Week 2 Unit 1

“Cognitive development is concerned with our ability to think, to reason, to understand and to remember the
world around us.

It involves mental processes that are associated with taking in, organizing and making sense of information –
processes that include perceiving, attending to, understanding and recalling information.
These mental functions are part of what is referred to as cognition,” (2018:96).
Jean Piaget (a Swiss-born theorist) and Lev Semanovich Vygotsky (a Russian-born theorist) are two most
important and influential with international acclaim in this area.
MAIN IDEAS OF PIAGET’S THEORY
• Jean Piaget is famous for his theories regarding changes in cognitive development that occur as
we move from infancy to adulthood.
• Cognitive development results from the interplay between innate capabilities (nature) and
environmental influences (nurture).
• Children are lone scientists
• Children progress through four distinct stages, each representing varying cognitive abilities and
world comprehension: the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years), the preoperational stage (2 to 7
years), the concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years), and the formal operational stage (11 years
and beyond).
• A child’s cognitive development is not just about acquiring knowledge, the child has to develop
or construct a mental model of the world, which is referred to as a schema.
• Piaget emphasized the role of active exploration and interaction with the environment in
shaping cognitive development, highlighting the importance of assimilation and accommodation
in constructing mental schemas.
Stages of development
Stage Age Goal

Birth to 18-24
Sensorimotor Object permanence
months
Preoperational 2 to 7 years old Symbolic thought
Concrete operational Ages 7 to 11 years Logical thought
Adolescence to
Formal operational Scientific reasoning
adulthood
The Concrete Operational Stage
Ages: 7 – 11 Years
By the beginning of the concrete operational stage, the child can use operations (a
set of logical rules) so they can conserve quantities, realize that people see the
world in a different way (decentring), and demonstrate improvement in inclusion
tasks. Children still have difficulties with abstract thinking.
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
• During this stage, children begin to think logically about concrete events.
• Children begin to understand the concept of conservation; understanding
that, although things may change in appearance, certain properties remain
the same.
• During this stage, children can mentally reverse things (e.g., picture a ball of
plasticine returning to its original shape).
• During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think
about how other people might think and feel.
• The stage is called concrete because children can think logically much more
successfully if they can manipulate real (concrete) materials or pictures of
them.
The Formal Operational Stage
Ages: 12 and Over
• The formal operational period begins at about age 11.
• As adolescents enter this stage, they gain the ability to think in an
abstract manner, the ability to combine and classify items in a more
sophisticated way, and the capacity for higher-order reasoning.
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
• Concrete operations are carried out on things whereas formal operations

are carried out on ideas. Formal operational thought is entirely freed from
physical and perceptual constraints.
• During this stage, adolescents can deal with abstract ideas (e.g. no longer
needing to think about slicing up cakes or sharing sweets to understand
division and fractions).
• They can follow the form of an argument without having to think in terms
of specific examples.
• Adolescents can deal with hypothetical problems with many possible
solutions. E.g. if asked ‘What would happen if it do not rain for more than
two years ? they could speculate about many possible consequences.
Cont.
• From about 12 years children can follow the form of a logical
argument without reference to its content. During this time, people
develop the ability to think about abstract concepts, and logically test
hypotheses.
• This stage sees the emergence of scientific thinking, formulating

abstract theories and hypotheses when faced with a problem.
Vygotsky's social development theory
• asserts that a child's cognitive development and learning ability can
be guided and mediated by their social interactions.
• His theory (also called Vygotsky's Sociocultural theory) states that
learning is a crucially social process as opposed to an independent
journey of discovery.
• He expands on this by stating that a child's learning benefitted greatly from
being guided by a more knowledgeable member of the community - such as
a parent or teacher.
• Vygotsky's sociocultural theory also suggested that children internalise and
learn from the beliefs and attitudes that they witness around them.
• He believed that culture played an important role in shaping cognitive
development and therefore that this development varied across cultures.
Vygotsky also stressed the importance of language as the root of all
learning.
•
Vygotsky's Concept of More Knowledgable Other (MKO)
• Lev_VygotskyVygotsky's theory places importance on guiding

