
 Ergonomics is defined as the scientific study of the relationship between man
and his working environment.
 Ergonomics means “fitting the job to the workers”
 Ergonomics is generally called as the science of fitting the job to the
worker, and deals with the human operator and his working environment.

12
 CONTI…
 Ergonomics” has developed from “work study” and the aim of Ergonomics and work
study is to improve the work such that the operators fatigue and strain are reduced and the
productivity and the efficiency of the manufacturing organization is increased.
 Ergonomics combines the knowledge of psychologist, physiologist, anatomist, engineer
and anthropologist.

13
CONTRIBUTORS FOR ERGONOMICS DESIGN
 Psychologist-deals with human mind and its functions
 physiologist-deals with normal function of a human and their parts
 anatomist-deals with body structure of human
 engineer-deals with production process
 Anthropologist- deals with the measurement of human individual

14
 OBJECTIVES OF ERGONOMICS
 To optimize the integration of man and machine in order to
increase the work rate and accuracy.
 To enhance the productivity
 To design the products, tools equipment to fit the users.
 To reduce work related stress-fatigue or discomfort to improve
the quality of life.
15
In practice, ergonomics has been applied to a number of areas:-
 Design of instrument and control
 Design of work place
 Design of work environment

16
 CONT.…
1. Design of instruments and controls :
 This includes the design of the instruments which the operator must look at
or listen to (called the DISPLAY),

Instrument B is better than instrument A

because :
1. Instrument scale B is simpler, bolder and
hence more legible.
2. Instrument scale B is longer and
divisions clearer because the numerals are
inside the scale.
3. Numerals in scale B are upright, hence
more legible.

17
 CONT….
2. Design of workplace :
 The workplace is a space in a factory, machine or vehicle which must
accommodate an operator or operators, who may be sitting or standing.
 This includes the work space area around the operator, the working
surface and seats.
 The efficiency of the operator will depend upon how the workplace is
designed.

18
EXAMPLES OF GOOD WORKSTATIONS

19
 The working position should be as comfortable as possible. The arrows indicate areas that
need to be improved to prevent potential injuries from developing. To improve the sitting
position for the worker on the right, the chair height should be lowered, tilted slightly forward
and the worker should be provided with a footrest.

20
 CONT`D …

3. Design of working environment :

 The environment aspect includes considerations regarding light, climatic

conditions.

 (i.e., temperature, humidity and fresh air circulation), noise, bad odor,

smokes, fumes, etc., which affect the health and efficiency of a worker.

21
 MAIN DOMAINS OF ERGONOMICS •

I. Physical Ergonomics
II. Cognitive Ergonomics
III. Organizational Ergonomics

Physical ergonomics is concerned with

 Human anatomy
 Anthropometric
 Physiological and
 Biomechanical characteristics as they relate to physical
activity
22
 COGNITIVE ERGONOMICS
"

is concerned with mental processes, such as

Perception
Memory-the mental capacity of retaining facts.
Reasoning- the process of thinking about something in order to making decision.
 As they affect interactions among humans and other elements of a system

 It is ‘Working Smarter not Harder’

23
 ORGANIZATIONAL ERGONOMICS

Organizational ergonomics is concerned with:

 Optimization of socio-technical systems. It includes;

 organizational structures.
t

 policies.
 processes. 4

 Organizational Ergonomics is the study of

 Communication
 Work design
 Design of working times. 24
 Teamwork
 Community ergonomics
 BENEFITS OF ERGONOMICS

User centered design

Preserve human health

Optimize human performance

Improves comfort

Improves safety

Improves productivity.
25
Minimizing Errors
 TH
AN
K
YO
U
!!!
26
 RAYA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

WORK STUDY AND ERGONOMICS (MaEng5291)
CHAPTER – TWO

PRODUCTIVITY AND ERGONOMICS

LECTURE DELIVERED BY:

27
HAILAY G. (MSc.)
 CHAPTER TWO : PRODUCTIVITY AND WORK STUDY
 Productivity at an enterprise is assessed in terms of
output of a production variable per unit of input.
 Fundamentally, it is used to measure the output of
resources such as manpower, machinery, materials and
money, in producing goods and services or commodities
to produce income or profitability.
 The management of an organization is accountable for
considering that the enterprise resources are combined in
the best possible way to achieve the highest productivity.
 The planning, organizing, directing and controlling these
resources and balancing one resource against another are 28

the tasks of the management.

 CHAPTER TWO : PRODUCTIVITY AND WORK STUDY

 If the management fails to do so in an effective manner, the enterprise will fail in the end.
 Productivity is the quantitative relation between what we produce and we use as a
resource to produce them, i.e., arithmetic ratio of amount produced (output) to the
amount of resources (input).

Productivity= Output/ input

 For higher productivity, an efficiency-minded management acts to influence either one or
both of the two factors, the output (i.e., products and services) or the input (i.e., the five
resources).
 Thus the management should aim to produce a larger quantity with better quality or
higher value products or services with the same input, or it may achieve a better result by
changing the nature of the input such as investing in advanced technology, information
systems and computers or by using an alternative source of raw material or energy 29
 CHAPTER TWO : PRODUCTIVITY AND WORK STUDY

 Factors affecting productivity can be classified as

internal/controllable and external/uncontrollable.

30
 CHAPTER TWO : PRODUCTIVITY AND WORK STUDY
CONTROLLABLE (OR INTERNAL) FACTORS

1. Product factor: the extent to which the product meets output

requirements product is judged by its usefulness
 The cost-benefit factor of a product can be enhanced by
 increasing the benefit at the same cost or
 by reducing cost for the same benefit.
2. Plant and equipment: The increased availability of the plant through
proper maintenance and reduction of idle time increases the productivity.
 Productivity can be increased by paying proper attention to utilization,
modernization, cost, investments etc. 31
 CHAPTER TWO : PRODUCTIVITY AND WORK STUDY
CONTROLLABLE (OR INTERNAL) FACTORS
3. Material and energy: Efforts to reduce materials and energy consumption brings
about considerable improvement in productivity.
1. Selection of quality material and right material.
2. Development of sources of supply.
3. Control of wastage and scrap.
4. Optimum energy utilization and energy savings.
4. Human factors: Productivity is basically dependent upon human competence and
skill.
 Ability to work effectively is governed by various factors such as education,
training, experience aptitude etc., of the employees. 32

 Motivation of employees will influence productivity.

 CHAPTER TWO : PRODUCTIVITY AND WORK STUDY
5. Work methods: Improving the ways in which the work is done improves
productivity
 work study and industrial engineering techniques and training are the
areas which improve the work methods, which in term enhances the
productivity
6. Management style: This influence the organizational design,
communication in organization, policy and procedures.
 A flexible and dynamic management style is a better approach to achieve
higher productivity
33
 CHAPTER TWO : WORK STUDY AND PRODUCTIVITY
UN-CONTROLLABLE (OR EXTERNAL) FACTORS
1. Structural adjustments: Structural adjustments include both economic and social changes.
 Economic changes that influence significantly are:
a) Shift in employment from agriculture to manufacturing industry
b) Import of technology, and
c) Industrial competitiveness.
 Social changes such as women’s participation in the labour force, education, cultural values,
attitudes are some of the factors that play a significant role in the improvement of
productivity.
2. Natural resources: Manpower, land and raw materials are vital to the productivity
improvement.
3. Government and infrastructure: Government policies and programs are significant to
34
productivity practices of government agencies, transport and communication, power, fiscal
policies (interest rates, taxes) influence productivity to the greater extent.
 CHAPTER TWO : PRODUCTIVITY AND WORK STUDY
 Total productivity Measure (TPM)
 It is based on all the inputs.

Total productivity = Total tangible output / Total tangible input

Total tangible output = Value of finished goods produced + Value of partial units produced + Interest + Other
income
Total tangible input = Value of (human + material + capital + energy + other inputs) used. The word
tangible here refers to measurable.
 Partial Productivity Measure (PPM)
 Depending upon the individual input partial productivity measures are expressed as

35
CHAPTER TWO : PRODUCTIVITY AND WORK STUDY
EXAMPLE: The following information regarding the output produced and
inputs consumed for a particular time period for a particular company is given
below:
Output – 10,000br
Human input – 3,000br
Material input – 2,000br
Capital input – 3,000br
Energy input – 1,000br
Other misc. input –500br
The values are in terms of base year birr value. Compute various productivity
indices
36
CHAPTER TWO : PRODUCTIVITY AND WORK STUDY

 Management regularly calls specialists to help it in improving the

productivity.
 One of the most powerful tools they can use is work study.
 Work study is defined as the systematic examination of the existing methods
of carrying on activities so as to improve for the effective use of resources
and to set up standards of performance for the activities being carried out
 Work study is mainly focused at investigating the way an activity is being
carried out, simplifying or modifying the method of operation to reduce
unnecessary non-value adding activities in terms of rework, wastage, and
finally fixing the standard time for an activity.
 Therefore, the relationship between productivity and work study is 37

noticeable
 WORK STUDY

 Work study is the study of human work with a view to increase the
effectiveness with which the work is done
 work study is defined as “a modern discipline which analyses and evaluates all
aspects of a work system in order to enhance effectiveness and functional
efficiency”.
 work study is defined as “a generic term for those techniques, particularly
method study and work measurement, which are used in the examination of
human work in all its contexts, and which leads systematically to the
investigation of all the factors which affect the efficiency and economy of the
situation being reviewed, in order to affect improvements” 38
 CONCEPT OF WORK CONTENT
 It is measured in terms of man hour and machine hours.
The concept of work content has two contents:-
1. Basic work content:-
 it is minimum time theoretically required to do an operations.
 Can not be reduced
 Will result of the following conditions
 The design and the specification are perfect
 Process of manufacturing exactly followed
39
 No loss of working time due to the any of reason.
40
 CONT’D
Excess work contents is increased by
A. Due to poor design specification and improper utilization of materials
A-1. Poor design or frequent changes in the design
A-2. Wastage of materials
A-3. Inaccurate quality standard
B. Inefficient methods of operation
B-1. Poor layout design and utilization of space
B-2. Inadequate materials handling
B-3. Quick changeover from one product to another
B-4. Ineffective method of work
B-5. Poor planning of inventory
C. The contribution of human resources
C-1. Absenteeism and lateness
C-2. Poor workmanship
C-3. Accidents and occupational hazards 41
How management techniques can reduces ineffective time

42
CONT’D

43
 CONT’D

 Method study may be defined as the detailed analysis of existing

or proposed method of doing the work for the purpose of
effecting improvements

 Work measurement may be defined as the determination of time

allowed for the effective performance of a specified volume of
work performed in a specified manner.

44
 OBJECTIVE OF WORK STUDY

 To find the most economical way of doing the work

 To standardize the methods, materials, tools and equipment.

 To determine the time required to do a job by a qualified and

properly trained person working at normal pace.

 To assist in training the workers for new methods.

 To improve operational efficiency.

45
 BENEFITS OF WORK STUDY

 Reduced manufacturing cost

 Improve work place layout
 Better manpower planning and capacity planning
 Fair wages to employees
 Better working conditions for employees
 Improved work flow
 Reduced material handling cost

46
 RAYA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

WORK STUDY AND ERGONOMICS (MaEng5291)

CHAPTER – THREE

MICRO MOTION STUDY

LECTURE DELIVERED BY:

47
HAILAY G. (MSc.)
 CHAPTER-3:MICRO MOTION STUDY

WHAT IS A MOTION STUDY ?

