10 - Electrons and Electronics
10 - Electrons and Electronics
10 - Electrons and Electronics
An electronic system
► The sound amplification system below is electronic. When
you speak into the microphone, the sound waves cause
tiny changes in the current in it. These changes are called
signals. They are amplified (magnified) by the amplifier so
that the loudspeaker gives out a louder version of the
original sound. The extra power needed comes from the
power supply.
10.01 – Electronic Essentials
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An electronic system
► The main features of an electronic system like this are shown in
the flow diagram above right. An input sensor (the microphone)
sends signals to a processor (the amplifier) which uses them to
control the flow of power to an output device (the loudspeaker).
There are some more examples of input sensors and output
devices on the opposite next.
► In the system below, the current varies continuously, just like the
incoming sound waves. Continuous variations like this are called
analogue signals.
10.01 – Electronic Essentials
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Components
► Here are some of the components (parts) used in
electronic circuits:
► Resistors keep currents and voltages at the levels
needed for other components to work properly.
► Capacitors* store small amounts of electric charge. They
are used in smoothing circuits and time-delay circuits, in
the tuning circuits in radios and TVs, and for passing on
signals from one circuit to another.
► Diodes let current flow in one
direction only. Most are made
from specially treated crystals
of silicon, a semiconductor.
▲ Light-emitting diode (LED)
10.01 – Electronic Essentials
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Components
► Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) glow
when a small current passes through
them. They are used as indicator
(on/off) lights and in some
▲ Light-emitting diode
alphanumeric (letter and number)
(LED)
displays like those on digital clocks.
► Transistors* are used for amplifying
signals and for switching. Most are
made from specially treated crystals of
silicon.
► Relays are electromagnetic switches.
With a relay, a high-power circuit can
be switched on (or off) by a tiny current
from an electronic circuit.
▲ Transistors
10.01 – Electronic Essentials
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Related topics: analogue and digital 7.12; resistors 8.06; resistor colour code
page 321; diodes 8.07 and 10.02; relay 9.04,10.02 and 10.03; transistors 10.03
10.02 – More on Components
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Diodes
► Diodes allow current to flow in them in one
direction only. The circuits below show what
happens when a diode is connected into a circuit
one way round and then the other:
▲Di
Circuit essentials
ode !
A.c. (alternating current) flows alternately backwards and
forwards. D.c. (direct current) flows one way only.
When resistors are in series, each has the same current in it.
The resistor with the highest resistance has the greatest p.d.
(voltage) across it.
10.02 – More on Components
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Diodes
Components
► Diodes can be used to change a.c. to d.c. This process is
called rectification. The diodes that do it are known as
rectifiers. A simple rectifier circuit is shown below. The
diode lets the forward parts of the alternating current
through, but blocks the backward parts.
► So the current in the resistor flows one way only. It has
become a rather jerky form of d.c.
► An oscilloscope can be used to show how the circuit
changes the a.c. input. The bottom
half of the output waveform
is missing. The current is
flowing in surges, with short
periods of no current between.
10.02 – More on Components
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Components
► Smoothing* The pulsing current from a rectifier can be
smoothed by connecting a capacitor across the output. The
capacitor collects charge during the surges and releases it
when the current from the rectifier falls. This makes the
output more like the steady d.c. from a battery.
10.02 – More on Components
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Potential divider
► A potential divider is an arrangement that delivers only a
proportion of the voltage from a battery (or other source).
Circuit A shows the principle:
Potential divider
!
P.d. and voltage
► Some electronic circuits are Potential difference
designed to switch on when a (p.d.) is the
voltage reaches a set value. If the scientific name for
variable resistor in circuit B were voltage. It is
replaced by an LDR (light- measured in volts
dependent resistor), then the circuit (V). However, for
controlling a lamp could be switched convenience,
on when it got dark. engineers dealing
► Similarly, a fire alarm could be with electronic
switched on by a potential divider circuits tend to use
containing a the term voltage
thermistor rather than p.d.
