Automotive Services

Pistons, Piston Rings And

Connecting Rods.
(Theory & Service
 Introduction (Hook)
• Do you know what is a piston and what materials its made of?
• Can you list any piston construction designs?
• Do you know what is a connecting rod and what materials its made of?
• Can you list any connecting rod construction designs?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oteRRECMeSo
 Outcome
Why is it important for you to learn this skill?
To perform effective engine repair, you need to recognize the function and
components of a piston and connecting rod assembly.
The piston and connecting rod are highly stressed engine components that
operate with extreme variations in temperature and loading. The assembly
must be carefully inspected and handled to ensure long engine life after
overhaul.

When you have completed this module, you will be able to :

Describe the function of pistons and related components.
Inspect and measure pistons and related components.
 Objectives
At the end of this module Automotive Services year 1 students will be able to:
1. Describe the function, construction and design features of pistons and piston
pins.
2. Describe the function, construction and design features of piston rings.
3. Describe the function, construction and design features of connecting rods.
4. Describe how pistons, piston rings and piston pins are lubricated.
5. Describe how piston mass and connecting rod balance are critical to engine
balance.
 Objectives
At the end of this module Automotive Services year 1 students will be able to:
6. Measure and inspect pistons, connecting rods, piston pins and rings to
ensure correct fit.
7. Describe the service procedures for connecting rods.
 Objective One
At the end of this module Automotive Services year 1 students will be able to:
Describe the function, construction and design features of pistons and piston
pins.
 Pistons
• A piston must endure tremendous punishment during its useful service life.
On every power stroke, it will be exposed to temperatures in excess of
2500°C and pressures as high as 1000 psi. On each revolution of the engine,
the piston must come to a complete stop and change directions twice,
imposing huge stress loads.
• Piston rings also must endure the same extreme conditions as pistons. Each
of the rings on a piston has a specific function and the design and materials
used must match the function the ring performs.
 Pistons
• The connecting rod experiences great compressing forces on the power
stroke and large stretching forces every time the piston stops at top dead
center. Connecting rod design must compensate for bending and twisting
forces imposed on the rod as well. Precise clearance between the
connecting rod and the components it connects is vital to the life of the
engine.
 Pistons
Figure 1 shows a piston, piston rings and the
connecting rod.
 Functions of a Piston
• The basic function of a piston is
to receive the force of the
expanding gases caused by
combustion. This force is then
transferred to the crankshaft via
the piston pin and connecting rod
(Figure 2).

• Figure 2 - Functions of a piston.

 Functions of a Piston
• A piston must also be able to dissipate a great deal of heat. Combustion
generates a large quantity of heat, much of which must be dissipated
through the piston to the rings and engine oil.
• Other functions of the piston include supporting and aligning the piston
rings, as well as aiding in creating turbulence within the cylinder.
 Piston Materials
• Manufacturers use the following materials in piston manufacture.
• Cast iron
• Aluminum
 Piston Materials - Cast Iron
• As a material, cast iron is heavier than aluminum, but is stronger and will
withstand more heat.
• One-piece cast iron pistons are only found in large, slow speed engines
due to the weight and the larger clearance needed on account of the
difference in thermal expansion between cast iron and aluminium.
• In engines with an aluminium engine block, this effect causes no
problem, but special care must be taken to properly control friction and
wear in the tribological system "cylinder-piston-piston ring"
 Piston Materials - Aluminum
• Aluminum alloys are widely used in the construction of gasoline and
diesel engine pistons.
• Advantages of aluminum pistons.
• Aluminum is lighter than cast iron (1/3 of the weight). Lightweight
pistons are needed to limit engine vibration caused by the
reciprocating assembly mass.
• Aluminum has nearly three times as much heat conductivity as cast
iron.
• Aluminum provides a suitable bearing surface for the piston pin.
 Piston Materials - Aluminum
• Disadvantages of aluminum pistons.
• The strength of aluminum decreases faster than cast iron when heated,
so it is more subject to thermal breakdown.
• Aluminum has twice the expansion rate of cast iron; therefore, aluminum
pistons must be designed to control expansion.
• Aluminum pistons have a greater wear rate, especially in the ring
grooves.
 Piston Materials - Aluminum
• Hypereutectic aluminium alloys are sometimes used to manufacture
pistons. These alloys are higher in silicon content than conventional
aluminium alloys and the resulting material produces a piston with
increased strength and durability, lighter weight and reduced thermal
expansion. Hypereutectic pistons are an improvement from cast pistons, but
forged pistons still withstand more pressure and temperature.
 Manufacturing Processes
• There are a number of different methods of manufacturing pistons. Each
production method has benefits and disadvantages. Properties such as the
piston strength, heat resistance and resistance to wear are balanced against
the cost and simplicity of each method.
 Sand Casting
• To produce a sand-cast piston, the molten
metal is poured into a sand mold that
forms the shape of the piston. The sand
casting process is subject to porosity and
produces a piston that is quite rough after
being extracted from the mold. Sand
casting is used mostly to manufacture
cast iron pistons for large, slow speed
engines.
 Permanent Mold Casting
• In this process, the molten metal is poured
into a permanent mold that forms it to the
shape of the piston. This casting process is
faster than sand casting and produces a
piston with a better finish, closer
tolerances and improved overall strength
(Figure 3).
 Die Casting
• To produce a die-cast piston, the molten metal is forced into a mold or die
under pressure. This process has all of the advantages of permanent mold
casting, but produces a casting with better grain structure and finer
tolerances. The rough casting requires less machining than one produced by
sand casting or permanent mold casting. Permanent mold and die-casting
are widely used for manufacturing aluminum pistons for gasoline and diesel
engines.
 Forging
• Forged pistons are made by forcing a piece of heated (not molten)
aluminum alloy into a die using a very powerful press. The forging process
produces a denser piston with a defined grain structure, giving it increased
strength and ductility over cast pistons.
• Because forged pistons are made from a single piece of metal, steel struts
cannot be used to control expansion as they are with cast pistons. Heat
dissipation characteristics are also different from cast pistons, requiring
forged pistons to be fitted with more clearance to the cylinders.
 Forging
• Typically, forged pistons produce more noise (piston slap) when cold
compared to either cast or hypereutectic pistons. Forged pistons are more
expensive to manufacture than cast pistons and are mostly used in severe
duty or high performance gasoline engine applications.
 Billet Machining
• Billet pistons are 100% CNC machined from high quality forged aluminium
bar or from special forged blank and are specifically designed for high
horsepower race engines.
 Billet Machining
• These pistons feature internal and external
machining to unique shapes dedicated to its
special application so that rigidity of the final
piece will be increased and heat dissipation
will be such that stress concentrations
experienced will be reduced.
• Unlike forged pistons, the billet pistons are
machined on every surface allowing for all
unnecessary weight to be removed during
manufacturing.
Sectional view of a Piston
Piston Terminology

• Figure 4 - Piston terminology

 Piston Head
• The piston head is the top portion of the piston, including the ring lands. The
head operates at a much higher temperature than the skirt and has a
reduced diameter to allow for a greater amount of expansion.
 Piston Head - Crown
• The crown of the piston is the top surface of the piston. Pistons may have
one of several crown designs depending on the shape and configuration of
the combustion chamber and cylinder head, as shown in Figure 5.
 Piston Head - Ring Grooves
• Ring grooves in the head of the piston align and support the piston rings.
Most modern pistons have two grooves for compression rings and one for
the oil control ring.