Motion studies are performed to eliminate waste. Before any improvement in
quality or quantity of out put, any study of operation time, any scheduling of
work or balancing of work load or any calculation of standard time, a study of
the current and proposed method is required.
 Studies of48 overall factory flow or process, called macro motion studies, and
then additional studies of detail or operations, called micro motion studies,
should be completed for a project.
 MACRO MOTION STUDY
 Any process can be studied by dividing it into process activity.
There are five classes of activities that are included in all processes.
-Operations:- changes in the properties of the product
-Transportations :- changes in the location of the product
-Inspection:- confirmation that changes fits to specification
-Delay :- waiting for start of operation, transportation or inspection
-Storage:- waiting until needed.
 When the process is first studied, each activity is recorded and arranged in to one of
the five classes.
 All observed activities are recorded, and activities not done are not recorded. The
49
purpose of each activity should be studied.
 MICRO MOTION STUDY
 Micro motion study provides a technique for recording and timing an activity. It consists of
taking motion pictures of the operation with a clock in the picture or with a motion picture
camera or video camera operating at a constant and known speed.
 The film becomes a permanent record of both method and time and may be re-examined
whenever desired.

50
 Micro motion Study
 Technique of recording and analyzing the timing of basic elements of an operation
 Developing best possible pattern of movement, at minimum effort and fatigue, for
repeated operations
 Considerable wasted motion and idle time can occur within an operation. This time
can't be found with macro-motion studies because is usually within one process
operation.
 The improvement is gained from reducing the operation cycle time.
 Micro-motion study involves the following steps:
1 )Filming the operation to study
2 )Analysis of the data from the films 51
3)Making recording of the data ( using SIMO chart)
 PURPOSES OF MICRO MOTION STUDY
 As an aid in studying the activities of two or more persons on group work,
 As an aid in studying the relationship of the activities of the operator and the
machine,
 As an aid in obtaining motion-time data for time standards,
 As a permanent record of the method and time of activities of the operator
and the machine,
 For research in the field of motion and time study.
52
 CONTI…

 However, its two most important uses are:

 To assist in finding the preferred method of doing work,
 To assist in training individuals to understand the meaning of
motion study and, when the training is carried out with sufficient
care, to enable them to become proficient in applying motion
economy principles.
53
 MICRO MOTION STUDY AS AN AID IN IMPROVING
METHODS
 The procedure consists of:

1. filming the operation to be studied,

2. analyzing the film,

3. charting the results of the analysis, and

4. developing an improved method through the problem-solving process.

54
 Principles of Motion Economy
 Motion economy is a set of principles and guidelines that aim to
optimize human movement and minimize unnecessary effort and time
in performing tasks. These principles were developed to improve
productivity, efficiency, and reduce the risk of work-related injuries
 These can be considered under three different groups;
 Those related to the use of the human body
 Those related to the workplace arrangement
 Those related to the design of tools & equipment
55
 Principles of Motion Economy
 Principles related to the use of human body:
 Both hands should begin and end their basic divisions of activity simultaneously
& should not be idle at the same instant, except during the rest periods
 Momentum should be employed to assist the worker wherever possible, and it
should be reduced to a minimum if it must be overcome by muscular effort
 Continuous curved motions should be preferred to straight line motions
involving sudden and sharp changes in the direction
 Work that can be done by the feet should be arranged so that it is done together
with work being done by the hands
56
 Twisting motions should be performed with the elbows bent
 Principles of Motion Economy
 Principle related to the arrangement and condition of the
work place:
 Fixed locations should be provided for all tools and
materials so as to permit the best sequence and
eliminate search and select
 Use may be made of ejectors for removing parts

 work table height should permit work by the operator

in alternately sitting and standing posture

 Glare-free adequate illumination, proper ventilation

and proper temperature should be provided
57
 Principles of Motion Economy

 Principles related to the design of tools and equipment:

 Use simple on/off, either/or indicators whenever possible
 All levers, handles, wheels and other control devices should be readily
accessible to the operator and should be designed so as to give the best
possible mechanical advantage
 Use quick acting fixture to hold the part/material upon which the work is
being performed
 Use stop guides to reduce the control necessary in positioning motions
 Operating, set-up and emergency controls should be grouped according to
58

the function.
 RAYA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

WORK STUDY AND ERGONOMICS (MaEng5291)

CHAPTER – FOUR

METHO STUDY

LECTURE DELIVERED BY:

59
HAILAY G. (MSc.)
 CHAPER-4: METHOD STUDY

 Method study is that part of work study which deals with systematic
analysis and improvement of work methods and systems through the
application of to achieve better utilization of resources. innovative
techniques
 In general, Method study is the technique of systematic recording and
critical examination of existing and proposed ways of doing work
and developing an easier and economical method.

60
 OBJECTIVE METHOD STUDY
The objectives of method study are:

(i) improve basic processes

(ii) improve the design of plant and equipment

(iii) improve factory, office and workplace layouts and handling of materials

(iv) improve the use of material, plant, equipment and manpower

(v) improve the working procedures

(vi) improve the working environment.

61
 DATA COLLECTION

 The data’s are collected by different method of data collection.

1. primary data collection:-primary data collection is the process of

gathering data through experiments.

2. Secondary data collection:- Secondary data is the data that has already
been collected through primary sources.
 it is a type of data already been collected in the past (books, journals and
internets)
62
 BASIC PROCEDURES FOR METHOD STUDY
Procedures to Accomplish Method Study , Called SREDIM

63
 1. SELECT THE WORK TO BE STUDIED

 Theareas, where Method Study Techniques can be

applied for improvement of the Work Methods.
 One of the main difficulties in the program of
method study is to know where to start.
 One should start with a problem, section or area
which is expected to give maximum benefit.
64
2. RECORDING

65
 RECORDING TECHNIQUES
 CHARTS
 Macro-motion charts
 Operation/Outline process chart
 Flow process chart
 Multiple activity chart
 Two handed process chart
 Micro-motion charts
 SIMO chart
 DIAGRAMS and graphs
 Flow & String diagrams
 Cycle graph & Chrono cycle graph
66
 RECORDING TECHNIQUES

 Macro motion study is one which can be measured through ‘stop watch’
 Any process can be studied by dividing it into process activity.
 Although each activity is different, depending on the product, there are five classes
of activities that are included in all processes.
-Operations -Transportations -Delay
-Inspection -Storage

 When the process is first studied, each activity is recorded and arranged into one of
the five classes.
 All observed activities are recorded, and activities not done are not recorded. The
67
purpose of each activity should be studied.
 RECORDING TECHNIQUES

 Micro motion study is one which cannot be measured through stop watch.
 Technique of recording and analyzing the timing of basic elements of an operation
 Developing best possible pattern of movement ;at minimum effort and fatigue, for
repeated operations
 Considerable wasted motion and idle time can occur within an operation. This time can't
be found with macro-motion studies because is usually within one process operation.
 The improvement is gained from reducing the operation cycle time.
 Micro-motion study involves the following steps:
1 )Filming the operation to study
2 )Analysis of the data from the films 68

3)Making recording of the data ( using SIMO chart)

 Charts
 Symbols used in charting : The following are the symbols used in
the construction and interpretation of the charts.

69
CONT`D

70
 CONT`D
Examples

71
 PROCESS CHART

 process chart is a graphic representation of the sequence of events

and relate information that occur in the work method or procedure.
 Types of process chart
 Operation/Outline process chart.
 Flow process chart.

 Two handed process chart

72
 CONT`D
Outline Process Chart
 The outline process chart gives an overall view of the process, from
the beginning to the end.
 It is a graphic representation of the sequence of all the operations
and inspections carried out in the entire process and the stage at
which material is introduced.
 In outline process chart only operation and inspection symbols are
used.
 All the operations are sequentially numbered, similarly all the

inspections are sequentially numbered separately.

73
 CONT`D
An example of outline process chart

Outline process chart for nut, bolt and

washer assembly 74
 FLOW PROCESS CHART

 A flow process chart is a graphical representation of the sequence

of all operations, transportations, inspections, delays and storages
occurring during a process or procedure,
 It includes information considered desirable for analysis such as
time required ,quantity and distance moved.

75
 CONT`D
The flow process chart is constructed in the same way as outline process
chart but it uses all the five symbols for charting

76
CONT`D

77
 CONT`D
Types of flow process chart :
 Man type :- A flow process chart which records what the
worker does and his movements.
 Material type :- A flow process chart which records what
happens to material and its movements
 Equipment type :-A flow process chart which records how
the equipment is used and its movements.

78
 CONT`D
Examples on man flow process chart welding of two plates

79
 CONT`D
Examples on material flow process

80
TWO HANDED PROCESS CHART

81
 CONT`D
 A two handed process chart is made up of two columns in which are recorded
the symbols representing the activities of the left and the right hand
respectively
 Recording, in this case, is made with ordinary symbols with the omission of
the inspection symbol since inspections will be shown as movement of hands.

82
 CONT`D

Examples of
two handed
process chart

83
 MULTIPLE ACTIVITY CHART

 It is a chart on which the activities of more than one subject (such as a

man and a machine, operator and machines, two or more workers) are

recorded on a common time scale to study their interrelationship.

 It is a graphical representation of the coordinated activities of man and

machine in terms of independent work, combined work or waiting.

 The chart is constructed by allotting separate bars to represent the

activities of each worker or machine, against a common timescale.

 It clearly shows when a man or machine is idle during the process and
84
action can be taken to utilize this time by rearranging the work
CONT`D

85
CONT`D

86
CONT`D

87
 CONT`D
Example

a) Operating Single Machine: Set up time of machine is 0.5min and machining time is
0.75min, idle 0.75min
88
b) Operating Two Machines: idle time is 0.25min
 SIMO (SIMULTANEOUS MOTION) CHART

 Simo chart is used to record, simultaneously on a common time

scale, the activities of two hands or other parts of worker’s body
during the performance of a single cycle of operation being
investigated.
 The Simo chart is usually based on film analysis to record the
Therbligs or groups of Therbligs performed by different part of
the body of one or more workers.
 Therbligs are the symbols used to denote the various activities

and movements done for different purposes. 89

 CONT`D
Therbligs
used to
represent the
different
movements
of body such
as eyes,hands

90
CONT`D

91
 MODELS AND DIAGRAMS
 It is interest to the work study engineer to know the path of

movement of men and materials.

 Models and diagrams are widely used in plant layout and material

handling studies
 It is important to visualize the number of movements made by the

workers or materials or equipment between facilities and different

work stations and accordingly change the plant layout at design

92
stage it self.
 FLOW DIAGRAM

 Flow diagram is a drawing, made to a scale of the workplace showing the

location of various equipment and machines, activities carried out and the routes

followed by workers and materials.