(temperature-
dependent resistor).
10.02 – More on Components
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Reed switch
► A reed switch is operated by a magnetic field. In the
example on the right, the contacts close if a magnet is
brought near, then open again if it is moved away. Burglar
alarm circuits often contain reed switches. The magnets are
attached to the moving parts of windows and doors.
► With a coil round it, a reed switch becomes a reed relay.
The current in one circuit (through the coil) switches on
another circuit (through the contacts).
► When you press a light switch, you close two contacts. This
completes a circuit and bring on the lights. The diagrams
below show another way of switching on a small lamp (or
an LED), using a transistor. Normally, a transistor blocks
current: it is like an open switch. But if a small voltage is
applied across two of its terminals (B and E) as shown, it
conducts and the lamp lights up.
Essential ideas
!
Before reading this
spread, you need to
understand how a
potential divider
works (see 10.02).
10.03 – Electronic Switching
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A light-sensitive switch
► The circuit below contains a light-dependent resistor
(LDR), a special type of resistor whose resistance falls
when light shines on it. When the LDR is put in the
dark, the lamp lights up. The principle is used in lamps
which come on automatically at night:
10.03 – Electronic Switching
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A light-sensitive switch
► The LDR is part of a potential divider. In daylight,
the LDR has a low resistance, and a low share of
the battery voltage - too low to switch the transistor
on.
► In darkness, the resistance of the LDR rises
considerably, and so does its share of the battery
voltage. Now, the voltage across the LDR is high
enough to switch the transistor on, so the lamp
lights up.
Practical switching circuits contain extra components, and !
often use an IC (integrated circuit) rather than a single
transistor.
10.03 – Electronic Switching
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A temperature-sensitive switch
► The thermistor is part of a potential
divider. At room temperature, the
thermistor has a high resistance and
the major share of the battery
voltage.
► As a result, the voltage across the
lower resistor is not enough to
switch the transistor on. When the
▲Re
thermistor is heated, its resistance
falls, and the lower resistor gets a lay
much larger share of the battery
voltage. So the transistor is switched How a Relay
on and the bell starts to ring. Works
10.03 – Electronic Switching
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A temperature-sensitive switch
► In this circuit, the transistor does
not switch on the bell directly.
Instead it switches on a relay, and
that switches on the bell.
► As the current in the bell circuit
does not have to flow through the
transistor, a more powerful bell
can be used - or even a mains- ▲Re
operated bell in a completely lay
separate circuit. (A relay could
also have been used in the light- How a Relay
sensitive switch circuit.) Works
10.03 – Electronic Switching
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Using a gate
► The diagram on the right shows one use for a logic gate.
The recorder will only start recording if the record’ and
play’ buttons are pressed together.
► For most practical applications, combinations of gates are
needed (see the next spread). Often, each input sensor
forms part of a potential divider, as in a transistor switch,
and the small output
current switches on
lamps, motors, and
other devices via a
relay.
Login Gates
10.04 – Logic Gates (1)
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► The diagram above shows how sensors and logic gates can
be used to control a security lamp. The sensors and gates
have been connected so that, if it is dark and someone
approaches, the lamp comes on automatically.
► The last gate cannot provide enough power for the lamp, so
it switches on a relay instead. This switches on a separate
circuit with the lamp in it.
10.05 – Logic Gates (2)
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Thermionic emission*
► If a tungsten filament is heated to about 2000 °C, some of the
electrons in the white hot metal gain enough energy to escape
from its surface. The effect is called thermionic emission and it
occurs in other metals and metal oxides as well. The diagram
below shows an experiment to demonstrate the effect.
X-ray tube*
► When very fast electrons are suddenly stopped, most of
their kinetic energy is changed into thermal energy (heat).
However, X-rays are also produced.