 Piston Head - Ring Lands
• The ring lands are the raised areas between the ring grooves. The rings are
constantly being thrust back and forth between the ring lands, causing the
lands to suffer the most wear.
 Piston Head - Valve Reliefs
• When the piston approaches TDC on the exhaust stroke, both valves are
usually open. To prevent valve and piston interference, notches are cut into
the piston crown, providing clearance for the valve.
 Piston Skirt
• The piston skirt is the lower section of the piston below the ring grooves.
The skirt supports and stabilizes the piston in the bore.
 Piston Skirt - Wrist Pin Bore
• The wrist pin connects the piston and the upper end of the connecting rod.
The pin fits into a bore in the piston that is machined to be a very precise fit
to the pin, typically in the range of 0.005 mm to 0.02 mm (0.0002 in to
0.0008 in). The wrist pin bore is usually offset towards the major thrust face
of the piston by approximately 1.5 mm (0.060 in) to reduce piston slap
(Figure 6).
 Piston Skirt – Piston Slap
• As the piston moves through the top dead centre (TDC) and changes from
the compression stroke to the power stroke, the piston will rock and move
from the minor thrust side of the cylinder to the major thrust side.
Depending on the design of the piston and the clearance between the
piston and cylinder wall, you may hear an audible noise(Figure 7).
 Piston Skirt – Piston Slap
• Piston slap is considered a normal condition in some engines. Pistons with
short skirts often experience piston slap, as a short skirt does not reduce the
rocking of the piston as much as a longer skirt does. Engines that are
equipped with forged pistons also tend to exhibit piston slap when cold, due
to the higher clearances required for forged pistons.
• Normal piston slap should disappear once the engine is warm. If piston slap
continues after engine warm-up, it may be a sign of a collapsed piston.
 Piston Skirt – Balance Pads
• Extra material is cast in the bosses around the wrist pin to allow for
balancing. Material may be machined as necessary to bring the piston to a
specific weight.
 Piston Skirt – Oil Hole to the Pin
• In order to provide oiling for the wrist pin, an oil hole is drilled from the
outside or bottom of the wrist pin boss to the inside of the wrist pin bore
(Figure 8).
 Piston Skirt – Major Thrust Face
• The major thrust face is the portion of the piston skirt that carries the
greatest thrust load. It is the side of the piston that the connecting rod is
pointing towards on the power stroke, as this is when the piston experiences
the greatest side thrust.
 Piston Skirt – Minor Thrust Face
• The minor thrust face is the opposite side from the major thrust face. It
experiences side thrust on the compression stroke, which is substantially
less than the side thrust during combustion.
 Expansion Control Methods
• The high temperatures present during combustion cause expansion of the
piston. This must be controlled to prevent the piston from scuffing the
cylinder wall. Various methods are used to either control the expansion,
redirect the heat away from areas of very close clearance or allow sufficient
clearance for the expansion to take place.
 Expansion Control Methods - Reduced Head
Diameter
• Since the head of the piston is directly exposed to the high temperatures of
combustion, there is no way to completely prevent the expansion of the
piston head. The head of the piston is machined to a smaller diameter than
the skirt of the piston to allow for expansion of the piston head.
• Some pistons used in heavy-duty applications have a steel reinforcing ring in
the lands around the top groove. This ring not only helps to control
expansion of the piston head, but also helps prevent wear of the ring lands
(Figure 9).
 Expansion Control Methods - Reduced Head
Diameter
• Figure 9 - Ring land.
 Expansion Control Methods - Cam Grind
• The piston pin boss area is reinforced with extra material to withstand
combustion forces and support the piston pin. The extra material in the pin
boss area expands more than the rest of the piston. To compensate for this,
the piston skirt of a cam ground piston is manufactured in an oval shape and
measures slightly larger across the thrust faces than across the piston pin
bores.
• As the piston warms up, it expands across the pin boss area and becomes
round (Figure 10). The piston is fitted to the cylinder bore with a specified
clearance across the thrust faces to reduce piston slap when the engine is
cold.
 Expansion Control Methods - Cam Grind
• Figure 10 - A cam ground piston skirt.
 Expansion Control Methods - CNC Machining
• By using a CNC machining process, it is possible to shape the piston to very
precise clearances. The piston can be machined with sufficient clearance in
the areas of major expansion to so that it fits the cylinder with proper
clearance at operating temperature.
 Expansion Control Methods - Heat Dam
• A heat dam is a strategically placed groove cut into the piston. The groove
reduces heat flow to the skirt of the piston. A heat dam is often cut into the
bottom of the oil control ring groove, where it doubles as an oil drain (Figure
11).
 Expansion Control Methods - Piston Struts
• Cast pistons usually have a steel strut cast into the piston skirt area between
the thrust faces on the inside of the wrist pin bosses (Figure 12). The strut is
another method used to control heat expansion.
 Expansion Control Methods - Taper
• Piston skirts are sometimes slightly tapered from the bottom to the top. The
difference in diameter allows more expansion at the top of the skirt, which
runs hotter than the bottom and therefore expands more. With the engine
fully warmed up, the piston fits the bore evenly. This allows the piston to be
fit well at operating temperature and still operate quietly when cold. Piston
taper is illustrated in Figure 13.
• Some pistons are barrel shaped, being smaller at both the bottom and top.
The differences in diameters mean that it is important to follow
manufacturer's instructions as to the correct place to measure the size of a
piston
 Expansion Control Methods - Taper
• Figure 13 - Exaggerated piston taper.
 Piston Skirt Designs
• Piston skirt designs range from a full skirt to a slipper skirt (Figure 14). The
slipper and semi-slipper skirts are designed to clear the crankshaft when the
piston is approaching bottom dead center (BDC). Slipper skirt pistons are
most often used in a compact cylinder block such as a gasoline engine. Most
heavy-duty diesel engines use a full or semi-slipper type of piston skirt. The
type of piston skirt used is based on engine size and configuration.
 Piston Pins
• Piston or wrist pins are used to attach the piston to the connecting rod. The
piston pin allows the rod and/or piston to oscillate as the crankshaft rotates.
• Piston pins are commonly made of low-carbon steel alloy for ductility and
case hardened for good wear characteristics. Piston pins are usually hollow
to reduce weight but may be manufactured as a solid shaft in some engine
designs. There are two basic methods of retaining piston pins: one is called a
full-floating pin and the other is a press fit pin.
 Full Floating Piston Pin
• Full floating pins have clearance both on the piston and connecting rod small
ends, which allow free movement. Full floating pins require 2 locks (they can
be either a "c" or an "e" clip) to retain the piston pin. They are lubricated by
splash or oil pressure depending on whether the rod is pressure fed and
bushed or just bushed (Figure 15).
• Lubrication of the pin is from oil splash and oil scraped off of the cylinder
walls by the oil control rings. A typical pin to rod clearance would be less
than 0.001 inch. To ensure proper fit, refer to the manufacturer's
specifications.
 Full Floating Piston Pin
• Figure 15 - Full floating piston pin.
Piston Pin Lock Designs

https://youtu.be/ohbIFfdZJOo
 Press Fit Piston Pin
• A piston pin that is press fit into the rod is free to move in the piston but is
fixed to the connecting rod. Since the pin is fixed to the connecting rod, it
allows the rod/pin assembly to oscillate which causes the pin to wear in the
same spot (Figure 16).
• Lubrication of the pin is from oil splash and oil scraped off of the cylinder
walls by the oil control rings. A typical pin to rod interference fit would be
0.0008" - 0.0012".