 The routes followed in movement are shown by joining the points in a

sequence, by a line which represents as nearly as possible the path of

movement of men, material or equipment concerned and diagram is drawn to

a scale.
 Numbered transport symbols on the flow lines show the direction of

movement.
93
 CONT`D
Example of flow diagram

The raw material moves from

store to workstation A where an
operation is performed.
The semi-finished product is then
sent to inspection room B for
checking from where it goes to C
and D where 2 more operations are
performed.
After operation at D it again goes
Flow diagram (drawn to a scale)
to inspection room and after
94
inspection goes to E which is a
finished component store.
 STRING DIAGRAM

It is a scale layout drawing on which the length of string is used to record
the extent as well as pattern of movement of a worker or material or
equipment working within a limited area over a cycle of operations certain
period of time.
 It is used in such situations where the movements are congested and
difficult to trace on flow diagram.
To construct a string diagram the work area is shown as a plan to a scale.
All the terminal points observed during the study are marked on the plan
and pins or pegs are fixed at these points.
95
 TRAVEL CHART

 It is a tabular record for presenting quantitative data about the movement of

workers, materials or equipment between any number of places over a given
period of time.
 It is a table having number of small squares which represent different work
stations.
 The squares from left to right along the top of the chart represent the stations
from where the movement takes place and squares along vertical column
represent the work-stations to which the movement is made.
 The travel chart is very useful in analyzing the movements in a plant.
 The departments between which there is high frequency of movements can be
96

situated nearer to each other to reduce the distance covered during the
 CONT`D
 Suppose the movement takes place from work station c to the work station d, two
times, then tick two times

97
 RAYA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

WORK STUDY AND ERGONOMICS (MaEng5291)

CHAPTER – FIVE

WORK MEASUREMENT

LECTURE DELIVERED BY:

98
HAILAY G. (MSc.)
 WORK MEASUREMENT
 Work measurements (WM) are techniques used to establish the
time for a qualified, motivated worker to carry out a task at a
defined rate of working.
 Qualified worker – A person who has the necessary physical and
mental attributes and at the same time has the appropriate skills
and tools to perform the job.
 Time – the length of time taken to complete the job; usually
expressed as labor standard or standard time.
 Normal working condition – the acceptable working environment
in term of temperature, humidity, lighting, noise, etc needed to
perform the job.
99
 CONT`D
 Work measurement is concerned with investigating, reducing and eliminating
ineffective time, whatever may be the cause.

 In practice, proving existence of the ineffective time is the most difficult task

 Work Measurement is also used to set standard times to carry out the work,
so that any ineffective time is not included later.

100
 OBJECTIVES OF WORK MEASUREMENT
The main objectives of work measurement are :

 To determine the time required to do a job.

 To estimate the man and machine requirements and to assess the plant
capacity accurately.

 To provide information for effective production planning and maintenance.

 To assist in estimation of reliable delivery dates.

 To provide a basis for fair and sound incentive schemes.

 To standardize the rate of performance of workers. 101

 PURPOSE OF WORK MEASUREMENT

 Work Measurement Purposes may be:

 To reveal the nature and extent of ineffective time, from whatever
cause. So that action can be taken to eliminate it

 To set standards of performance that are attainable only if all

avoidable ineffective time is eliminated and work is performed by
the best method available

102
 APPLICATIONS OF WM

 To compare the efficiency of alternative methods.

 Other conditions being equal, the method which takes the least time will
be the best method.
 To balance the work of members of teams, in association with the
multiple activity charts, so that, as far as possible, each member has
tasks taking an equal time.
 To determine, in association with man and machine multiple activity
charts, the number of machines a worker can run.
103
CONT`D

104
WORK MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

 Time study.
 Work sampling.
 Analytical estimating.
 Synthesis.
 Pre-determined Motion Time System (PMTS).

105
 TIME STUDY
 Time study refers to a systematic method for analyzing and measuring the time required to perform a

specific task or activity. It is a technique used in industrial engineering and work measurement to

determine the standard time needed to complete a job or operation.

 Time study also defined as a work measurement technique, recording the time and rate or pace of

working for the elements of a specified job carried out under specified conditions.
 And analyzing the data so as to determine the time necessary for carrying out the job at a defined level of

performance.
 Time study is the most satisfactory and accurate technique for determining the time taken for

completing a manufacturing operation but due to its nature it is mainly used for repetitive work.

106
 CONT`D

 Procedure for conducting stop watch time study

1. SELECTING THE JOB TO BE STUDIED
2. RECORDING THE SPECIFICATIONS.
3. BREAKING OPERATION INTO ELEMENTS.
4. EXAMINING EACH ELEMENT.
5. MEASURING USING STOP WATCH.
6. ASSESSING THE RATING FACTOR.
7. CALCULATING THE BASIC TIME.
8. DETERMINING THE ALLOWANCES. 107

9. COMPILING THE STANDARD TIME.

 1. SELECTING THE JOB
 Time study is always done after method study.
 Under the following situations, a job is selected for time study:
1. A new job, new component or a new operation.
2. When new time standard is required.
3. To check the correctness of the existing time standard.
4. When the cost of operation is found to be high.
5. Before introducing an incentive scheme.
6. When two methods are to be compared.

2. Recording the specifications

108

 Note all the details about the operations and the operator being studied .
 3. BREAK OPERATIONS IN TO ELEMENT
 Each operation is divided into a number of elements.

It is necessary to break down a task (job) into elements for the following reasons:

To separate productive time and unproductive time.

 To assess the rating of the worker more accurately.

 To identify the different types of elements and to measure their timings

separately.

 To determine the fatigue allowance accurately.

 To prepare a detailed work specification.

109

 To fix standard time for repetitive elements (such as switch on or switch off of
machine)
 4.EXAMINE EACH ELEMENT

 The elements are examined to find out whether they are effective or
wasteful.

 Elements are also examined whether they are done in the correct
method.

110
 5. MEASURE USING STOP WATCH

 The time taken for each element is measured using a stop watch.
 The time measured from the stop watch is known as observed time.
 Time for various groups of elements should be recorded separately.
 This measurement has to be done for a number of times.
 The number of observations depend up on the type of operation, the accuracy required and
time for one cycle.

111
 6. ASSESS THE RATING FACTOR

 Rating is the measure of efficiency of a worker.

 The operator‘s rating is found out by comparing his speed of work with
standard performance.

 The rating of an operator is decided by the work study man in

consultation with the supervisor.

 The standard rating is taken as 100. If the operator is found to be slow,

his rating is less than 100 say 90. If the operator is above average, his
rating is more than 100, say 120.
112
 7. CALCULATE BASIC TIME (NORMAL TIME)
 Basic time is the time for carrying out a work or an element of work at
standard rating (rating of 100).

 A man whose work is observed, may be a slow worker or a fast worker.

 His rating may be less than 100 or above 100.

 Basic time is calculated as follows by applying rating factor

113
 CONT`D

 For example, assume that observed time for an operation is 0.7 mts.
The rating of the operator is found to be 120.
 Calculate basic time

114
 8. DETERMINE ALLOWANCE

 A worker cannot work all the day continuously.

 He will require time for rest going for toilet, drinking water
etc.

 Unavoidable delays may occur because of tool breakage etc.

 So some extra time is added to the basic time. This extra

time is known as allowance.

115
 9. COMPILE THE STANDARD TIME
 Standard time or allowed time is the total time in which a job should be
completed at standard performance.
 The definition of a time standard is "the time required to produce a
product at a work station with the following three conditions:
1. a qualified, well-trained operator,
2. working at a normal place,
3. doing a specific task."
 It is the sum of normal time (basic time) and allowances. Policy
allowance is not included. Policy time is added when management wants.
Standard Time = Normal Time + Allowance Time

116
 9. COMPILE THE STANDARD TIME
 Time standard is used to develop answers for the following problems:

 Determining the number of machine tools to buy

 Determining the number of production people to employ
 Determining manufacturing costs and selling prices
 Scheduling the machines, operations, and people to do the job and deliver on time
 Determining the assembly line balance, determining the conveyor belt speed, loading the work cells
with the correct amount of work, and balancing the work cells
 Determine individual worker performance and identifying operations that are having problems so the
problems can be corrected
 Paying incentive wages for outstanding team or individual performance
 Evaluating cost reduction ideas and picking the most economical method based on cost analysis, not
opinion
 Evaluating new equipment purchases to justify their expense 117

 Developing operation personnel budgets to measure management performance.

 EXAMPLE: STANDARD TIME
The time study data for drilling three holes in a connecting link rod is given in
the Table below.
Calculate the standard time for drilling of one connecting rod.
The job description is :
(a) Drilling machine pillar type, and drilling machine capacity 25 mm

(b) Drill Jig is used for holding the hob on machine.

(c) Pieces to be drilled are lying in a bin near the machine.

(d) After drilling, the job is put in another bin lying near the machine.

Use the following information in calculating standard time.

10 connecting rods have been machined.
 Rating factor 110 percent

 Total allowance 25% of normal time

118
Observation Sheet for Time Study (After recording the time for 10 cycles)

Total average cycle time = 0.057 + 0.108 +

0.390 + 0.068 + 0.024 = 0.647 min.
Rating factor = 110 percent
Normal time= 0.647 × 110/100=0.712 min.
Allowances = 25 percent of normal time
= 0.712 ×25/100 = 0.178 min.
Standard time for drilling of 1 connecting
rod
=Normal time + allowances
= 0.712 + 0.178= 0.890 min

119
 2. WORK SAMPLING

 Work sampling (activity sampling) is a useful tool for understanding how workers

allocate their time across various activities. It helps organizations make informed

decisions regarding resource management, workload distribution, and process

improvement
 The primary goal of work sampling is to provide an accurate representation of how

work is being performed and how time is being allocated within a given work

environment.
 It is an extremely useful work measurement technique as it is inexpensive, convenient,

reliable and it can be done without using the stop watch or any subjective judgments
120
of effort or rating (rate of performance).
 CONT`D
 To determine the percentage of the working day that a worker or a
machine is working or idle, the observer visits the workplace for
predetermined number of times per day at random.

121
 STEPS IN MAKING WORK SAMPLING STUDY
1. Define the problem
 State the main objective or purpose of the study.
 Describe the details of each element to be measured

2.Obtain the approval of the in charge of the department / section in which the
work sampling study is to be made.
 Make certain that the operators to be studied and other people in the department
understand the purpose of the study and they should co-operate in the study.

3 . Design the study

 Determine the number of Observations to be made, Observers needed, Days or
shifts needed for the study
 Make plans for taking the observations such as time and route to be followed by
the observer.
 Design the observation form. Make the observations and record the data. 122
 CONT`D

4 Summarize the data at the end of each day and at the end of the
study period.
5. Make recommendations, if required.

123
 APPLICATION OF WORK SAMPLING

Applications of Work Sampling

 In the estimation of the percentage utilization of machine tools

and other equipment, workers etc.

 Used to estimate the time consumed by various activities, i.e., operation,

supervision, repair, inspection etc.

 Used to find out time standards, specially where job is not of

repetitive nature and where time study by stop watch method is not

applicable.

124
 ADVANTAGES OF WORK SAMPLING

Advantages
 It involves less cost as compared to stop watch study.
 Many operations or activities which are difficult and costly to
determine by time study can be readily estimated by work sampling.
 It is possible to simultaneously study a group of operators and
activities by a single work study engineer.
 It does not involve any timing device like stop watch.
125
 CONT`D

 Observations may be taken over a period of days or weeks, thus

decreasing the chance of day-to-day or week-to-week variations affecting

the results.
 If the study gets interrupted in between it does not introduce any error in

the results.
 Operator is not subjected to long periods of stop watch observations.
 The random observations are taken thus avoiding prolonged observations.
 This produces less fatigue and is less tedious to the work study engineer. 126
 DISADVANTAGE OF WORK SAMPLING
Disadvantages
 It is not economical by this method to study a single operator or machine.

 It is not economical by this method to study operators or machines located over wide
areas.
 This method does not break the job into elements and thus does not provide
elemental details.
 Workers may not be able to understand the principles of work sampling as easily as
they do time study.
 It normally does not account for the rate at which an operator is working.
 No record of study of an individual operator is kept, therefore a new study must be
made whenever a change occurs in any element in the method used.
127
 ANALYTICAL ESTIMATING

 It is defined as time required to carry out elements of jobs at

defined level of performance, is established from prior
knowledge and practical experiments of the elements and job
concerned.
ADVANTAGE
 It extends the scope of work measurement to deal with jobs for
which other techniques cannot be used.
128
 STEPS IN ANALYTICAL ESTIMATING
 Steps in analytical estimation

129
 SYNTHESIS
 Synthesis is a work measurement technique to work out standard time for a job

by totaling the elemental times already obtained from previous time studies.

