UNIT 3 Logic 2
UNIT 3 Logic 2
UNIT 3 Logic 2
and Proofs
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Summary
Predicate Logic (First-Order Logic (FOL), Predicate
Calculus)
The Language of Quantifiers
Logical Equivalences
Nested Quantifiers
Translation from Predicate Logic to English
Translation from English to Predicate Logic
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Predicates and Quantifiers
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Propositional Logic Not Enough
If we have:
“All men are mortal.”
“Socrates is a man.”
Does it follow that “Socrates is mortal?”
Can’t be represented in propositional logic. Need a
language that talks about objects, their properties, and
their relations.
Later we’ll see how to draw inferences.
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Introducing Predicate Logic
Predicate logic uses the following new features:
Variables: x, y, z
Predicates: P(x), M(x)
Quantifiers (to be covered in a few slides):
Propositional functions are a generalization of
propositions.
They contain variables and a predicate, e.g., P(x)
Variables can be replaced by elements from their
domain.
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Propositional Functions
Propositional functions become propositions (and have truth
values) when their variables are each replaced by a value from
the domain (or bound by a quantifier).
The statement P(x) is said to be the value of the propositional
function P at x.
For example, let P(x) denote “x > 0” and the domain be the
integers. Then:
P(-3) is false.
P(0) is false.
P(3) is true.
Often the domain is denoted by U. So in this example U is the
integers.
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Examples of Propositional Functions
Let “x + y = z” be denoted by R(x, y, z) and U (for all three variables) be the
integers. Find these truth values:
R(2,-1,5)
Solution: F
R(3,4,7)
Solution: T
R(x, 3, z)
Solution: Not a Proposition
Now let “x - y = z” be denoted by Q(x, y, z), with U as the integers. Find these
truth values:
Q(2,-1,3)
Solution: T
Q(3,4,7)
Solution: F
Q(x, 3, z)
Solution: Not a Proposition
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Compound Expressions
Connectives from propositional logic carry over to predicate logic.
If P(x) denotes “x > 0,” find these truth values:
P(3) ∨ P(-1) Solution: T
P(3) ∧ P(-1) Solution: F
P(3) → P(-1) Solution: F
P(3) → ¬P(-1) Solution: T
Expressions with variables are not propositions and therefore do
not have truth values. For example,
P(3) ∧ P(y)
P(x) → P(y)
When used with quantifiers (to be introduced next), these
expressions (propositional functions) become propositions.
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Quantifiers Charles Peirce (1839-1914)
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Universal Quantifier
x P(x) is read as “For all x, P(x)” or “For every x, P(x)”
Examples:
1) If P(x) denotes “x > 0” and U is the integers, then x P(x) is
false.
2) If P(x) denotes “x > 0” and U is the positive integers, then
x P(x) is true.
3) If P(x) denotes “x is even” and U is the integers, then x
P(x) is false.
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Existential Quantifier
x P(x) is read as “For some x, P(x)”, or as “There is an
x such that P(x),” or “For at least one x, P(x).”
Examples:
1. If P(x) denotes “x > 0” and U is the integers, then x P(x) is
true. It is also true if U is the positive integers.
2. If P(x) denotes “x < 0” and U is the positive integers, then
x P(x) is false.
3. If P(x) denotes “x is even” and U is the integers, then x
P(x) is true.
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Properties of Quantifiers
The truth value of x P(x) and x P(x) depend on both
the propositional function P(x) and on the domain U.
Examples:
1. If U is the positive integers and P(x) is the statement
“x < 2”, then x P(x) is true, but x P(x) is false.
2. If U is the negative integers and P(x) is the statement
“x < 2”, then both x P(x) and x P(x) are true.
3. If U consists of 3, 4, and 5, and P(x) is the statement
“x > 2”, then both x P(x) and x P(x) are true.
But if P(x) is the statement “x < 2”, then both x P(x)
and x P(x) are false.
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Precedence of Quantifiers
The quantifiers and have higher precedence than
all the logical operators.
For example, x P(x) ∨ Q(x) means (x P(x))∨ Q(x)
x (P(x) ∨ Q(x)) means something different.
Unfortunately, often people write x P(x) ∨ Q(x)
when they mean x (P(x) ∨ Q(x)).
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Translating from English to Logic
Example 1: Translate the following sentence into predicate
logic: “Every student in this class has taken a course in
Java.”
Solution:
First decide on the domain U.
Solution 1: If U is all students in this class, define a
propositional function J(x) denoting “x has taken a course in
Java” and translate as x J(x).