 Wrist Piston Pin Button
• Wrist-pin buttons have long been an option for keeping the piston secured to the
connecting rod. Engine builders have always been grateful for wrist-pin buttons and the
time they save in the shop or pits. Not only does the piston and ring assembly come
apart and go together quicker, its also safer having to remove and install sharp-edged
retaining clips on every piston and the pin can “plow” open the groove that supports the
snap ring and increase the side clearance while buttons maintain end play of the pin and
It lets the pin float freely and not bind against the clips. As the pin is hammering the
buttons side to side, it’s not going to open up that side clearance.
• There is a potential downside, in some piston designs where the wrist-pin bore invades
the oil-ring groove, these buttons can actually force a kink to the oil rings under extreme
stress.
 Wrist Piston Pin Button
• Wrist-pin buttons
 Objective Two
At the end of this module Automotive Services year 1 students will be able to:
• Describe the function, construction and design features of piston rings.
 Functions of Piston Rings
• Piston rings must perform three prime functions. They must:
• form a gas-tight seal between the piston and the cylinder,
• help cool the piston by transferring heat from the piston to the cylinder
wall and
• control lubrication between the piston and the cylinder wall.
 Functions of Piston Rings
• One type of piston ring cannot perform all three functions effectively. A ring
that is sealing the cylinder has limited ability to control lubrication, while a
ring design that controls lubrication well has very limited sealing or cooling
capabilities. Various piston rings are shown in Figure 17.
• Piston rings are categorized by their prime function, which is either
compression or oil control.
 Functions of Piston Rings
• A compression ring's prime function is to seal the cylinder and transfer heat.
They do provide oil control as well; but they cannot control the large bulk of
oil that the oil control rings handle. The top compression ring is the primary
sealing ring and very limited in oil control. The second compression ring
performs as much as an oil scraper as it does as a sealing ring.
 Functions of Piston Rings
• Oil control rings both distribute oil and scrape oil from the cylinder wall.
Without the oil control ring removing the bulk of the oil from the cylinder
wall, the compression rings would be flooded with more oil than they could
remove. Distributing the oil is as important as removing the excess, as
proper lubrication of the cylinder is vital to prevent scuffing and to aid in
sealing and in heat transfer.
Functions of Piston Rings

• Figure 17 - Piston rings.

 Piston Ring Design and Construction
• Many different materials are used in the construction of piston rings. Each
material has different properties that are used to provide the characteristics
necessary for each type of piston ring.
• The material used for piston rings must meet the following design needs:
• Conformability: the ring must be able to seat or conform to the shape of the
cylinder.
• Heat resistance: the top compression ring is exposed to temperatures as
high as 2500°C (4500°F). This can cause some materials to lose their tension.
 Piston Ring Design and Construction
• Scuff resistance: the high temperatures the rings are exposed to can cause
them to briefly weld to the cylinder wall. This results in scuffing of the
cylinder walls. Coatings are often applied to the ring face to eliminate
scuffing.
• High strength: the high pressure in the cylinder during the power stroke
puts loads of over 690 MPa (100 000 psi) on the rings. They must withstand
these loads without breaking.
• Low wear: piston rings are constantly sliding against the cylinder wall and
must do so with a minimum of wear.
 Piston Ring Materials
• Since each piston ring has a slightly different purpose, it is not uncommon to
find each of the rings on one piston made from different materials, such as:
• cast iron,
• ductile cast iron,
• steel alloys or
• Stainless steel.
 Piston Ring Materials - Cast Iron
• Cast iron is a low-cost material used for piston ring construction. Cast iron
piston rings quickly conform to the cylinder wall and are self-lubricating.
Cast iron rings, however, wear quickly and are brittle. They also do not
withstand high temperatures and pressures well.
 Piston Ring Materials - Ductile Cast Iron
• Ductile cast iron piston rings are nearly twice as strong as cast iron rings, but
are more expensive to manufacture. They do not conform to the cylinder
wall as easily and are less resistant to scuffing than cast iron rings. A
molybdenum coating is usually applied to the face of the ring to prevent
scuffing and reduce wear.
 Piston Ring Materials - Steel Alloys
• Steel alloy piston rings are stronger and wear better than either type of iron
rings. They are less expensive to manufacture than ductile rings, but
conformability and resistance to scuffing is less than that of iron rings.
• Steel alloys are most often used for top compression rings, where the
highest pressures and temperatures are experienced. The steel alloy
material withstands high pressures and temperatures without breaking
down. This type of ring is usually chromium-plated to prevent scuffing.
 Piston Ring Materials - Stainless Steel
• Stainless steel is used for the rails of multi-piece oil control rings. It is
flexible, durable and strong, giving the ring excellent conformability and
wear characteristics.
 Coatings
• Some of the following materials are used as coatings to improve piston ring
performance and durability.
 Coatings - Chromium Plating
• Hard chromium plating is used as a coating on some piston rings (Figure 18).
Chrome- plated rings are particularly good for the top compression ring,
which is subject to the maximum heat with a minimum of lubrication. The
plating provides the rings with increased life as chrome is extremely hard
and has a high resistance to abrasive wear caused by dirt and dust.
 Coatings - Molybdenum
• Molybdenum (commonly referred to as moly) is a metallic element of the
chromium group. The coating is sprayed with a plasma spray gun into a
groove machined into the face of the ring (Figure 19). The molybdenum
solidifies on contact into molybdenum oxide, which is actually a ceramic
material. A groove is necessary because the moly does not adhere readily to
the ring material. The moly can actually de-bond from the ring face under
high temperatures and pressures.
• The moly in the rings is slightly porous and retains lubricant, providing the
rings with excellent wear and anti-scuff properties.
 Coatings - Molybdenum
• Figure 19 - Piston ring moly facing.
 Principles of Operation
• When installed in the cylinder bore, compression rings exert force against
the cylinder wall due to ring tension. Ring tension occurs as a result of the
piston ring being slightly oval compared to the cylinder bore before
installation. When the ring is installed in the bore, it becomes round and
conforms to the cylinder wall. A small gap is left between the ends of the
ring to allow for expansion due to heat (Figure 20).
 Principles of Operation
• During engine operation, additional pressure is exerted on the ring by the
gas pressure created during the compression and power strokes (Figure 21).
The combination of pressure, ring tension and an oil film on the cylinder wall
create an effective seal between the ring and the cylinder wall. Most
gasoline engines have two compression rings, whereas diesel engines often
use three compression rings.
• Piston rings must have an effective seal. Sealing problems cause oil
consumption, a loss of power and blow by of combustion gases into the
engine crankcase.
 Principles of Operation
• Figure 21 - Combustion - pressure exerted on a compression ring.
 NOTE
• Piston rings must have an effective seal. Sealing problems cause oil
consumption, a loss of power and blow-by of combustion gases into the
engine crankcase.
 Principles of Operation – Ring Profiles
• Rectangular: the face of a rectangular ring bears evenly against the cylinder
wall. This design is commonly used for all compression ring positions.
• Keystone: Keystone rings are very commonly used in diesel engines
because they have stronger ring lands and are more resistant to carbon
build-up and sticking than rectangular ring designs (due to their wedging
action). Keystone rings are used mostly in the top two ring grooves.
 Principles of Operation – Ring Profiles
• Tapered face: the lower outside edge has positive contact to create a wiping
effect on the down stroke of the piston. This type of piston ring would
normally be used as a second or third compression ring as it is not as
effective in controlling blow by as a rectangular or barrel faced ring.