 Many operators in an industry have several common elements.

Example: starting the machine, stopping the machine etc.

 These elements are called constant elements.

 Time for some elements vary proportionately with the speed, feed, length of cut

etc. in machining operation.

 Time for all these constant elements and variable elements are collected from
130

the time studies previously made.

 Pre-determined Motion Time System (PMTS)

 It can be defined as a work measurement technique where by times

established for basic human motions (classified according to the
nature of the motions and conditions under which they are made) are
used to build up the time for a job at defined level of performance.

 PMTS is based on the assumption that any manual task done by the
operators can be broken down into basic motions, based on
elementary movements or therbligs. 131
 RAYA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

WORK STUDY AND ERGONOMICS (MaEng5291)
CHAPTER – SIX

:ERGONOMICS/ HUMAN FACTORS

LECTURE DELIVERED BY:

HAILAY G. (MSc.) 132

 Human factors, also known as ergonomics, is the field of study that
focuses on how humans interact with systems, products, and
environments. It encompasses various disciplines, including psychology,
engineering, physiology, and design, to understand and optimize the
relationship between humans and their surroundings.
 The primary goal of human factors is to enhance human performance,
well-being, and safety by considering human capabilities, limitations, and
characteristics during the design and development of systems.
133
 Ergonomics is the scientific discipline that studies the interaction between humans and
their work, tools, equipment, and environment. It focuses on optimizing the design of these
elements to enhance human performance, safety, and well-being.
 The key concepts and principles in ergonomics include:

a. Human-Centered Design: Ergonomics emphasizes designing systems and products with a

deep understanding of human capabilities, limitations, and characteristics. It involves
considering factors such as anthropometry (body measurements), cognition, and behavior.

b. Physical Ergonomics: Physical ergonomics focuses on the physical interactions between

humans and their work environment. It involves designing workstations, tools, and
equipment that promote proper posture, minimize musculoskeletal disorders, and optimize
134
physical performance. This includes considerations such as appropriate seating, adjustable
work surfaces, and ergonomic tools.
c. Cognitive Ergonomics: Cognitive ergonomics examines the mental processes involved in human
work activities. It focuses on understanding perception, attention, memory, decision-making, problem-
solving, and workload. By considering cognitive factors, ergonomics aims to design systems and
interfaces that support efficient information processing, reduce mental workload, and enhance decision-
making.

d. Organizational Ergonomics: Organizational ergonomics looks at the social and organizational

factors that influence human performance. It considers aspects such as work scheduling, teamwork,
communication, and job design. By optimizing these factors, ergonomics aims to improve productivity,
job satisfaction, and overall well-being in the workplace.

e. Environmental Ergonomics: Environmental ergonomics takes into account the physical

environment in which work is performed. It considers factors such as lighting, noise, temperature,
135
humidity, and air quality. By optimizing the environmental conditions, ergonomics aims to create
comfortable and safe work environments.
  Ergonomics approach event stage and system dimension

Ergonomics approaches can be categorized into different stages and dimensions to guide the
application of ergonomic principles.

1. Event Stage:
a. Pre-event Stage: In this stage, ergonomics is applied during the initial planning and design
phases of a system or product. Ergonomics experts collaborate with designers, engineers, and
stakeholders to ensure that human factors are considered from the outset. This includes conducting
user research, task analysis, and ergonomic risk assessments to inform design decisions.

b. During-event Stage: During the event stage, ergonomics focuses on optimizing the usability,
safety, and performance of the system or product. This involves evaluating and refining the design
based on user feedback, conducting usability testing, and addressing any ergonomic issues that
136

arise during system operation.

2. System Dimension:

a. Physical Dimension: The physical dimension of ergonomics focuses on the design and arrangement of physical

elements to ensure compatibility with human capabilities and limitations. This includes ergonomic considerations related

to workstation design, tools, equipment, layout, and environmental factors such as lighting, noise, and temperature.

b. Cognitive Dimension: The cognitive dimension of ergonomics relates to the mental processes involved in human-

system interaction. It involves designing interfaces, displays, and information systems that support efficient information

processing, decision-making, and problem-solving. Cognitive ergonomics aims to minimize mental workload, enhance

attention, memory, and perception, and facilitate effective human-system interaction.

c. Organizational Dimension :-organizational system dimensions refer to the measurable aspects or characteristics of

an organizational system, including its structure, culture, strategy, goals, and processes. . It involves analyzing job

design, work processes, communication, teamwork, and organizational culture to optimize productivity, job satisfaction,

and well-being. Organizational ergonomics aims to create supportive work environments and promote effective
137

collaboration and communication.

 MICRO VERSUS MACRO ERGONOMIC INTERVENTIONS
 Micro and macro ergonomic interventions are two distinct approaches to addressing
ergonomic issues in the workplace.
a. Micro Ergonomic Interventions:
 Micro ergonomic interventions focus on optimizing individual workstations, tools, and
equipment to enhance the comfort, safety, and efficiency of individual workers. These
interventions typically involve making adjustments or modifications at a small scale.
Some examples of micro ergonomic interventions include:
 Adjusting chair height, backrest, and armrests to promote proper posture and reduce
musculoskeletal strain.
 Modifying workstation layout and equipment placement to minimize reaching and
excessive twisting.
 Providing ergonomic tools and accessories like adjustable keyboards, mice, and monitor
stands to promote neutral wrist and body positions. 138

 Offering training and education on correct work techniques and postures to prevent
b. Macro Ergonomic Interventions:
Macro ergonomic interventions, on the other hand, take a broader approach by
considering the overall work system, organization, and processes. These interventions
focus on improving the interaction between individuals, tasks, equipment, and the
environment to optimize productivity, health, and well-being. Macro ergonomic
interventions may involve:
 Redesigning work processes and workflows to reduce repetitive or physically
demanding tasks, minimize unnecessary movements, and improve efficiency.
 Implementing job rotation or task sharing to reduce prolonged exposure to specific
ergonomic risk factors.
 Reducing excessive workload or time pressure that can lead to fatigue and stress-related
ergonomic issues.
 Modifying environmental factors such as lighting, noise, temperature, and ventilation to
create a more comfortable and supportive work environment
139
Assessing ergonomics involves evaluating various factors related to human capabilities,
work tasks, and the physical environment.
 Here are some key aspects considered during an ergonomics assessment:
a. Anthropometry: Anthropometric measurements involve assessing the physical
dimensions, sizes, and proportions of individuals. This information helps determine
appropriate workstation and equipment dimensions to accommodate a wide range of body
sizes and shapes.
b. Workstation Design: The design and layout of workstations play a crucial role in
ergonomics. Assessments focus on the arrangement of furniture, tools, and equipment to
ensure proper alignment, posture, and reach for the user. Factors such as desk height, chair
adjustability, monitor placement, and keyboard/mouse positioning are evaluated.
c. Body Mechanics: Evaluating body mechanics involves analyzing the posture and
movements required during work tasks. Assessments consider factors such as repetitive
motions, force exertion, lifting techniques, and awkward postures. The goal is to minimize
strain and fatigue while promoting neutral body positions and proper muscle engagement.
140
141
 Musculoskeletal disorders
Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) are conditions that affect the muscles,
bones, tendons, ligaments, and other supporting structures of the body.
These disorders can result from various factors, including repetitive
motions, awkward postures, forceful exertions, vibration, and sustained
physical effort.
MSDs are commonly associated with work-related activities but can also
occur due to other factors such as sports injuries or aging.

142
 Some examples of musculoskeletal disorders include:
 Carpal Tunnel Syndrome: This condition affects the wrist and hand, causing symptoms
such as pain, numbness, and tingling due to compression of the median nerve.
 Tendinitis: Tendinitis is the inflammation of a tendon, which is the tissue that connects
muscle to bone. It commonly affects the shoulders, elbows, wrists, and knees, leading to
pain, swelling, and limited range of motion.
 Back Pain: Back pain is a prevalent musculoskeletal disorder that can result from poor
posture, improper lifting techniques, or long periods of sitting or standing. It can range from
mild discomfort to chronic, debilitating pain.
 Neck and Shoulder Pain: Poor ergonomics, such as prolonged computer use with improper
143

posture, can contribute to neck and shoulder pain. This can manifest as muscle stiffness,
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
 HFS/ERGONOMICS DEFINED

 Its all about interaction b/n people and…

 the things they do, the objects they use & the environments they
work & travel.
 If good fit is achieved, the stresses on people are reduced.
 They are more comfortable,
 they can do things more quickly & easily,
 increase safety on the job, &
 they make fewer mistakes”

152
 HUMAN FACTORS/ERGONOMICS

 is the science of adapting products & processes to human characteristics & capabilities in

order to improve well-being & optimize productivity.

 is the scientific discipline concerned with interactions among humans and other elements

of a system in carrying out a purposeful activity.

 aims to improve human well-being and overall system performance by optimizing human-

system compatibility.

153
 HFS/ERGONOMICS DEFINED, CONT’D

Ergonomics (or human factors)

 Human-system interaction design considerations include
physical, cognitive, social, organizational and environmental
factors."

154
HFS/ERGONOMICS DEFINED,
CONT’D

HFs

HFs
HFs Science HFE Integration/Ergon.

Understanding Ensuring
Application to the
the properties successful
design, development
of human application of
& deployment
capability HFE
155
 HFS/ERGONOMICS DEFINED,
CONT’D

Contribute to the design & evaluation of tasks, jobs,

products, environments & systems in order to make them
compatible with the needs, abilities & limitations of people.

156
 BENEFITS OF ERGONOMICS AND HUMAN FACTORS

 User centered design

 Preserve human health
 Optimize human performance
 Improves comforts
 Improves safety
 Improves productivity
 Minimizing errors 157
 ! ! !
O U
Y
NK
H A
T
158
 RAYA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

WORK STUDY AND ERGONOMICS (MaEng5291)
CHAPTER – SEVEN

:INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING ANTHROPOMETRY

LECTURE DELIVERED BY:

HAILAY G. (MSc.) 159

 ANTHROPOMETRY
 The science of measuring the human body as to height, weight, and
size of component parts, including skin fold thickness, to study and
compare the relative proportions under normal/abnormal conditions
and for the purposes of understanding human physical variation.

160
 Anthropometry is the science that measures the range
of body sizes in a population. When designing
products it is important to remember that people come
in many sizes and shapes.

 Anthropometric data varies considerably between

regional populations. For example, Scandinavian
populations tend to be taller, while Asian and Italian
populations tend to be shorter. 161
TYPES OF ANTHROPOMETRY

There are two types of anthropometry measurements

 Structural anthropometry (often called “static
anthropometry”) – measurement of the body at rest
including overall measurements like total stature and
weight, measurements of links or circumferences like wrist
to elbow, knee to hip, circumference of head and
measurement of specific landmarks in reference to some
other point, like the floor, e.g eye height. 162
Static measurements

163
 Functional anthropometry (often called “dynamic

anthropometry”) – measurement of the body in

motion like the reach envelope of seated work, the

movement of body parts in relationship to one another

or the space required to turn a wheelchair.