children's learning through their interaction with a more
knowledgeable other (MKO).
• The more knowledgeable other could be anyone with a greater
understanding of the task or concept that the child is trying to
complete or learn.
• Most often, this would be a parent, caregiver or teacher, but it could
also be a peer or mentor
NB
• This theory is not limited to academic or educational learning, it can
also be applied to recreational learning such as playing games or using
technology. In these circumstances, a peer or older child is more likely
to be the more knowledgeable other.
Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
• The concept of the zone of proximal development, also known as the zone of potential
development, is used to explain a child's potential for cognitive development and
ability when they are guided through a task, rather than asked to do it in isolation.
• If a child is presented with a task that is slightly above their ability level, the zone of
proximal development (ZPD) refers to their ability to do it with the assistance of a
more knowledgeable person. This theory explains why some skills present themselves
in a more social context when the child is unable to display them by themselves.
• The zone of proximal development can be described as the distance between the
actual developmental level when assessed independently and the level of potential
development when assessed in collaboration with peers or mentors or under the
guidance of a teacher.
Zone of Proximal Development Stages
• The ZPD can be broken down into three distinct stages in terms of a learner's skillset. In order to improve the
ability of the learner the more knowledgeable person must understand what stage they are in.
• Tasks a learner can accomplish without assistance

• This refers to tasks that the learner can perform independently. If the learner has reached this stage, the teacher
or mentor will need to increase the level of difficulty of the task in order to facilitate further learning.
• Tasks a learner can accomplish with assistance

• This is referred to as their zone of proximal development. In this stage, the learner needs the guidance of a more
knowledgeable other to help them complete the task.
• Tasks a learner cannot accomplish with assistance

• This refers to tasks that the learner cannot do, even with the guidance of a more knowledgeable person. If the
learner's ability falls within this range, the level of difficulty may need to be decreased to accommodate their
skillset.
Vygotsky and Instructional Scaffolding
Instructional scaffolding is a method of guided learning that helps a student

learn by pairing them with an educator.
The educator should have greater experience with the task or process than the
student, but they should also have an understanding of the level that the
student is at and how they can address this level.
• Techniques for instructional scaffolding might include using visual aids (such as
diagrams), providing examples, working one-on-one with the student and
providing feedback.
• The aim of scaffolding is to create an environment in which the student feels
comfortable asking questions until they can perform the skill without any help.
benefits of scaffolding include:
• Motivating the learner by helping them through aspects of a task that

they have trouble with
• Minimising frustration for the learner
• Providing a faster learning experience

Social Influences and Cognitive Development
• Vygotsky believed that learning was an active process rather than a

natural or passive one. Children are engaged in their own learning and
discovery but that their development happened in the context of social
interaction, as opposed to independently or in isolation.
• Vygotsky also highlighted the importance of learning that was guided by

an educator or teacher.
• Techniques used by the teacher to engage the child, such as performing
the task themselves as an example or providing verbal instruction was
referred to as cooperative or collaborative dialogue by Vygotsky theory.
Vygotsky's Theory and Language
• Vygotsky viewed language as an essential tool for communication and that culture and
behaviour was understood through language. Vygotsky also highlighted the critical
role that language plays in cognitive development.
• Vygotsky's theory says that social interactions help children develop their ability to use
language. According to Vygotsky, there are three stages/forms of language in the
development process:
• Social speech - communication between children and others
• Private speech - private speech that is directed to the self but has not yet been
internalised

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“Cognitive development is concerned with our ability to think, to reason, to understand and to remember the

world around us.

Stage Age Goal

• Concrete operations are carried out on things whereas formal operations

• This stage sees the emergence of scientific thinking, formulating

• Lev_VygotskyVygotsky's theory places importance on guiding

• Tasks a learner can accomplish without assistance

• Tasks a learner can accomplish with assistance

• Tasks a learner cannot accomplish with assistance

Instructional scaffolding is a method of guided learning that helps a student

• Motivating the learner by helping them through aspects of a task that

• Minimising frustration for the learner

• Providing a faster learning experience

• Vygotsky believed that learning was an active process rather than a

• Vygotsky also highlighted the importance of learning that was guided by

• Social speech - communication between children and others

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