 Principles of Operation – Ring Profiles
• Barrel face: Top compression rings are very often barrel-faced. The barrel
face has a narrower contact area, which creates higher unit pressure for
better control of blow by.
• Inside bevel: The material removed by cutting the bevel causes the ring to
twist when installed in the cylinder bore. The lower outer edge contacts the
cylinder wall, creating a wiping effect on the down stroke of the piston. It is
generally used as a second or third compression ring.
 Principles of Operation – Ring Profiles
• Figure 22 - Types of compression rings.
 Torsional Twist Rings
• Torsional twist rings are chamfered either on the inside top edge (positive
twist rings) or on the bottom inside edge (reverse twist rings). The design of
these rings provides for better sealing and oil control (Figure 23).
• The direction of the twist, either positive or reverse, determines whether
the ring is better for sealing the combustion gases or controlling oil.
• The positive twist ring is designed to twist the ring against the forces of
combustion and therefore creating a better combustion seal.
• The reverse twist ring twists down and seals the cylinder for better oil
control.
 Torsional Twist Rings
• Figure 23 - Torsional twist rings.
 Oil Control Rings Principles of Operation
• Oil control rings control the distribution of oil on the cylinder wall and are
shown in Figure 24. They work in conjunction with holes or slots cut into the
piston oil control ring groove. The slots in oil control rings together with the
holes in the oil ring groove provide a path for oil.
 Oil Control Rings Principles of Operation
• During the up-stroke of the piston, oil splashes or is sprayed onto the
underside of the piston and onto the cylinder walls. Oil sprayed on the
underside of the piston flows into the cavity behind the oil ring and is
distributed on the cylinder wall. On the down-stroke of the piston, oil is
scraped off of the cylinder wall by the oil ring. The oil then passes through
the slots and returns to the oil pan.
 Oil Control Rings Principles of Operation
• Oil control rings are flexible, which allows them to conform to the cylinder
wall easily. The construction of an oil ring generally includes the use of an
expander. The expander provides the tension necessary for good oil control
(Figure 25).
 Types of Oil Control Rings
• There are three main designs used for oil control rings, as illustrated in
Figure 26.
• A one-piece oil ring is constructed to provide enough ring tension
without the use of an expander. This is the simplest and least expensive
design to manufacture, but is seldom used because it is not as effective
as two-piece and three-piece designs.
• A two-piece oil ring has an expander. The expander may be a coil or wave
spring.
• A three-piece oil ring has two thin rails with a wave type expander and is
widely used in gasoline engines.
 Types of Oil Control Rings
• Figure 26 - Types of oil control rings.
 Types of Oil Control Rings
• Most gasoline engines use the three-piece design, as it provides the best
performance in this type of application. During the high vacuum present
during deceleration, a one- or two-piece oil ring can lift off of the bottom of
the ring groove and allow oil past the ring. Three-piece oil rings do not suffer
from this problem and can operate with less tension, which reduces drag.
• Most diesel engines use one-piece or two-piece oil rings, as they are not
subject to the high vacuum on deceleration that a gasoline engine is.
 Piston Ring Joints
• Piston rings are split to allow installation and expansion during engine
operation. There are three basic types of joints used on piston rings: butt
joint, angle joint and step joint (Figure 27). The straight butt joint is the most
common type and is widely used on both compression and oil control rings.
A specific gap is measured where the ends of the ring come together to limit
the leakage at the joint. Compared to a butt joint, angle and step joints
reduce leakage at the ring joint and are used on special applications where a
more effective seal is required.
 Piston Ring Joints
• Figure 27 - Ring joints.
 Piston Ring Identification Marks
• Most piston rings have identification marks to indicate their orientation and
position during installation. Many different types of identification marks are
used including dots, notches, numerals and letters (Figure 28). Unless
otherwise noted, the identification marks on piston rings indicate the top
side of the ring and should be installed towards the top of the piston. If the
rings are not marked, it is likely an indication that they are symmetrical and
can be installed either side up.
 Piston Ring Identification Marks
• If you are unsure, always refer to engine manufacturer instructions
regarding the orientation and positioning of piston rings. This information
can usually be found in a service manual or the packages that contain new
piston rings. Installing piston rings in the wrong position or upside down can
cause an ineffective seal between the ring and the cylinder wall, leading to
poor control of blow by and high oil consumption.
 Piston Ring Identification Marks
• Figure 28 - Piston ring identification
markings
 Objective Three
At the end of this module Automotive Services year 1 students will be able to:
• Describe the function, construction and design features of connecting rods.
 Function of a Connecting Rod
• The connecting rod forms a link that transmits the force of combustion from
the piston to the crankshaft. During engine operation, connecting rods are
subject to extreme forces of compression, tension, bending and twisting
 Connecting Rod Design and Construction
• Most connecting rods are made from cast iron or forged steel and then heat-
treated for good ductility and fatigue resistance. Aluminium is used in small
gasoline engines and special high performance automotive applications.
Recently, some manufacturers have been using rods made from powdered
metal. The powdered metal is compressed under high pressure to form the
rod.
 Component Terminology
• Figure 29 shows common terminology used to describe a connecting rod.
 Types (Designs) of Connecting Rods
• The types of connecting rods are as follows.
• Straight and bias cut connecting rods
• Rod and cap alignment
• Rod and piston orientation
• Shank design
 Straight and Bias Cut Connecting Rods
• Straight cut rods have a parting line that is 90° to the rod beam and are used
in both In-line and V engines. Bias cut connecting rods are used primarily in
in-line engines. The bias cut design reduces the width of the rod at the
parting line so it can be removed through the bore, a necessity on engines
with large rod journals.
 Straight and Bias Cut Connecting Rods
• As shown in Figure 31, in-line engines have one connecting rod per journal.
V engines often use two connecting rods mounted side by side on the same
connecting rod journal. The side by side mounting requires that the
cylinders in the block be staggered to accommodate this arrangement. Also,
the connecting rod journal on the crankshaft in a V engine is longer than one
in an in-line engine and therefore subject to greater bending stresses.
 Straight and Bias Cut Connecting Rods
• Figure 31 - Connecting rod mountings for in-line and V engines.
 Rod and Cap Alignment
• The connecting rod is a one-piece component. After the manufacturing
process, bolt holes are drilled and the cap is cut off, creating the parting line.
The cap is then bolted back on and the large end bearing bore is machined
to size. The rod and cap must always be in alignment so that the bore will
remain round and support the bearings.
 Rod and Cap Alignment
• Shown in Figure 32 are two connecting rods with straight parting lines. The
first example uses a shouldered rod bolt for alignment. The bolt fits the
holes in the rod and cap with a light interference fit, which keeps the two
halves in alignment. The second example uses a dowel pin that is pressed
into the cap or the rod and has a light interference fit in the other half to
permit disassembly. Dowels are used on both sides of the parting line.
 Rod and Cap Alignment
• Figure 32 - Rod and cap alignment using shouldered bolts or dowels.
 Rod and Cap Alignment
• Rods made from pressed powdered metal are known as fractured rods
(Figure 33). Instead of cutting the cap off of the rod before machining the
journal bore, the rod is laser scribed and broken or fractured to separate the
two halves. The uneven surface of the fracture provides very precise
alignment of the rod and cap when assembled.