164
FUNCTIONAL DIMENSIONS

165
 THE TEN MOST IMPORTANT HUMAN ENGINEERING DIMENSIONS
1. Height
2. Weight
3. Sitting height
4. Buttock-knee length
5. Buttock- popliteal length
6. Breadth across elbows
7. Breadth across hips (seated)
8. Knee height
9. Popliteal height
10. Thigh clearance height
166
PURPOSE OF MEASURING ANTHROPOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS
 Stature: This is used to determine the minimum overhead clearance
required to avoid head collision.
 Functional overhead reach: This is used to determine the

maximum height of overhead controls.

 Functional foreword reach: Items that are often used within the

workstation should be located with in the functional reach.

 Buttock-knee-depth: This defines the seat depth for chairs and

clearance under the work table

 Popliteal height: This is used to determine the range of adjustability

for adjustable chairs.

 Buttock –popliteal depth: This is used to determine the length of

the seat pad. 167

 Elbow height: This is an important marker for determining work

height and table height.

DESIGN OF ANTHROPOMETRY

Anthropometry design motto

A. Let the small person reach

B. Let the large person fit.

The anthropometric motto implies that reach

distances should be designed for the small, 5 th
percentile individual, where as clearance dimensions
should be designed for the large, 95 th percentile
168
individual.
 Anthropometrics Design Principles

There are three general anthropometric design principles

useful in the design of workspaces. Each Design principle
is described with its advantages and disadvantages
1. Design for Average: With the design for average
principle, you design a workspace for the average-sized
person or a one-size-fit all approach.
This is a commonly used approach by designers
without knowledge of population variability and is
169
generally not recommended.
2. Design for Extreme: The design for extreme principle is very useful in

specific circumstances when it make sense to design a dimension at an

extreme end of the distribution and, because of its function, the entire
distribution is accommodated. Here are a few examples:
Doorways, escape apparatus, ladders, etc are designed so that extremely
tall males and extremely broad people can fit through it. Both these
dimensions exceed the 99th percentile for height and body breadth.

170
3. Design for Range: Designing for the range normally
means designing an adjustable workspace. For example
the standing workstation for light assembly, an
adjustable-height workstation might be designed to
accommodate elbow heights ranging from the 5th
percentile female to the 95th percentile male. Now the
potential shoulder, neck, and low back discomfort may
have been eliminated.
171
 PERCENTILE HUMANS

 Anthropometric dimensions for each population are ranked by size

and described as percentiles.
 It is common practice to design for the 5th percentile (5th%) female
to the 95th percentile (95th%) male.
 The 5th% female value for a particular dimension (e.g. sitting
height) usually represents the smallest measurement for design in a
172
population.
 Conversely, a 95th% male value may represent the largest
dimension for which one is designing.
 The 5th% to 95th% range accommodates approximately
90% of the population.
 To design for a larger portion of the population, one might
use the range from the 1st% female to the 99th% male.
 Figure below shows comparisons of percentile males and
females.
173
FIG: THE RELATIVE SIZES OF DIFFERENT PERCENTILE
HUMANS.

174
COMMON WORKPLACE POSTURES

 There are common postures found in working

environment that can be considered when designing
workplace products or space. This section reviews
guidelines for these postures:

• Standing

• Sitting

• Reaching
175
• Moving
DIFFERENT WORK-SURFACE HEIGHTS CAN BE USED
DEPENDING ON
THE TYPE OF WORK PERFORMED.

176
2-SITTING

 Knowing what parameters to design for while the user is

seated can help increase the comfort of the user. Common
seated anthropometric measurements can be seen in Figure
below.

177
COMMON ANTHROPOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS FOR THE SEATED POSITION

A- Sitting Height

B- Sitting Eye Height

C- Waist Depth

D- Thigh Clearance

E- Buttock-to-Knee

F- Knee Height

G- Seat Length/Depth

H- Popliteal Height 178

3- REACHING

 While sitting or standing, an individual at work will

usually have to reach for something.
 The workstation, and parts that go with workstations
(such as overhead storage and pedestals), should allow
the majority of movement of the user’s body joints
within healthy zones.
 When designing products, consider how much
individuals will have to reach in order to minimize
179

awkward or unhealthy positions.

4- MOVING

 Users will move around in their environment to file

papers, answer a phone, or stretch. An occasional
break from sitting is encouraged because it helps to
stimulate muscles, and increases blood flow, which
decreases fatigue.

180
 RAYA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

WORK STUDY AND ERGONOMICS (MaEng5291)
CHAPTER – EIGHT

WORK STATION DESIGN

LECTURE DELIVERED BY: 181

HAILAY G. (MSc.)
 Workplace Designs

 The work place should be designed in such a way that employees

will be able to perform their jobs effectively.
 To achieve this crucial goal, the workplace designer should keep
two design factors in mind.
1- The first factor is that there is a large variability in size of
people in the work-force population.
2- The second factor is to understand the user population; that is,
culture, education, training, skills, attitude, physical and mental

182

capability, etc.
 Therefore, designers should be cautious that the worst
design mistake they can make is, probably, to design to
their own personal specifications (the syndrome of “if I
can use it, it must be designed well”).
 Such a mistake can be avoided by using the relevant
anthropometric data in design of the workplace for the
work-force population.

183
 The design of workstations should be based upon anthropometric
data, behavioral patterns of employees, and specific requirements
of the work being done.
 For example, the height at which work takes place is important in
designing workstations. Work should be located to suit the height
of the operator, whether sitting or standing.
 If the work is located too high, the neck and shoulders may suffer
due to the shoulders frequently being raised to compensate for the
incorrect height.
184
 If the work is located too low, a backache can result from required
leaning and bowing the back.
 Adjustable work tables allow operators to determine a
comfortable working height. Anthropometric dimensions can also
be used in workplace layout to optimize vertical and horizontal
reaches and grasps.

185
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR WORKSTATION DESIGN

The general principle for designing individual workstation is to

provide an efficient and safe location in which the work can be
performed. To establish this general principle, the design engineer
must answer the following six key questions:

1- What must the work see while on the job? This includes: parts of
the workplace that must be visible to the worker; number, types,
and locations of controls that must be utilized by the worker and
the types of actions required to operate them; interaction with
other workers; and necessity to view the job activities performed
186
by other workers.
2- What must the worker hear? This includes the oral
communication during job performance, auditory signals that
must heard by the worker.

3- What tasks must the worker perform? the designer must

determine the required movements and job tasks performed by
the worker. It must be determined whether the job requires lifting,
carrying, and positioning of materials.

4- What is the consequence of objectives? The designer must

understand the nature and sequence of the job activities that must
be performed by the worker. 187
5- What clearances are required? The designer must determine and make provisions for
clearances that are required in order for the worker to perform the job efficiently and
safely. The designer must consider the size of the workers who will perform jobs at the
workstation and clearances for their clothing and movements.

6- What storage is required? The designer must make provisions for the storage of raw
materials, in-process work-pieces, and finished product, as well as the work-tools and
other job aids that must be used and stored at the workstation.

188
In general, the work place design must satisfy the following

important criteria:
 Be economical;
 Enhance the workers’ efficiency;
 Allow good working postures;
 Minimize fatigue;
 Minimize health-and safety-risks, such as stresses on the
musculoskeletal system. 189
The application of ergonomic principles in the workplace can result in the
following:
 increased productivity;
 improved health and safety of workers;
 lower workers’ compensation claims;
 compliance with government regulations (e.g. OSHA standards)
 job satisfaction;
 increased work quality;
 lower worker turnover;
 lower lost time at work;
 improved morale of workers;
190
 decrease in absenteeism rate.
 Inadequate design of workplace will inhibit the ability of worker to perform his
tasks and may result in injuries, strain or fatigue.

 Anthropometry is the measure of human body and the data is used to design
workplace, chairs, tools, equipment and others.

 The goal of workplace design is to provide efficient, safe, and comfort for the
worker.

191
WORKPLACE DESIGN CONSIDERS AGE, SEX, BODY SIZE, STRENGTH, DISABILITIES AND
OTHERS.

192
 Work should be located to suit
the height of the operator,
whether sitting or standing.
1. If the work is located too high,
the neck and shoulders may suffer
due to the shoulders frequently
being raised.

2. If the work is located too low, a

back pain can result from required
leaning & bowing back.
193
Three workplace layout are:
 The first one is actual

working area1 which is most 3

convenient area for working.

 The second workplace layout 2

2
is normal working area2 that 1
is within the easy reach of the
operator.

 The third suggested area is

maximum working area3 KEY

which is accessible with full 1= Actual working area

arm stretch. 2 = Normal working area

3 = Maximum working area 194
 Digital workplace with
a digital human model

195

Digital workplace with adjustable material shuttles

Ergonomically planned manual assembly system

196
ERGONOMICS SEATING

 The two main objectives of ergonomic

seating in the workplace are to increase
individual efficiency and reduce fatigue.
 When sitting, the main part of body weight
is transferred to the seat pan.
 Some weight is also transferred to the
floor, back rest, and armrests.
 Where weight transferred is the key to a
197
good seat design.
 The lumbar needs to be supported
to decrease disc pressure.
 Providing a seat back that inclines
backwards and has a lumbar
support is critical to prevent
excessive low back pressures.
 Another key to reducing lumbar
disc pressure is the use of
armrests.

198
Some ergonomics principles that should be applied to the workplace,
whether it be an industrial or an office environment, include the
following:
 Aim at dynamic work, avoid static work (work where there is no
movement). Static work or static loading of the muscles is inefficient
and accelerates fatigue. Static work can occur when the workplace is
too high or too low.

199
 Work surface heights should depend on the size(anthropometry)
of the worker and the type of task performed (precision, light
assembly, or heavy manual).
 Avoid overloading of the muscular system.
 Primary controls, devices, and work pieces should be placed within the
normal working area. Secondary controls should be placed within the
maximum working area so as to reduce extended reaches and fatigue.
 Strive for best mechanical advantage of the skeletal system.

200
 ERGONOMICS TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

 Work-tools are extensions of human hands. They enhance the capability of

the users in performing their tasks so efficiently that the tasks would
otherwise be difficult, if not impossible.

 However, the ill-effects of an improperly designed work-tool can be

devastating, yet so subtle as to remain blameless.

 Poorly designed tools are one of the common factors contributing to the
development of cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs). They can also impair
the productivity of workers. 201
 Improper use of a work-tool, regardless of its design, can
also lead to CTD problems. Tools can also cause bodily
injuries in single-exposure incidents. Ergonomically well-
designed and properly used tools can reduce or prevent
such problems.

 The principles of ergonomics and biomechanics should be

considered in the selection, evaluation, and use of work-
tools.
202
 Grip Strength and Endurance
 Grip strength and endurance are two terms related to the design and
use of hand tools which have been defined by Bazar (1978).
 Grip strength is the maximum momentary squeeze force exerted on
a hand dynamometer.
 Endurance is the length of time a person can exert a specified force.
Consideration of grip strength and endurance is very important in
the design and use of hand-tools requiring gripping force, and in
manual materials handling (MMH).

203
 Grip strength and endurance can be measured using a hand dynamometer. A
hand dynamometer is a device which measures the force an individual exerts
through the hand grip.
 The fingers in a normal closed fist form an elliptical shape (Fig A). The grip
strength in this situation is found to be greater than when the person tries to
hold the tool handle perpendicular to the hand-arm axis without changing the
wrist posture, as illustrated in (Fig B).

204

A- Normal closed fist B- An abnormal closed fist

The following factors are known to affect both grip strength and
endurance, and should be considered in hand-tool design.