► This principle is used in the X-ray tube shown on the right,
where X-rays are emitted from a tungsten target when
electrons strike it. (Tungsten
is used because of its high
melting point.)
► The higher the accelerating
voltage between cathode
and anode, the shorter the
wavelength of the X-rays
and the more penetrating
they are. ▲ X-ray tube
10.06 – Electron Beams
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Deflection tube*
Deflection tube*
► Electric deflection* Above and below the beam, there are
two metal plates. When a voltage is applied across these,
the beam is deflected (bent) towards the positive (+) plate.
► Magnetic deflection The beam can
also be deflected by a magnetic
field, produced by passing a current
in a pair of coils as on the right. The
direction of the force is given by
Fleming’s left-hand rule
(remembering that the conventional
current direction is opposite to that of
the electron flow).
► If the field direction is reversed, the
force direction is also reversed. ▲ Magnetic deflection
10.06 – Electron Beams
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[1]
b. The thermistor and the 10 kΩ resistor form a potential divider.
What is the purpose of a potential divider?
[1]
c. If there is an increase in temperature, how does this affect the
voltage between E and B, and what happens as a result?
10.06 – Electron Beams
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2.
[1]
b. an output device which produces a sound
[1]
c. a processing device which only gives an output
when both inputs are high.
?
[1]
10.06 – Electron Beams
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?
b. The block diagram below shows an electronic system that
can be used as a burglar alarm.
A, B and D are the inputs. The processor contains logic
gates X and Y. The alarm is the output device. The truth
table for the circuit is shown at the top of the next column
i. Use a truth table to identify the
logic gates. [2]
ii. State an input, A, B or D which
could be connected to a sensor
in order to detect a burglar. [1]
iii. Name a suitable device which
could be used as an input
processor. [1]
10.06 – Electron Beams
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4. A truck is fitted with a security device. To start the truck, two keys
are needed. The first key operates a 'hidden’ switch, the second key
operates the ignition switch.
If the ‘hidden’ switch and the ignition switch are both on, the engine
will start. Turning the ignition switch without operating the ‘hidden’
?
switch will not allow the engine to start and will activate an alarm.
A, B and C are the three
gates needed for the
design of the logic block,
a. a Identify gate
i. A ‘ [1]
ii. B [1]
iii. C [1]
b. Copy the diagram and show how the inputs and logic gates are
connected together.
[2]
10.06 – Electron Beams
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[2]
b. Give two ways in which the output of the circuit is
different from the input.
10.06 – Electron Beams
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[1]
b. Links two circuits so that a small current in one can
switch on or off a larger current in the other.
10.06 – Electron Beams
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[1]
b. What happens to the voltage across resistor R?
[1]
10.06 – Electron Beams
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[1]
b. Suggest a suitable component for the
10.06 – Electron Beams
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9.
?
Diagrams X and Y above show the symbols for two
logic gates.
a. Which symbol represents an AND gate?
[1]
b. With an AND gate, if one input is 1 (high) and the
other is 0 (low), what is the output state?
[1]
c. What would be the effect of connecting a NOT
gate to the output of the AND gate?
10.06 – Electron Beams
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[1]
A It is deflected (bent) towards one of the poles.
B It is deflected upwards or downwards,
b. The direction of deflection can be found using Fleming's left-
hand rule. To use it, you need to know the conventional current
direction. How is that related to the direction of electron flow?
10 – Revision Summary
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Use the list below when you revise for your IGCSE
examination. You can either photocopy it or print it
from the file on the CD accompanying this book.
The spread number, in brackets, tells you where to
find more information.
Core Level
Examples and uses of transducers.
(10.01)
The action of a potential divider.
(10.02)
The action of a thermistor.
10 – Revision Summary
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Extended Level
As for Core Level, plus the following:
The difference between analogue and digital signals.
(10.02)
Using a diode as a rectifier for changing a.c. to d.c.
(10.02)
Using circuit diagrams and symbols, including the diode.