 Note
• Do not mark the rods with a letter punch or chisel across the parting line,
as this can cause the cap to become misaligned. Use an electric or carbide
scriber only to mark the rods.
 Rod and Cap Alignment
• The rod and cap are marked as a set so that the components will be kept
together. The markings may be letters or numerals (Figure 34). Most
connecting rods are marked with a number that corresponds to the cylinder
it was removed from.
 Note
• The rod and caps of connecting rods must never be mixed, as this will
produce misalignment causing component damage and engine failure.
 Rod and Piston Orientation
• Pistons are usually manufactured with a slight amount of pin offset to help
compensate for the thrust (rocking) forces as the piston passes top dead
centre during combustion. The pin offset reduces the tendency of the piston
to rock as it passes through top dead centre. The offset result is less piston
skirt wear and quieter operation, as there is less piston slap. You must
ensure that the pistons oriented correctly when you install them to avoid
early engine failure.
 Rod and Piston Orientation
• It also should be noted that connecting rods have a certain orientation. The
rods may be manufactured with a certain amount of offset and may be
chamfered on one side (Figure 35). If the rod is installed backwards, it will
interfere with the crankshaft fillets.
• Some rods are also manufactured with oil squirt holes. It is important that
the squirt holes are oriented correctly.
 Shank Design - I-beam
• I-beam connecting rods owe their name to their
resemblance to a capital ‘I’ if you cut them in
half. I-beam connecting rods are the most
common type and are ones most often used in
production. They are cheap to manufacture and
generally withstand more than they would
actually need to in standard engines. Standard
I-beam connecting rods are often heavier than
those with an H-beam.
 Shank Design - H-beam
• H-beam connecting rods owe their name to
their resemblance to a capital ‘H’ if you cut
them in half. They are designed for engines that
run with a lot of hp at low speeds: usually
forced induction engines with a turbocharger or
supercharger. These are optimal to withstand
the high combustion pressures.
 Shank Design - X-beam
• X-beam connecting rods owe their name to their
resemblance to a capital ‘X’ if you cut them in half.
X-beam connecting rods are the latest
achievement from connecting rod manufacturers.
They are like a sort of hybrid between I-beam and
H-beam and combine the best properties of their
predecessors. These connecting rods have a large
cross-section, thereby distributing the tension
across the entire connecting rod. Thanks to their
high rigidity and crack resistance as well as
minimal weight, they are basically made for
racing.
 Connecting Rod Bearings
• Connecting rod bearings are a split half or
shell design (Figure 36). One half of the
bearing fits into the rod and the other half fits
into the cap. When the connecting rod bolts
or cap screws are torqued, the bearing is held
tightly in the bore. Bearing construction,
lubrication and terminology are detailed in
the Crankshafts, Friction Bearings and Related
Components modules.
 Objective Four
At the end of this module Automotive Services year 1 students will be able to:
• Describe how pistons, piston rings and piston pins are lubricated.
 Piston Cooling
• All pistons are cooled on the intake stroke by the incoming air charge.
Additional cooling is needed to prevent the piston from overheating. Some
of the heat is dissipated through the piston rings and cylinder wall, but
engine oil is also a major factor in piston cooling. Two methods are used to
provide cooling of the piston with engine oil: splash and spray.
 Splash Oil
• As the crankshaft rotates, oil is thrown off the crankshaft and connecting rod
assembly. The oil is thrown up onto the lower portion of the cylinder and
the underside of the piston. This oil cools and lubricates the piston assembly,
drips off the piston and returns to the crankcase, where heat is dissipated.
Splash oiling is the method of piston cooling in most gasoline engines.
Splash oil also lubricates the cylinder walls and pistons (Figure 37).
 Splash Oil
• Figure 37 - Splash piston cooling.
 Spray Oil
• In some engines, a more positive method of providing cooling oil is required.
This is especially true of diesel engines, due to the high combustion
temperatures involved. In this type of application, splash piston cooling will
not remove sufficient heat to prevent breakdown of the piston material.
One of three basic methods is used to provide spray oil cooling when it is
required.
 Spray Oil
• Oil is sprayed on the underside of the piston crown by a piston-cooling
nozzle that is mounted in the cylinder block and fed by an oil gallery (Figure
38). The oil absorbs heat and returns to the oil pan by gravity. There are
many different designs of piston cooling nozzles, but they all perform the
same function. This type of piston cooling is used in medium- and high-
speed diesel engines.
 Spray Oil
• Oil from a passage drilled the entire length of the connecting rod is sprayed
on the underside of the piston crown. There is a constant flow of oil from
the crankshaft journals through the drilled passage. This method is most
commonly used on diesel engines (Figure 39).
 Spray Oil
• Figure 39 - Piston cooling spray
through the connecting rod.
 Spray Oil
• Many gasoline engines have a spit hole drilled through the topside of the
connecting rod crankshaft journal bore (Figure 40). A corresponding hole is
drilled in the bearing insert. Oil is discharged from the spit hole every time it
aligns with the oil passages in the crankshaft journal. The alignment of the
spit hole with the oil passage in the crankshaft is timed to occur when the
spit hole is aimed at the major thrust side of the cylinder. Although the
purpose of the spit hole is primarily to provide lubrication, it does contribute
to piston cooling as well.
 Spray Oil
• Figure 40 - Connecting rod spit holes.
 Objective Five
At the end of this module Automotive Services year 1 students will be able to:
• Describe how piston mass and connecting rod balance are critical to engine
balance.
 Engine Balance
• The forces generated by the rotating and reciprocating masses in an engine
must be of equal value or an unbalanced condition occurs. As the piston and
connecting rod move up and down in the cylinder bore, they generate a
force that must be counterbalanced. By positioning a mass (crankshaft
counterweight) that generates a force opposite to that generated by the
piston/rod assembly, a balanced condition occurs.
• An unbalanced engine runs rough, with excessive vibration and stress on
and reduced mechanical efficiency that ultimately results in a loss of power
output. Other components that contribute to engine balancing include the
flywheel and the vibration damper.
 Engine Balance
• Engines can either be internally or externally balanced. Internally balanced
engines have neutral balanced flywheels and harmonic balancers. An
externally balanced engine has special flywheel and harmonic balancers to
offset the unbalanced internal components. Engines are externally balanced
if the physical dimensions of the engine block limit the outside diameter of
the crankshaft counterweights. Long stroke engines require larger
counterweights and so are often externally balanced.
 Engine Balance
• When an engine is running, any imbalance is magnified many times by the
centrifugal force of the spinning assembly. If pistons or rods are changed
during a rebuild or repair process, engine re-balancing should be seriously
considered.
 Engine Balancing Process
• Balancing starts with the weighing of pistons and rods with a very accurate
scale. Piston weights are relatively easy to equalize, as there is usually a
machinable balancing pad under the piston pin boss.
• Both ends of a connecting rod are weighed. The large end is considered a
rotating weight, while the small end is considered a reciprocating weight. All
the rod large ends are weighed first and equalized by machining the pad on
the bottom of the rod cap. The lightest rod large end is used as a starting
and reference point. The entire rod is then weighed and equalized by
machining the pad on the top end of the rod. After this process, all of the
rods will be equal in weight.
 Engine Balancing Process
• After the pistons and connecting rod weights have been equalized, you must
calculate the bob weight. The bob weight is the mass on a single journal.
The bob weight takes into account the piston, piston pin and rings, as well as
the reciprocating and rotating parts of the rod and rod bearings. Bob weight
canisters are filled with lead shot to simulate the weight of the pistons and
rods and are then bolted onto the crankshaft using special fixtures. The
crankshaft is spun on a machine that uses sensitive pick-ups to detect
vibrations caused by crank imbalance.