1- Size of grip span and diameter: The tool handle should fit the hand
of the user. A handle of a too large or too small grip diameter
cannot be held comfortably and reduces the grip strength.

2- Type of grasp/grip: Power grip strength is about four times greater

than the maximum pinch strength. Pinch grip requires significantly
higher muscle force than power grip.

3- Age: Maximal muscle strength is reached at the age of about 20 for

men, and a few years earlier for women (Rodahl, 1989).Grip
strength may reach its maximum value in the middle to late 20s and 205

then declines as age advances.

4- Gender: The grip strength of men is greater than that of women
(Falke1 et al., 1985). On average the grip strength for women
(24.5-35.0 kg for US females) is about 60% of men's (41.9-59.8 kg
for US males; Fraser, 1983).

5-Handedness: The grip strength and endurance of the dominant

hand are higher than those of the non-dominant hand. The average
percentage difference between dominant and non-dominant hands
for men is in the range of 3.2-11.5%.

206
6- Vibration: Grip strength requirements for grasping and controlling
vibrating tools are higher than those required by non-vibrating
tools.

7- Wrist posture: Grip strength is reduced with the deviation of the

wrist from its neutral posture.

8- Gloves: Gloves increase grip strength requirements. They also

increase the size of the hand. For example, woolen or leather gloves
add 5 mm to hand thickness and 8 mm to hand breadth at the thumb
(Fraser, 1983).

207
 Types of work tools
Work-tools may be divided into two categories:

1- Hand tools: Hand tools are non-powered and include axes,

hammers, wrenches, screwdrivers, hand saws, pliers, etc.

2- Power tools: There are several different types of power tools,

based on the power source they use. They include electric,
pneumatic, liquid fuel, hydraulic, and power-actuated tools.

208
 Ergonomics principles for hand-tool design and evaluation

The following ergonomic guidelines for tool design, evaluation, and

selection have been prepared.
 Avoid rigid, form-fitting handles with grooves for each finger. Such
handles do not improve the grip strength and function unless they
are sized to a particular user’s hand. These types of handles, as one-
size fits- all, are usually designed to fit the average hand size (i.e
the 50% percentile).

209
 Avoid hand tools which require awkward movements, or cannot be
, operated effectively with neutral wrist posture and low force (Fig.
a). Tool handles should be designed so that the user can maintain
the hands in line with the forearms as much as possible (Fig. b).

210
a) Awkward b) Good
 Avoid tool handles with sharp corners, edges, or pinch points. Tool handles should be
either round or oval.
 The tool-handle surface should be compressible, non-conductive, and smooth. However,
handles should have enough coefficient of friction to minimize hand-gripping forces
required for tool control.
comparison of (a) an inappropriate tool handle that requires an awkward wrist
posture and creates high forces in the unprotected palm of the hand and (b) an
improved tool handle that allows the wrist to be in a more neutral posture and
distributes forces over a larger, more muscular area of the hand.

211

a) short-handled screwdriver b) long-handled screwdriver

 Choose ergonomically designed tools to maintain a more natural
position of the wrist and to insure better distribution of grip forces
during task performance. Examples are bent-handled tools, such as
bent-handled pliers.

 Provide vibration dampening for vibrating hand tools.

 Use long-handled screwdriver, because short handles dig into the

palm of the hand, which may cause nerve and blood vessel damage
and/or irritation of the tendons.

212
 RAYA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

WORK STUDY AND ERGONOMICS (MaEng5291)
CHAPTER – NINE

ERGONOMICS HAZARD AND RISK ASSESSMENT

213
LECTURE DELIVERED BY:

HAILAY G. (MSc.)
 ERGONOMICS HAZARD AND RISK ASSESSMENT

 A hazard is any source of potential damage, harm or adverse health effects on

something or someone under certain conditions at work. A Hazard can cause harm
or adverse effects (to individuals as health effects or to organizations as property or
equipment losses). It is something that is potentially very dangerous.

 Risk is the chance or probability that a person will be harmed or experience an

adverse health effect if exposed to a hazard. It is a chance of something going
wrong. It may also apply to situations with property or equipment loss.

214
 Risk assessment: In practical terms, a risk assessment is a thorough look at
your workplace to identify those things, situations, processes, etc that may
cause harm, particularly to people.
 Risk assessments are very important as they form an integral part of a good
occupational health and safety management plan. They help to:
 create awareness of hazards and risks,

 identify who may be at risk (employees, cleaners, visitors, contractors, the

public, etc),
 prevent injuries or illnesses when done at the design or planning stage, and

 prioritize hazards and control measures.

215
 FIVE STEPS TO RISK ASSESSMENT

Step 1- Look for the hazards.

Step 2- Decide who might be harmed, and how.

Step 3- Evaluate the risks arising from the hazards and decide

whether existing precautions are adequate or more should be

done.

Step 4- Record your findings.

Step 5- Review your assessment from time to time and revise it if

necessary. 216
 MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS (MSD)

 Musculoskeletal disorders occur in every kind of

occupation and industry.
 They occur in backs and upper & lower extremities.
 They occur gradually over a relatively long period of time
of exposure to the corresponding contributing factors.
 They are, therefore, called cumulative trauma disorders
(CTDs).
217
 Common body parts affected by CTDs

 Back and Neck CTDs affect:

 Neck and shoulders
 Lumbar spine

 Upper extremities affect:

 Hands
 Wrists
 Elbows

 Lower extremities affect:

 Feet
 Knees

218
 219
FIG: The common types of cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs) and the body parts affected by them.
 MSDs are illnesses and injuries that affect one or more parts of the
musculoskeletal system. They include sprain, strains, inflammation,
degeneration, tears, pinched nerves or blood vessels, bone splintering and
stress fractures.
 MSDs are common types of workplace injuries in industries and can be
caused gradually through awkward posture, repetitive motions, carrying,
bending, twisting, working in hot or cold environments, and poorly designed
workstation or tools.
 MSDs are generally caused or aggravated by repetitive work.

220
 The following are known to be occupational factors that
contribute to the development of CTDs.
1- Highly repetitive movements: Performing some manual tasks
involves highly repetitive use of the limbs. Repeating the same
movements over and over will eventually fatigue the involved muscles.
 Frequent movements become much more risky if they are combined
with poor postures and excessive force.

221
2- Awkward postures: No matter whether sitting or standing, a poor body position
may place the person at risk of developing CTDs. Fixed postures, even good ones,
are also harmful if held unchanged for so long that muscle tension builds up and
circulation is reduced. Excessive bending of the wrists in any direction, that is,
palmarly, dorsally, unary, or radially can lead to CTDs. Extreme positions
increase pressure on muscles, tendons, and nerves.

222

FIG: When the wrist is bent (a) dorsally or (b) Palmarly

3- Excessive forces: Performing certain manual tasks requires the
worker to exert excessive force. Activities requiring excessive
force strain muscles and tendons, and hence increase the risk of
developing CTDs. Force is required in gripping a tool; rotating a
control; lifting, pushing or pulling an object; and cutting a work-
piece.

4- Inadequate tool handles: Using tools that dig into the palm of
the hand and irritate the tendons can lead to CTDs.
223
5- Low-frequency vibration: Using vibrating tools (e.g.,
air- or motor powered drills, chippers, sanders, saws, and
drivers), especially under cold conditions, can cause
CTDs.

6- Low temperature: Working in the cold can lead to CTD

injuries as blood flow may be reduced or restricted in the
extremities.

224
 How MSDs differ from injuries and fatigue ?

Injuries & fatigues MSDs

1 Caused by sudden Caused by cumulative trauma

trauma

2 Develop Quickly Take long time to develop

3 Require few days for Requires longer time of

recovery recovery

225
 Signs and Symptoms of MSI/MSD

The common signs of MSI are:

• Swelling

• Redness

• Difficulty moving a particular joint

And the common symptoms that indicate MSI are:

• Numbness

• Tingling
226
• Pain
 Prevention of MSD related Problems
 MSD prevention is based on two levels of approaches:

I. Control the risk factors and

II. Recognize and respond to early signs and symptoms.

 Prevention measures that minimize the risk of CTDs may be grouped into
the following three categories:

1- Engineering solutions

2- Administrative controls; and

227
3- Personal protective equipment.
FIG: A schematic illustration of preventive measures for cumulative trauma
disorders (CTDs)
228
 I. Controlling risk factors

1- Engineering controls: Engineering solutions are based

upon ergonomic principles which are used to analyze
repetitive motion tasks, identify the stressful ones, and
reduce such stressors. For example, workstations, work-
tools and work methods can be modified to eliminate
repetitive movements, excessive forces and/or awkward
postures.

229
a- Job redesign : The jobs performed by workers in a problem area should be investigated
to pinpoint job elements which may be responsible for problems. Some repetitive tasks
may not be necessary at all, and should be eliminated.

Following ergonomics guidelines should be considered in job design & job

modification:

 All repetitive tasks performed in awkward postures or that require excessive exertion should be eliminated.
 Avoid keeping the same posture, even a good posture, for too long. Allow and encourage postural changes.
 Avoid activities requiring excessive forces. Try to minimize lifting, pushing, pulling, and grasping.
 Frequent movements become much riskier if they are combined with poor postures &excessive force.

230
b- Workplace redesign: Many musculoskeletal disorders are caused
by awkward postures due to poor workplace designs. All
workstations in the problem area should be evaluated based on
ergonomics principles. The key solution is to design or redesign
for neutral postures.
 Inappropriately designed workstations force workers to assume
awkward postures affecting the back, neck, shoulders, and wrists.

231
FIG: Proper workstation design can prevent awkward wrist postures.
c- Tool and equipment redesign: A poor tool design is another crucial

factor that imposes awkward postures and/or unnecessary exertion upon

the tool users. When multiple workers use the same workstation and
equipment, the equipment should be adjustable.

d-Workplace accessories: There are situations in which engineering

solutions and administrative controls are either insufficient or not
feasible. A great number of ergonomics products are marketed that seem
to be useful for minimizing the risk of developing musculoskeletal
disorders. 232
2- Administrative controls: Reduce exposure to the hazard by controlling
behaviors through design of safety rules and safe work practices and procedures
as:
 Broadening or varying the job content
 Training in the recognition of risk factors
 Adjusting the work place
 Reducing shift length or curtailing the amount of overtime
 Rotating workers
 Scheduling more breaks
233
3. Use of personal protective equipments:
 Use of vibration lessening gloves
 Use of knee pads

II. Recognizing and responding to early signs and symptoms by:

 Taking preventive action before pain starts to affect their daily
lives.
 Seek professional medical assistance soon.

234
 RAYA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

WORK STUDY AND ERGONOMICS (MaEng5291)
CHAPTER – TEN

ERGONOMICS OF MANUAL MATERIAL HANDLING (MMH)

235
LECTURE DELIVERED BY:

HAILAY G. (MSc.)
ERGONOMICS OF MANUAL MATERIALS
HANDLING
 Manual handling includes any tasks which require a person to lift,
lower, push, pull, hold or carry any object, animal or person.

Push
Carry
Lift/Lower

Hold Pull
236
 MMH is seizing, holding, grasping, turning, or otherwise working with the hand
or hands.

The subject of MMH concentrates on the

identification and control of injury-causing
conditions associated with MMH, and
minimizing the health hazards by
employing administrative controls (e.g.
proper personnel selection, training in good
material handling techniques, and worker
rotations) and engineering controls (e.g.
job redesign, mechanical assists).

237
238
 MMH places strains on both the cardiovascular system
and the musculoskeletal system.

 The strain on the cardiovascular system is revealed by

increased oxygen consumption and heart rate to deliver
more oxygen and chemical energy to the involved
muscles.