Solution 2: But if U is all people, also define a propositional
function S(x) denoting “x is a student in this class” and
translate as x (S(x)→ J(x)).
x (S(x) ∧ J(x)) is not correct. What does it mean?
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Translating from English to Logic
Example 2: Translate the following sentence into
predicate logic: “Some student in this class has taken a
course in Java.”
Solution:
First decide on the domain U.
Solution 1: If U is all students in this class, translate as
x J(x)
Solution 2: But if U is all people, then translate as
x (S(x) ∧ J(x))
x (S(x)→ J(x)) is not correct. What does it mean?
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Returning to the Socrates Example
Introduce the propositional functions Man(x)
denoting “x is a man” and Mortal(x) denoting “x is
mortal.” Specify the domain as all people.
The two premises are:
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Equivalences in Predicate Logic
Statements involving predicates and quantifiers are
logically equivalent if and only if they have the same
truth value
for every predicate substituted into these statements
and
for every domain of discourse used for the variables in
the expressions.
The notation S ≡T indicates that S and T are logically
equivalent.
Example: x ¬¬S(x) ≡ x S(x)
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Thinking about Quantifiers as Conjunctions
and Disjunctions
If the domain is finite, a universally quantified proposition is
equivalent to a conjunction of propositions without quantifiers and an
existentially quantified proposition is equivalent to a disjunction of
propositions without quantifiers.
If U consists of the integers 1,2, and 3:
Even if the domains are infinite, you can still think of the quantifiers
in this fashion, but the equivalent expressions without quantifiers will
be infinitely long.
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Negating Quantified Expressions
Consider x J(x)
“Every student in your class has taken a course in Java.”
Here J(x) is “x has taken a course in Java” and
the domain is students in your class.
Negating the original statement gives “It is not the
case that every student in your class has taken Java.”
This implies that “There is a student in your class who
has not taken Java.”
Symbolically ¬x J(x) and x ¬J(x) are equivalent
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Negating Quantified Expressions
(continued)
Now Consider x J(x)
“There is a student in this class who has taken a course in
Java.”
Where J(x) is “x has taken a course in Java.”
Negating the original statement gives “It is not the
case that there is a student in this class who has taken
Java.” This implies that “Every student in this class has
not taken Java”
Symbolically ¬ x J(x) and x ¬J(x) are equivalent
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De Morgan’s Laws for Quantifiers
The rules for negating quantifiers are:
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Translation from English to Logic
Examples:
1. “Some student in this class has visited Mexico.”
Solution: Let M(x) denote “x has visited Mexico” and
S(x) denote “x is a student in this class,” and U be all
people.
x (S(x) ∧ M(x))
2. “Every student in this class has visited Canada or
Mexico.”
Solution: Add C(x) denoting “x has visited Canada.”
x (S(x)→ (M(x)∨C(x)))
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Some Fun with Translating from English
into Logical Expressions
U = {fleegles, snurds, thingamabobs}
F(x): x is a fleegle
S(x): x is a snurd
T(x): x is a thingamabob
Translate “Everything is a fleegle”
Solution: x F(x)
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Translation (cont)
U = {fleegles, snurds, thingamabobs}
F(x): x is a fleegle
S(x): x is a snurd
T(x): x is a thingamabob
“Nothing is a snurd.”
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Translation (cont)
U = {fleegles, snurds, thingamabobs}
F(x): x is a fleegle
S(x): x is a snurd
T(x): x is a thingamabob
“All fleegles are snurds.”
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Translation (cont)
U = {fleegles, snurds, thingamabobs}
F(x): x is a fleegle
S(x): x is a snurd
T(x): x is a thingamabob
“Some fleegles are thingamabobs.”
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Translation (cont)
U = {fleegles, snurds, thingamabobs}
F(x): x is a fleegle
S(x): x is a snurd
T(x): x is a thingamabob
“No snurd is a thingamabob.”
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Translation (cont)
U = {fleegles, snurds, thingamabobs}
F(x): x is a fleegle
S(x): x is a snurd
T(x): x is a thingamabob
“If any fleegle is a snurd then it is also a thingamabob.”
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System Specification Example
Predicate logic is used for specifying properties that systems must
satisfy.
For example, translate into predicate logic:
“Every mail message larger than one megabyte will be compressed.”
“If a user is active, at least one network link will be available.”
Decide on predicates and domains (left implicit here) for the variables:
Let L(m, y) be “Mail message m is larger than y megabytes.”
Let C(m) denote “Mail message m will be compressed.”
Let A(u) represent “User u is active.”
Let S(n, x) represent “Network link n is state x.