• Weight is either added to or removed from the crankshaft counterweights to
balance the crankshaft.
 Objective Six
At the end of this module Automotive Services year 1 students will be able to:
• Measure and inspect pistons, connecting rods, piston pins and rings to ensure
correct fit.
 Safety
• Piston and connecting rod cleaning and inspection often involve corrosive
chemicals, petroleum solvents, high-pressure water, steam cleaning and
compressed air. Follow appropriate safety precautions at all times.
 Disassembly
• To clean, measure and inspect the piston and connecting rod, you must
remove the connecting rod and piston rings from the piston. Remember that
these are precision components and must be handled with care to avoid
damage.
 Removing Piston Rings
• To prevent damage to the piston ring and ring groove, you should remove
the piston rings before removing the connecting rod from the piston.
 Removing Piston Rings - Ring Expanders
• To prevent piston and piston ring damage, always use a piston ring expander to
remove and install rings. Figure 1 shows three designs of ring expanders.
• Figure 1A is a universal expander that can be used on a wide range of piston
ring diameters. Take care not to over expand or distort the piston ring with
this design.
• Figure 1B is a universal type that can be used on a small range of piston ring
diameters and provides support on the sides to expand the ring more evenly.
• Figure 1C is a fixed expander that only works for one basic piston ring
diameter. This design provides 360 degree support and will expand a piston
ring evenly with the least chance of distortion.
 Removing Piston Rings - Ring Expanders
• Figure 1 - Piston ring expanders.
 Removing Piston Rings
• To remove the rings, secure the piston and connecting rod assembly in a vise
equipped with soft jaws (Figure 2). Position the rod at an angle in the vise
with the piston just above the surface of the jaws. Be sure the piston is free
to rock slightly before clamping the rod. Grip the connecting rod firmly in
the vise, but do not over tighten the vise because this could damage the rod.
 Removing Piston Rings
• Remove one piston ring at a time starting with the top ring (Figure 3). Use a
ring expander to gently spread the ring just enough to clear the ring lands.
Do not over spread the rings if they are to be reused because this will distort
them permanently.
• Three-piece oil rings are removed one piece at a time, starting with the top
rail. Spiral the rail out of the ring grove, being careful not to scrape or gouge
the piston ring lands. After removing the second oil rail, the expander can
easily be removed by hand.
 NOTE
• Piston rings are not normally reused. They should be taped together and
marked as a set in case further inspection for diagnosis is required.
 Removing the Piston from the Connecting Rod
• Before removing the piston from the connecting rod, note how the piston
and rod are assembled in relation to each other (Figure 4). The piston
generally has a mark to indicate the front. It may be necessary to mark the
rod to ensure the rod and piston are correctly oriented when reassembled.
 Removing the Piston from the Connecting Rod
• Use a scriber, electric pencil or permanent marker on the rod, rather than a
centre punch or letter punch. Using a punch to mark the rod while the rod is
still installed on the crankshaft will damage the soft metal of the bearing
insert.
 NOTE
• Electric pencils or permanent markers are the only universally accepted
methods for marking fractured connecting rods.
 Full-Floating Pin
• Full-floating piston pins are held in the piston by internal snap rings in the
outer edges of the piston pin bores. To separate the piston from the
connecting rod, first remove both snap rings. Support the connecting rod
while pushing out the piston pin and separate the two components (Figure
5).
 Full-Floating Pin
• Figure 5 - Removing a full-floating piston pin.
 CAUTION
• If a full-floating piston pin will not push out of the piston by hand after
removing the snap rings, do not attempt to hammer or press the pin out of
the piston.
 Full-Floating Pin
• Always consult the manufacturer service manual for disassembly
instructions. In some cases, the piston pin has a slight interference fit in the
piston pin bores at room temperature. These pistons must be heated to
remove the pin without damaging the pin bores. The piston can be
submerged in a bucket of boiling water or heated in an oven to n100
degrees C (212 degrees F) for several minutes. Use protective gloves when
performing this procedure.
 Press Fit Pin
• Press fit piston pins are secured in the small end of the connecting rod by
using an interference fit of approximately 0.02 to 0.03 mm (0.0008 to 0.0012
in). These pins usually have 0.008 to 0.013 mm (0.0003 to 0.0005 in)
clearance in the piston pin bore. Always refer to manufacturer service
manuals for exact specifications.
• Because of the interference fit, a press must be used to remove the pins.
Adapters are required to hold the rod and piston as the press forces the pin
out. The adapter assures that the force is applied to the pin and rod,
preventing the piston from being distorted or damaged while pressing out
the pin (Figure 6).
 Press Fit Pin
• Figure 6 - Removal of piston pin.
 Cleaning
• Pistons should be thoroughly cleaned before inspection. Piston pins must be
marked on removal or remain with the piston during cleaning operations.
 Chemical Soaking
• A washing process cannot effectively remove deposits such as carbon and
fuel residue (varnish). Soak the piston in a chemical bath that is not
corrosive to aluminum. Use a product such as small parts carburetor cleaner
to loosen or dissolve deposits. After soaking, wash the piston thoroughly
with soap and hot water to remove chemicals and residues.
 CAUTION

• The piston and rod must be disassembled before soaking. Varnish

loosened during the chemical soaking can work its way into the piston pin
bore and seize the pin.
 Cleaning Ring Grooves
• Carbon must be removed from the ring grooves so that the rings can
function correctly. Carbon that is hard to remove can be can be cleaned out
of the ring grooves using a piston ring groove cleaner or an old piston ring as
a scraper.
• To use an old ring as a scraper, select the correct ring for the groove being
cleaned and cut or break the ring in half. Use a grinding or cut-off wheel to
safely cut piston rings.
 DANGER
• Depending on the material, piston rings may be brittle. Always wear eye
protection when cutting or breaking piston rings.
 Cleaning Ring Grooves
• Grind or file the end of the ring square and wrap it in a shop towel to
protect your hands from the sharp edges. Insert the ring and work it around
the groove in a forward direction (Figure 7).
 Cleaning Ring Grooves
• When scraping carbon from ring grooves, ensure that metal is not removed
from the ring groove area because this could damage or destroy a good
piston. After scraping the ring grooves, you must wash the piston
thoroughly. Check the side clearance of new piston rings in the ring grooves
before installation of the new rings.
 Washing
• The final step in cleaning the piston is thorough washing to remove all
residues and loosened debris (Figure 8). Pistons can be washed using a
number of methods including:
• a steam cleaner,
• a high pressure washer,
• a mechanical parts washer or
• hot soapy water and a non-metallic brush.
 Washing
• Petroleum solvents can be used to remove oil and light deposits, but should
not be used to clean glass bead media.
• After washing is completed, pistons should be blown dry with compressed
air.
 Piston Inspection
• To determine if a piston will be serviceable, first check the cylinder. To
determine if the pistons are suitable to be reused, inspect them thoroughly.
Start with a visual inspection and if they pass that follow with careful
measurement.
 Visual Inspection
• Visually inspect the piston for defects that indicate the piston needs
replacing. Do not reuse any piston that shows signs of any of the following
defects:
• cracks,
• scuffing and scoring,
• ring groove wear,
• damaged or worn wrist pin bores or
• damaged or worn wrist pin retainer grooves.