 Musculoskeletal strain, which can be injurious, is of a

greater concern. 239
 ACTIVITIES INVOLVED IN MMH

1- Lifting / Lowering
 Lifting is to rise from a lower to a higher
level. The range of a lift can be from the
ground to as high as you can reach your
hands. Lowering is the opposite activity
from lifting.
 Lifting puts stress on two main body
systems. One is the musculoskeletal
system and the other is the cardiovascular
system.
240
 Ergonomics of manual lifting
 Restrict the number of tasks which require
displacing loads manually
 Create optimum circumstances for lifting
 Make the workplace suitable for lifting activities
 Loads should be fitted with handgrips
 Use correct lifting techniques
 Heavy lifting should be done by several people
 Use lifting accessories
 Hold the load as close to the body as possible 241
Poor lifting technique Good lifting technique
242
CORRECT LIFTING TECHNIQUES

243
 2- Ergonomics of pushing / pulling
 A correct pulling and pushing posture is one which uses
the body’s own weight.
 When pushing, the body should be bent forwards and
when pulling, it should lean backwards.
 The friction between the floor and the shoes must be
sufficiently large
 In pulling and in pushing, the horizontal distance
between the rearmost ankle and the hands must be at
least 120 cm. 244
 3- Ergonomics of carrying
 Employee Guidelines for Safer Carrying

 Keep loads close to your body.

 Make sure you have a clear view of the path.
 Alternate hands.
 Whenever appropriate, use two hands to carry
containers.
 Take rest breaks.
 Reduce weight of load
 Use light weight containers

 Divide loads in smaller parts

245
 4- Ergonomics of Twisting
 As applied to MMH is the act of
moving the upper body to one
side or the other while the lower
body remains in a relatively
fixed position.
 Rapid, jerky, and/or twisting
motions, as depicted here,
should be avoided.

246
 Ergonomics manual handling checklist

 It is possible to develop a manual

handling checklist to identify the risk
of manual handling injuries.
 This identification process emphasizes
lifting/lowering activities by assessing
six factors:
• weight;
• posture and layout;
• frequency and duration;
• object characteristics;
• individuals; 247
• environment.
 Risk factors of MMH
 Manual material handling tasks may expose workers to physical risk
factors. If these tasks are performed repeatedly or over long periods of
time, they can lead to fatigue and injury. The main risk factors, or
conditions, associated with the development of injuries in manual
material handling tasks include:
1- Awkward postures (e.g. bending, twisting)

2- Repetitive motions (e.g. frequent reaching, lifting, carrying)

3- Forceful exertions (e.g. carrying or lifting heavy loads)

4- Pressure points (e.g. grasping [or contact from] loads, leaning against parts
248
or surfaces that are hard or have sharp edges)

5- Static postures (e.g., maintaining fixed positions for a long time)

 Repeated or continual exposure to one or more of these
factors initially may lead to fatigue and discomfort.

 Over time, injury to the back, shoulders, hands, wrists, or

other parts of the body may occur.

 Injuries may include damage to muscles, tendons,

ligaments, nerves, and blood vessels.

249
 Manual lifting task Evaluation
 MMH evaluations are conducted in a variety of ways.

 Biomechanical, physiological, and psychophysical approaches

have been used for many years to evaluate the MMH stresses
imposed on workers.

 However, since the National Institute for Occupational Safety and

Health (NIOSH) published its Work Practices Guide for Manual
Lifting (NIOSH, 1981)and its revision (Waters et al., 1994), those
two documents have been widely used to assess MMH activities.
250
 NIOSH original lifting model
 The WPG defines a manual lifting task as the act of manually
grasping and raising an object of a definable size without mechanical
aids. The WPG was based on the thought that "an overexertion injury
is the result of job demands that exceed a worker's capacity.
 This thought, which has also been used as the basis of the revised
lifting equation, can be expressed by a strain index, as shown in the
following equation:
Strain index = Job demands
Worker capacity
 Therefore, any lifting situation in which this strain index exceeds
1.0 would present a potential for overexertion injury.

251
 The 1981 WPG presented a mathematical equation for
determination of an action limit (AL) for manual lifting tasks. In
its guide, NIOSH divided lifting tasks into three classes (FIG:B
below):

1- Acceptable (below the AL);

2- Unacceptable for some individuals (between the AL and

maximum permissible limit, or MPL), with administrative controls
recommended;

3- Unacceptable for most individuals (above the MPL), with

engineering controls recommended to redesign the work to 252

eliminate or reduce the MMH hazard.

 253
FIG B : Illustration of the three classes of lifting tasks based on object
weight and horizontal distance of the object.
 1- Action limit

Because of the large variability in capacity of individuals, loads falling between the

AL and MPL may be lifted if administrative controls (e.g., personnel selection and

training) are applied since:

• Musculoskeletal injury and severity rates increase moderately when workers perform a lifting task up to
the AL (epidemiologic criterion).

• A 350-kg (3430-N or 770-lb) biomechanical compression force on the L5/S1 intervertebral disk imposed
by the conditions described by the AL can be tolerated by most young, healthy workers (biomechanical
criterion) .

• Metabolic rates would exceed 3.5 kcal . min-1 for most individuals performing a lifting task above the AL
(physiologic criterion).

• Lifting loads up to the AL are acceptable to over 99% of male and over75% of
254
female populations with a nominal risk of back injury (psychologic criterion).
 1- Maximum Permissible limit
Lifting loads beyond the MPL should not be permitted, but engineering

controls must be applied to lower the load within the acceptable range. This

limit has been set based on four criteria (epidemiologic, biomechanics and psychologic) as
summarized below:

• Musculoskeletal injury and severity rates increase significantly when a lifting task is performed
above the MPL.

• Biomechanical compression forces on the L5/S1 intervertebral disk above 650 kg (6370 N or 1430
lb) are not tolerable by most people.

• Metabolic rates would exceed 5.0 kcal . min-1 for most individuals performing a lifting task above
the MPL.

• Only about 25% of male and fewer than 1% of female workers would find a lifting task above the 255

MPL acceptable.
The original NIOSH equations for AL and MPL are as follows:

AL (kg) = 40 x (15) x (1-0.004 V-75) x ( 0.7 x 7.5) x (1- F ) (metric units)

H D Fmax
MPL = 3 x AL

where:
H = horizontal location of lift centerline;
V = vertical location of the hands at origin of lift;
D = vertical travel distance from origin to destination of lift;
F = frequency of lifting, average number of lifts per minute;
Fmax = maximum frequency of lifting which can be sustained (from
FIG A: Illustration of the
Table below); independent variables in
AL = action limit; MPL = maximum permissible limit = 3 X AL. the National Institute for
Table 1: Maximum lift per minute (Fmax) Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH) lifting
model.

256
 Lifting task variables

The primary lifting task variables that affect the AL and MPL, as presented in the
equation above and shown in Figure above, are as follows:
 Horizontal location (H) of the hands at origin of lift, measured from the midpoint
between ankles (in centimeters or inches). H must be between 15 and 80 cm (6-32 in).
The minimum 15 cm (6 in) is due to body interference .
 Vertical location (V) of the hands at origin of lift, measured from floor level (in
centimeters or inches). V must be between 0 and 175 cm (0 and 70 in), which is the
range of vertical reach for most individuals.

257
 Vertical travel distance (D) from origin to destination of lift (in centimeters or
inches). “D” must be between 25 cm (10 in) and (200- V) cm [(80 - V) in]. If the
travel distance is less than 25 cm (10 in), then D= 25 cm (10 in) must be used.
 Frequency of lifting (F), average number of lifts per minute. F must be between
0.2 (one lift every 5 min) and Fmax. If the frequency of lift is less than once per 5
min, then set F = 0.

 Maximum frequency of lifting (Fmax) which is determined based on the duration

or period of the task during the work-shift. Lifting is assumed to be occasional
(less than 1 h) or continuous (more than 1 h, up to 8 h). Table 1 above provides the
Fmax values. 258
 In calculating the four modifying factors (horizontal
factor, vertical factor, distance factor, and frequency
factor), it should be noted that each factor has to be less
than or equal to 1.
 If a factor exceeds 1 (or falls its lower bound), an error
has been made. A common error is to use travel distances
of less than 25 cm (10 in). If the actual travel distance is
10 cm, the distance factor could be improperly calculated
as D = 0.7 + 7.5/10, or D = 1.45 259
 How to prevent manual handling injuries
 Commitment and involvement of the entire workplace, from top
management to line workers, are essential elements of a successful
injury prevention program. The best approach to prevent manual
handling injuries involves the following components.
 Education: It is a key step in preventing injury. The worker should
have a basic understanding of ergonomics principles and handling
techniques, and should be able to recognize the risk factors and
injury symptoms. Workers should make sure that injury symptoms,
risk factors, near misses, hazards, incidents, accidents, etc. are
reported to their supervisors.
260
Management should have knowledge to assume a leadership role.
This includes:
• visible involvement;
• policy that places health and safety at the same level of
importance as production;
• assigning responsibility;
• providing authority and resources to all responsible parties, and;
• ensuring that everyone is accountable for their responsibilities.
 Design: The design of the job itself (work/rest schedules, job
rotation), the object being handled and the workstation
(dimensions/layout) have a direct impact on the risk of injury. In
order to prevent injuries, you have to consider modifying all of
261
these aspects.
THE FOLLOWING FOUR CONTROL MEASURES FOR HAZARDS OF
MMH SHALL BE CONSIDERED FOR EVERY ORGANIZATION.

262
 RAYA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

WORK STUDY AND ERGONOMICS (MaEng5291)
CHAPTER – ELEVEN

ENVIRONMENTAL AND COGNITIVE ERGONOMICS

LECTURE DELIVERED BY: 263

HAILAY G. (MSc.)
INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL ERGONOMICS

 The human body, as a warm-blooded (homoeothermic) animal,

possesses an excellent thermoregulatory mechanism for
maintaining an internal thermal balance.
 Advances in science and technology have made great contributions
to the design of workplaces to improve workers' safety and
comfort.
 However, the issues of thermal stress (both heat and cold) in many
occupational environments have not yet been totally resolved. Heat
and cold can cause illnesses and injuries in the exposed
264
individuals.
SOME OF
OCCUPATIONAL
ENVIRONMENTS IN
WHICH WORKERS ARE
EXPOSED TO EXCESSIVE
HEAT LOADS.
 Glass products manufacturing
 Rubber products manufacturing

 Boiler maintenance

 Kitchens

 Bakeries

 Laundries

 Mining

 Steam tunnels
265
 Roofing and home repair
 In such occupational environments workers are often exposed to high
environmental heat loads. Heat stress, associated with these environments, is a
major health hazard and reduces worker productivity.
 In some other occupations workers are exposed to very low thermal conditions.
Cold stress under such environmental conditions can present health hazards and
reduce worker productivity. Examples of cold environments are pipeline
operations, meat packing, and power and utility activities during the cold season.