Now we have:
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Lewis Carroll Example
Charles Lutwidge Dodgson
(AKA Lewis Caroll)
(1832-1898)
The first two are called premises and the third is called the
conclusion.
1. “All lions are fierce.”
2. “Some lions do not drink coffee.”
3. “Some fierce creatures do not drink coffee.”
Here is one way to translate these statements to predicate logic.
Let P(x), Q(x), and R(x) be the propositional functions “x is a lion,”
“x is fierce,” and “x drinks coffee,” respectively.
1. x (P(x)→ Q(x))
2. x (P(x) ∧ ¬R(x))
3. x (Q(x) ∧ ¬R(x))
Later we will see how to prove that the conclusion follows from the
premises.
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Logic Programming (optional)
Prolog (from Programming in Logic) is a programming
language developed in the 1970s by researchers in artificial
intelligence (AI).
Prolog programs include Prolog facts and Prolog rules.
As an example of a set of Prolog facts consider the following:
instructor(chan, math273).
instructor(patel, ee222).
instructor(grossman, cs301).
enrolled(kevin, math273).
enrolled(juana, ee222).
enrolled(juana, cs301).
enrolled(kiko, math273).
enrolled(kiko, cs301).
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Logic Programming (cont)
Prolog programs are loaded into a Prolog interpreter.
The interpreter receives queries and returns answers
using the Prolog program.
For example, using our program, the following query
may be given:
?enrolled(kevin,math273).
Prolog produces the response:
yes
Note that the ? is the prompt given by the Prolog
interpreter indicating that it is ready to receive a query.
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Logic Programming (cont)
The query:
?enrolled(X,math273).
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Nested Quantifiers
Nested quantifiers are often necessary to express the
meaning of sentences in English as well as important
concepts in computer science and mathematics.
Example: “Every real number has an inverse” is
x y(x + y = 0)
where the domains of x and y are the real numbers.
We can also think of nested propositional functions:
x y(x + y = 0) can be viewed as x Q(x) where Q(x) is
y P(x, y) where P(x, y) is (x + y = 0)
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Order of Quantifiers
Examples:
1. Let P(x,y) be the statement “x + y = y + x.” Assume
that U is the real numbers. Then x yP(x,y) and
y xP(x,y) have the same truth value.
2. Let Q(x,y) be the statement “x + y = 0.” Assume that
U is the real numbers. Then x yQ(x,y) is true, but
y xQ(x,y) is false.
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Quantifications of Two Variables
Statement When True? When False
P(x,y) is true for every There is a pair x, y for
pair x,y. which P(x,y) is false.
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Translating Nested Quantifiers into English
Example 1: Translate the statement
x (C(x )∨ y (C(y ) ∧ F(x, y)))
where C(x) is “x has a computer,” and F(x,y) is “x and y are
friends,” and the domain for both x and y consists of all
students in your school.
Solution: Every student in your school has a computer or
has a friend who has a computer.
Example 2: Translate the statement
xy z ((F(x, y)∧ F(x,z) ∧ (y ≠z))→¬F(y,z))
Solution: There is a student none of whose friends are
also friends with each other.
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Translating Mathematical Statements into
Predicate Logic
Example : Translate “The sum of two positive integers is always
positive” into a logical expression.
Solution:
1. Rewrite the statement to make the implied quantifiers and
domains explicit:
“For every two integers, if these integers are both positive, then the sum of
these integers is positive.”
2. Introduce the variables x and y, and specify the domain, to
obtain:
“For all positive integers x and y, x + y is positive.”
3. The result is:
x y ((x > 0)∧ (y > 0)→ (x + y > 0))
where the domain of both variables consists of all integers
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Translating English into Logical Expressions
Example
Example: Use quantifiers to express the statement
“There is a woman who has taken a flight on every
airline in the world.”
Solution:
1. Let P(w,f) be “w has taken f ” and Q(f,a) be “f is a
flight on a .”
2. The domain of w is all women, the domain of f is all
flights, and the domain of a is all airlines.
3. Then the statement can be expressed as:
w a f (P(w,f ) ∧ Q(f,a))
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Questions on Translation from English
Choose the obvious predicates and express in predicate logic.
Example 1: “Brothers are siblings.”
Solution: x y (B(x,y) → S(x,y))
Example 2: “Siblinghood is symmetric.”
Solution: x y (S(x,y) → S(y,x))
Example 3: “Everybody loves somebody.”
Solution: x y L(x,y)
Example 4: “There is someone who is loved by everyone.”
Solution: y x L(x,y)
Example 5: “There is someone who loves someone.”
Solution: x y L(x,y)
Example 6: “Everyone loves himself”
Solution: x L(x,x)
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