 Cracks
• Look for cracks in the crown, piston pin bores and skirt (Figure 9). If in
doubt, use a crack detection method such as dye penetrant to verify the
condition of the piston.
 Scuffing and Scoring
• Scuffing and scoring (Figure 10) are generally evidence of a lack of
lubrication (due to cold start or low oil level) or a loss of clearance due to
overheating. This type of damage reduces the diameter of the piston
causing excessive clearance between the piston and cylinder wall.
 Ring Groove Wear
• Inspect the ring grooves for signs of wear or erosion (Figure 11). Do not
reuse pistons with either a step worn into the ring groove or a lip formed on
the ring land.
 Wrist Pin Bores
• Scuffing in the pin bores is usually a sign of lack of lubrication or engine
overheating. If the piston pin bores are damaged or worn, the piston must
be replaced.
 Wrist Pin Retainer Grooves
• The wrist pin retainer grooves must be in good condition. Damaged or worn
grooves allow the retainer to come loose during engine operation, leading to
severe damage to the cylinder wall. If the retainer grooves are not in good
condition, the piston must be replaced.
 Crack Detection
• If the results of a visual inspection are questionable, use crack detection to
verify piston condition. Check aluminum pistons using a dye penetrant kit.
Areas of concern include the crown, the piston pin bores and the skirt.
 Measurement
• Careful measurement of several parts of the piston is required to determine
piston condition. These areas include the skirt, the piston pin bores and the
ring grooves.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MCvqkPwQDCo
 Skirt
• Measure the outside diameter of the piston ½" up from the bottom of the
skirt at 90 degrees to the piston pin bores (Figure 12). Using an outside
micrometer, take the measurement at the point specified by the
manufacturer. Compare the measurement with manufacturer specifications.
Pistons that measure smaller than specifications should not be reused
because the clearance between the skirt and the cylinder wall will exceed
specifications.
 Skirt
• Although most pistons are measured at the centreline of the pin bore, some
manufacturers specify a specific location on the skirt. Always refer to
manufacturer service manuals to determine the proper location for piston
skirt measurement (Figure 13).
 Piston Pin Bores
• Measure the piston pin bores with a pin and connecting rod gauge such as
the Sunnen AG300 (Figure 14). Insert two piston pins in the gauging block to
calibrate the gauge for the piston being measured. With the gauging block
held squarely on the face of the gauge, adjust the measuring arms outward
until the dial indicator is preloaded, then zero the dial.
• Measure the piston pin bore in two locations, 90 degrees apart. The gauge
indicates the amount of clearance. The difference in the readings between
the two locations is the amount of out of round of the bore. Compare the
size and out of round to specifications to determine the piston's
serviceability.
 Piston Pin Bores
• Figure 14 - Measurement of piston pin bores.
 Ring Grooves
• The ring grooves must support the piston rings or they will not effectively
seal pressure or control oil. Worn ring grooves will allow the rings to rock
back and forth as the piston travels up and down the cylinder bore. This
causes a poor seal between the piston ring and the ring land, allowing
combustion gases to blow by the rings and into the engine crankcase. The
ring movement also creates a poor seal between the ring face and the
cylinder wall which causes oil consumption. The constant twisting of the
ring in the worn groove will eventually cause the ring to break (Figure 15).
 Ring Grooves
• Figure 15 - Results of piston ring groove wear.
 Ring Groves
• You must measure the piston ring grooves to determine wear when reusing
pistons. Obtain manufacturer specifications for ring groove wear limits and
select a feeler gauge equal to the maximum value. Insert a new piston ring
in the groove to be measured. If the feeler gauge moves with no resistance,
the groove is worn, so the piston must be replaced (Figure 16).
 Piston Clearance
• Piston clearance is a critical dimension that allows expansion of the piston as
engine temperature increases. Piston clearance is the difference between
the piston skirt diameter and the cylinder diameter (Figure 17). Several
manufacturers have a zero clearance fit or even a slight interference fit
(made possible by special low friction coatings).
 Piston Clearance
• After you have measured the piston skirt and the cylinder bore, you can find
the clearance by subtracting the piston diameter from the bore diameter.
 Piston Clearance
• Example
• If a cylinder bore diameter is 832.57 mm (3.251 in) and a piston skirt
diameter is 82.47 mm (3.247 in), then the equation would be as follows.
82.57 mm – 82.47 mm = 0.10 mm (3.251 in – 3.247 in = 0.004 in)
• The piston clearance is 0.10 mm (0.004 in). Compare the measured piston
clearance with manufacturer specifications to determine serviceability.
Excessive clearance will result in piston slap, which is a knocking sound
created as the piston rocks back and forth in the cylinder bore. This
condition will eventually lead to piston failure. Insufficient clearance will
cause scuffing and scoring and eventually the piston will seize in the cylinder.
 Piston Pin Inspection
• Piston pins must also be cleaned and inspected.
 Cleaning
• Piston pins are normally washed in petroleum solvents to remove the oil
film. You can also use steam cleaning, pressure washing or cleaning in a
mechanical parts washer.
 CAUTION
• Never bead blast piston pins because this process will mark the surface
finish of the pin.
 Visual Inspection
• Inspect the surface of the piston pin for ridging (Figure 18) formed by the
wear between the loaded and non-loaded areas of the pin. Also inspect the
pin for scoring, galling (lack of lubrication) and discoloration (signs of
overheating). Piston pins that exhibit signs of these problems should be
discarded.
 NOTE
• The piston and pin are usually replaced as an assembly.
 Visual Inspection
• Excessive piston pin clearance will cause a knocking sound during engine
operation. This condition will eventually lead to piston failure. Insufficient
clearance will cause the piston pin to seize during engine operation.
 Objective Seven
At the end of this module Automotive Services year 1 students will be able to:
• Describe the service procedures for connecting rods.
 Cleaning Connecting Rods
• Clean connecting rods thoroughly before inspection (Figure 19). Clean out
oil drillings (if equipped) with a gallery brush and then wash the connecting
rod to remove oil and deposits.
• Use petroleum solvent, steam cleaning, a high-pressure washer or a
mechanical parts washer for cleaning. After washing the connecting rod,
blow it dry with compressed air.
 Cleaning Connecting Rods
• Figure 19 - Cleaning connecting rods before inspection.
 Inspection
• Due to the variety of loads and forces it is subject to, a connecting rod that is
to be reused must be thoroughly inspected. A failed connecting rod will
cause major engine damage.
• Visual Inspection
• Visually inspect the connecting rod (Figure 20) for bore and bushing
condition (if equipped), cracks and nicks (particularly on the beam) and
discoloration of machined surfaces (signs of overheating).
 Visual Inspection
• Visually inspect the connecting rod (Figure 20) for bore and bushing
condition (if equipped), cracks and nicks (particularly on the beam) and
discoloration of machined surfaces (signs of overheating).
 Visual Inspection
• Also, visually inspect the connecting rod bolts and nuts for thread condition.
Some manufacturers recommend replacement of rod bolts during overhaul.
Connecting rod bolts or nuts that are damaged or out of specifications
should not be reused.
 Crack Detection
• Use any of the following methods to check the connecting rods for cracks:
• dye,
• magnetic particle or
• fluorescent magnetic particle. This is the most accurate of these methods
for detecting cracks in a connecting rod.
• Pay close attention to critically loaded areas of the connecting rod (Figure
21). If there are any cracks in a connecting rod, the rod must be replaced.