266
 Physiological responses and heat exchange
 Maintenance of life demands a constant flow of energy from the
environment through organisms.
 The intake of energy is in the form of chemical potential energy
of foodstuffs. The potential energy of foodstuffs is released in a
form usable for organs.
 The released energy is finally returned to the environment in the
forms of mechanical work and heat.
 The mechanical work may be external (e.g., physical activities)
or internal (e.g., heart beats, respiration, digestion, and brain
activities).
 The energy used in internal work, finally, leaves the body in the
form of heat. The heat produced by the body is called metabolic
heat. 267
 When people are exposed to a hot environment, they experience
first, vasodilatation (expansion of blood capillaries near the skin
surface), which facilitates increased heat transfer from the core to
the shell of the body to be removed by evaporation; and second, an
activation of the sweat glands to facilitate evaporative heat loss.
 To prevent the internal heat build-up, the body has to dissipate
some of its metabolic heat.
 The body attempts to achieve thermal equilibrium with its
surrounding environment through the following heat exchange
methods: metabolism, evaporation, convection, conduction, and
radiation. The heat exchange follows the second law of
thermodynamics. 268
 The process of heat exchange between the body and its
surrounding environment can be expressed by the heat
balance equation:
 S = M  CV  CD  R – E
Where:
S = heat storage (positive sign indicates heat gain, while negative indicates heat loss. If the
heat balance is achieved, S = 0);
M = metabolic heat (always positive);
CV = convective heat (positive sign indicates air temperature is higher than skin
temperature, and negative indicates a reversed case);
CD =conductive heat (positive when the contacting objects are warmer than skin, and
negative when the skin is warmer);
R = radiant heat (positive when surrounding objects are warmer than skin, and negative
when the skin is warmer);
E = evaporative heat (always negative).
269
 Heat stress not only may reduce work performance but
also can lead to a heat disorder.

 At lower levels of heat stress there is no health damage

risk, even though an individual may feel discomfort
(Dukes-Dobos,1981).

 However, when the heat stress exceeds the person’s heat

tolerance capacity, adverse health effects will occur.
270
 FACTORS AFFECTING HEAT STRESS AND STRAIN

1- Environmental thermal conditions: i.e ambient temperature,

radiant heat, humidity, and air movement.

2- Physical workload : which positively affects the body's heat

generated internally, through metabolism.

3- Clothing: Some clothes are permeable and allow heat exchange

between the body and the surrounding environment. Others are
impermeable, especially those used in personal protective
garments for use in chemically hazardous environments, which
constrict the heat exchange process.
271
 LIGHT AND VISION

 Light is the stimulus for vision. Thus, insufficient or too strong

and, particularly, glaring illumination causes visual inefficiency,
resulting in fatigue, headache, dizziness, and increased accident.
 Good lighting, that enhances visual performance, has many
advantages, including fewer mistakes, increased productivity,
reduction of accidents, improved morale, and improved
housekeeping.
 Ergonomics principles can be applied to achieve these goals
through visual improvement. 272
 The range of visible light is from 380 to 760 nanometers (nm) 10-9 of a meter.
The visible-light portion of the spectrum may be divided into the six principal

colors, (Violent, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red). These colors
can be seen when white light is diffracted into its primary colors upon passing
through a prism.
 Light can be controlled in a number of ways by application of one or more of
the following physical phenomena: reflection, refraction, polarization,
diffraction, diffusion, absorption, and transmission.
• Reflection is a process by which a part of the
light waves falling on an object (or medium)
leaves that object from the incident side.
• Reflection may be specular, spread, or diffused. 273
 Luminous intensity: which is also called candlepower, is the
amount of light output emitted from a source in a specific direction
and is measured at the light source. The unit of luminance intensity
is the candela or candle (cd).
 Luminance flux: which is also called luminous energy, is the time
rate of flow of light output from a light source emitted initially in
all directions.
 The lumen (lm) is the unit of light output from a source.
Incandescent lamps have an efficiency of 17-23 lm * W-1 , while
fluorescent lamps or tubes have an efficiency of 50-80 lm * W-1. 274
 Humans are affected both psychologically and physiologically by the
different spectrums provided by the various types of light.
 the body uses light as a nutrient for metabolic processes similar to water
or food. Natural light stimulates essential biological functions in the
brain and is divided into colors that are vital to our health.

275
 Illumination level is the density or quantity of the flow of light
falling on a surface and is measured in lux (lx)in the International
System of Units (SI units). One Ix is equal to 1 lm . m-2.
 The illumination level at a distance of d units from a light source,
of some luminous intensity emitting a luminous flux in all
directions, can be calculated as follows:

Illumination = Candlepower or luminous flux (in lumens)

4 d2
where
d is the radius of a sphere surrounding the light source and
4 d2 is the surface area of the sphere. 276
1 cd equals 4 lm
OCCUPATIONAL NOISE ENVIRONMENT

 Noise is one of the most widely and most frequently experienced

problems of the industrial working environment.
 Noise affects physically, psychologically and socially, it can:
 Damage hearing, interfere with communication, be annoying, cause
tiredness and reduce efficiency.

 There are two primary attributes of sound which are of great

concern to ergonomists and safety professionals: intensity (or
loudness) of the sound energy (or sound pressure) and frequency
of the sound pressure waves. 277
The risk of hearing damage depends on the:
 Sound level

 Time spent in the noisy environment

 Characteristics of the sound

 Individual

278
 Measures to reduce noise
1. Noise reduction at source
Selection of a quiet working method
Using quiet machines
Maintained machines regularly
Enclosing noisy machines

279
2. Noise reduction through workplace design and work organization
Separating noisy work from quiet work
Maintaining a sufficient distance from the noise source
Using ceiling to absorb noise
Using acoustic screens

280
 Noise survey
 Noise is usually measured with a sound-level meter, that should be used in accordance with American
National Standards Institute (ANSI). The sound-level meters should be calibrated on a regular basis.
 The factors to be considered in a noise survey include first, the layout of the work area; second, the
height at which the worker is usually stationed; and third, the number of working machines.
 The noise level at a point r ft away from the noise Source can be calculated using the following equation:

Lp = Ls - 10 log (4  r2) – 10

Where Lp = the noise level at a point away from the noise source in decibels;
Ls = the noise level at the source in decibels
r = the distance between the point and the noise Source in feet.

281
 OCCUPATIONAL VIBRATION
 Vibration or oscillation is a periodic back-and-forth or up-and-

down motion, such as the motion of a pendulum or spring.

 The vibratory motion reverses itself twice in every complete

cycle.

 Vibration is inherent in any machine because of the motion of its

moving parts that oscillate, rotate, and/or reciprocate.

 It can be characterized by frequency and intensity. 282

 Vibratory frequency is the rate at which vibration oscillations
occur.

 This quantity is expressed in hertz (Hz) which is the number of

cycles per second (cps), where each cycle represents the motion of
the device from a mean position to one extreme, and return to the
mean position.

 Vibration intensity is measured in terms of a variety of

parameters such as amplitude, displacement, velocity,
283
acceleration, and jerk.
 Types of vibration with respect to its source

1- Forced Vibration: When an object is forced to vibrate under the

action of a periodically reversing force or under the action of
reversing displacement of a support, its vibration is called forced
vibration. Vibrations occurring in machines are typically forced
vibrations.

2- Free vibration: When the periodic forcing action is absent and

vibration is induced by displacing an object (e.g., a spring) and
then releasing it, permitting it to vibrate freely, the vibration is
284
called free vibration (or natural vibration).
 Types of vibration with respect to the human body

1- Whole-body vibration is vibration transmitted to the entire human body via

some supporting structure. Common modes of transmitting vibration is vibration
through a vehicle seat to the buttocks.
 Whole-body vibration is a major concern when considering human reactions to
vibration in the workplace. Transportation and farming vehicles present
common whole-body vibration problems.

2- Segmental vibration is vibration entering the human body through specific

body parts, such as the hands and feet. This type of vibration is also known as
upper-extremities or hand arm vibration. Example: drilling, grinding , etc.
285
 Assessment of vibration
 Vibration is a vector quantity, it is necessary to measure vibration in the three mutually orthogonal
directions (x, y, and z) at a reference point close to where vibration enters the body (e.g., the hand in the
case of segmental vibration). The direction x is horizontally in the sagittal plane (from back to front and
vice versa), y is horizontally in the frontal plane (laterally from side to side) and the direction of z is
vertically in the sagittal plane or perpendicular to the transverse plane (up-and-down or head- feet) in the
biodynamic (anatomical) position.

The coordinate system for

whole-body vibration in :
a) standing,
b) lying and
c) seated positions.

286
 COGNITIVE
ERGONOMICS

287
MENTAL WORKLOAD
 Work should be a source of health in the sense of enhancing
motivation and personal development. Work promotes health
when it satisfies the basic human needs.
 Improperly organized work not only has negative effects on
employees’ performance but in the long run may also cause
permanent damage to health.
 Mental workload is defined as “the total of all assessable
influences impinging upon a human being from external
sources and affecting it mentally.
288
 Every employee has a different strain under the same conditions.
 While a difficult task may be considered a positive challenge by
one employee, it is seen as stressful by another.

 In dependence on the individual’s performance parameters and

coping strategies we have different consequences of mental strain.
These may be:

1- Positive consequences conducive to health and development or

2- Negative consequences that may impair health and development.

289
 Occupational overload or underload may have short-term
consequences (stress, monotony, mental satiation and mental
fatigue), which may tend to become long term consequences such
as psychosomatic or mental diseases whenever the employee has
to cope with unfavourable working requirements over a prolonged
period of time.

 It is therefore necessary to identify and assess possible causes of

mental overload or underload and to define appropriate measures
that may help to avoid detrimental short-term effects.
290
FIG: RELATION
BETWEEN MENTAL
WORKLOAD AND
MENTAL STRAIN.

291
Signs that workload and requirements can no longer be coped
with include:
 complaints of employees about mental workload and physical
problems at the workplace
 reduced motivation, poor company climate, mobbing,
addictive behavior.
 lack of flexibility and commitment on the part of employees.
 downtimes due to absenteeism, sickness leaves, fluctuation.
 rejects, need for reworking, complaints.
292
 excessive throughput times, inventories and overhead costs.
It is necessary to classify the jobs based on their intensity
as follows:

Category 1
 Adverse impact on workers’ health appears to be improbable.

Category 2
 No hygiene thresholds are exceeded /adverse health effect on
vulnerable individuals.

Category 3
 Exposure is not definitely reduced by technical measures/ PPE,
organizational or other measures.

Category 4
 High level of health risk 293
HUMAN-MACHINE SYSTEMS

 Ignoring the human operator's needs, behavior, and preferences

results in human errors, which are usually due to poor design.
 The complexity of a human-machine interface creates confusion,
errors, accidents, and loss of resources.
 In H-M system the human operator interacts with the machine.
This interaction is a closed-loop system. In this loop, the operator:
First- perceives the status of the machine through displays;
Second- interprets and mentally processes the perceived information;
Third- makes a decision and, then,
Fourth- conveys the decision to the machine through operated controls. 294
 Poor ergonomic designs lead to waste of time and money, and
often tragedies. For example, errors in operating a complex
machine result in loss of production.
 Therefore, for a human-machine system to be efficiently operated,
the designers must consider ergonomics principles and concepts.
 Displays and controls are the principal communication devices
interfacing the operator with machines.
 The role of ergonomics in this interface is to facilitate the effective
use of these devices by the human operator and to minimize errors
in their use. 295
FIG: ILLUSTRATION
OF HUMAN-
MACHINE
INTERFACE

296
Ergonomics is concerned with the following aspects of the human-
machine systems:

 The design of tools to match the physical characteristics of the worker

 The design of the workplace and work space to meet the physical characteristics

of the worker;

 The design of controls and displays to allow the worker to operate and monitor

the work system processes efficiently with minimum errors.

 The development of job procedures that meet the worker's capabilities;

 The minimization of the effects of external factors (i.e., thermal conditions, 297

illumination, noise, and vibration) on the worker in the workplace.

 ! !!
U
YO
NK
A
T H
298