 Crack Detection
Figure 21 - Areas of a connecting rod that require crack inspection
 Measurement
• You must take careful measurements of the connecting rod to ensure that
the large and small end bores and bushings are within specifications and
that the rod is not bent or twisted.
 Small End Bushing Bore
• The small end of the connecting rod must be measured to determine wear and out of
round at locations that are spaced 90° apart (vertical A, horizontal B), but not over
any oil feed holes (Figure 22).
• Follow this procedure to determine wear and out of round:
1. Compare measurements A and B to determine the maximum inside dimension.
This will indicate the amount of wear in the pin bore (normally at dimension A).
2. Subtract dimension B from dimension A to determine out of round.
3. Compare the measurements with manufacturer specifications to determine piston
pin bushing serviceability.
4. Piston pin to bushing clearance can be determined by subtracting the pin
diameter from the bushing bore diameter.
 Small End Bushing Bore
• The gauge reading indicates the amount of clearance or interference fit. Any
variation in the gauge reading from one location to the other indicates an
out of round condition. If the reading exceeds the maximum allowable bore
size or maximum out of round specification, the rod should be replaced.
 Large End Bearing Bore
• Carefully measure the large end bearing bore of the connecting rod to
determine bore size, out of round and taper. Use a dial bore gauge or an
inside micrometer to measure the bore.
• Install the connecting rod cap and torque it to specifications before taking
any measurements (Figure 23). Secure the connecting rod in a rod vise to
torque the fasteners.
 Large End Bearing Bore
• Measure the bore diameter in three locations (A, B and C) to determine
bore size and out of round (Figure 25). Stay off the parting line
approximately 10° for measurements A and B. To determine taper, take
measurements at D and E.
 Large End Bearing Bore
• Figure 25 - Measurement locations for
the large end bore of a connecting rod.
 Large End Bearing Bore
• Example
• Use the measurements in Table 1 to complete the example bore size, out of
round and taper calculations
Measurement Metric Imperial
A 76.20 mm 3.0000 in
B 76.24 mm 3.0016 in
C 76.25 mm 3.0019 in
D 76.23 mm 3.0012 in
E 76.24 mm 3.0016 in
 Large End Bearing Bore - Bore Size
• The bore becomes elongated from stretching forces. This means that the
largest dimension is going to be measurement C. Compare this dimension
with the maximum allowable size to determine if the rod must be resized. If
it is within allowable size limits, check to see if it is out of round.
 Large End Bearing Bore - Out of Round
• Using the measurements at A, B and C, subtract the smallest dimension
from the largest dimension to find out if the rod big end bore is out of
round. If the out of round measurement exceeds the specifications, the rod
must be resized.
• For example, using the values given: 76.25 mm - 76.20 mm = 0.05 mm
• Therefore out of round is 0.05 mm.
 Large End Bearing Bore - Taper
• To determine bore taper, compare measurements D and E. The difference
between these two measurements will be amount that the bore is tapered.
• For example, using the values given: 76.24 mm - 76.23 mm = 0.01mm
• Therefore, taper is 0.01mm.
• Compare the measured dimensions with manufacturer specifications to
determine connecting rod serviceability. Connecting rods with
measurements that exceed manufacturer specifications are either replaced
or repaired by a machining process.
 Connecting Rod Alignment
• Check the connecting rods for bends and twists (Figure 26). If the rod is not
straight, it will cause uneven wear and loading on the rod journal, bearing,
piston pin and bores. A bend in the connecting rod will also shorten the
distance between the centre of the small end bore and the centre of the
large end bore, which will reduce the compression ratio. Pay careful
attention when the engine is being disassembled, as close inspection of
components can indicate a bent or twisted rod.
 Connecting Rod Alignment
• As shown in Figure 27, a bent connecting rod will cause uneven wear:
1. on the piston crown and ring lands,
2. of the piston pin and pin bushing,
3. on the piston skirt and
4. of the connecting rod bearing and journal.
 Connecting Rod Alignment
• Precision tools are required to check a connecting rod for bends or twists
(Figure 28). Install mandrels in the large and small end bores of the
connecting rod and mount the rod in an alignment fixture. Calibrate and
measure the alignment fixture to determine the amount of bend or twist.
 NOTE
• Connecting rods that are bent or twisted beyond manufacturer limits will
normally be replaced rather than straightened.
 Connecting Rod Reconditioning
• If rod inspection identifies a concern, the rods may be reconditioned.
Reconditioning generally consists of grinding the rod and cap to allow
resizing the big end bore to specification. In rods that use a bushing in the
small end, it may also be necessary to replace the small end bushing.
 Reconditioning the Big End Bore
• The forces acting on a connecting rod during normal engine service will,
over time, cause the big end bore to become elongated or oval shaped. To
restore it to the original size, you must first make the bore smaller by
removing material from both sides of the parting surface (Figure 29).
 Reconditioning the Big End Bore
• Prepare the rod for reconditioning by removing the rod bolts
(Figure 30). In many cases, the manufacturer recommends
replacement of the rod bolts and nuts. The bolts can be
removed with a small press
 Reconditioning the Big End Bore
• Before the rod can be resized, you need to remove material from the parting
surfaces of the rod and cap. Use a rod-grinding machine designed
specifically for this purpose (Figure 31).
 NOTE
• This procedure only applies to non-fractured rods.
 Reconditioning the Big End Bore
• Once the rod and cap parting surfaces have been ground,
reinstall the rod bolts and install and torque the cap
(Figure 32).
 Reconditioning the Big End Bore
• Select the appropriate size mandrel for the rod. It is recommended that two
rods be honed at the same time. This procedure promotes stability and
prevents the rods from rocking back and forth during the honing operation.
Check the bore size frequently to ensure that the rod does not become
oversized (Figure 33). If the small end bore is out of specification, it must be
honed to fit an oversize piston pin or machined to accept a bushing.
 Reconditioning the Big End Bore
• Figure 33 - Machining the big end bore on a rod-sizing machine.
 Thank You
Any Questions?
 References
• IMS, O. (2017, January 9). Olympus IMS. Olympus Inspection Solutions-NDT, Microscopes, XRF, RVI. Retrieved
December 20, 2022, from
https://www.olympus-ims.com/en/applications/ie_inspecting_for_burrs_in_piston_cooling_channels/
• Howards cams, promax 2618 forged pistons, Chev SB, Flat Top (4VR), 4.060" bore, 3.480" stroke, 5.700 rod,
set of 8. Howards Cams, ProMax 2618 Forged Pistons, Chev SB, Flat Top (4VR), 4.060" Bore, 3.480" Stroke,
5.700 Rod, Set of 8 - Competition Products. (n.d.). Retrieved December 20, 2022, from
https://www.competitionproducts.com/Howards-Cams-ProMax-2618-Forged-Pistons-Chev-SB-Flat-Top-4VR-
4060-Bore-3480-Stroke-5700-Rod-Set-of-8/productinfo/HRC840656405/#.Y6HKqX3MIdU
• Con rods link pistons and crankshaft. https://www.perkins.com/en_GB/aftermarket/overhaul/overhaul-
components/major-components/con-rods.html. (n.d.). Retrieved December 20, 2022, from
https://www.perkins.com/en_GB/aftermarket/overhaul/overhaul-components/major-components/con-
rods.html
• Magda, M. (2021, March 3). Wrist pin locks: Different styles and how to install them. JE Automotive.
Retrieved December 20, 2022, from https://auto.jepistons.com/blog/wrist-pin-locks-different-types-and-
how-to-install-them