DC Machines

1
 Introduction: What are DC
Machines?
 Are DC generators that convert mechanical energy to DC electric energy.
 Are DC motors that convert DC electric energy to mechanical energy.

Chapman S.J., “Electric Machinery Fundamentals”

2
Introducti
on
 DC machine can be used as a
motor
or as a generator.
 DC Machine is most often
used for a motor. Cutaway view of a dc motor
 DC motors are found in many special industrial
environments Motors drive many types of loads from
fans and pumps to presses and conveyors
 The major advantages of dc machines over generators
are easy to
control speed and torque regulation.
 However, their application is limited to mills, mines and
trains. As examples, trolleys and underground subway cars
may use dc motors.
 In the past, automobiles were equipped with dc dynamos to
charge 3
Types of DC
Motors
 DC motors are classified according to electrical connections of
armature windings and field windings.
 Armature windings: a winding which a voltage is induced
 Field windings: a winding that produces the main flux in
machines

 Five major types of DC motors:-

 Separately excited DC motor
 Shunt DC motor
 Permanent Magnet DC motor
 Series DC motor
 Compounded DC motor

4
DC Machines
Construction
DC motor stator with poles visible

Rotor of a dc motor

5
DC Machines
Construction
YOKE FIELD
DC machines, like S WINDING

other . +
. +
electromechanical BRUSH
AXIS
energy conversion ARMATURE
_
devices have +
two sets of electrical
+ +
 windings
field windings BRUSH ARMATURE
- on stator +
+
+ CONDUCTORS
. +
 amarture FIELD
. N +
POLES
windings - on
the rotor.
MAIN FIELD AXIS

6
DC Machines
Construction
The stator of the dc motor has
poles, which are excited by
dc current to produce
magnetic fields.
 In the neutral zone, in the
middle between the poles,
commutating poles are placed
to reduce sparking of the
commutator. The
commutating poles are
supplied by dc current.
 Compensating windings are
mounted on the main poles.
These short-circuited windings
damp rotor oscillations.

7
DC Machines
Construction
 The poles are mounted on an
iron core that provides a closed
magnetic circuit.
 The motor housing supports
the iron core, the brushes and
the bearings.
 The rotor has a ring-shaped
laminated iron core with slots.
 Coils with several turns are
placed in the slots. The
distance between the two legs
of the coil is about 180
electric degrees.

8
DC Machines Construction
 The coils are connected in
series through the
commutator segments.
 The ends of each coil
are connected to a
commutator segment.
 The commutator consists of
insulated copper segments
mounted on an insulated
tube.
 Two brushes are pressed to
the commutator to permit
current flow.
 The brushes are placed
in the neutral zone, where
the magnetic field is close
to zero, to reduce arcing.

9
DC Machines
Construction
 The commutator switches
the current from one
rotor coil to the adjacent
coil,
 The switching requires the
interruption of the coil
current.
 The sudden interruption of
an inductive current
generates high voltages .
 The high voltage produces
flashover and arcing
between the commutator
segment and the brush.

1
0
DC Motor
Operation

1
1
Current in DC
Motor

1
2
Magnetic Field in DC
Motor

1
3
Force in DC
Motor

1
4
Basic Principle of
Operation
The generated voltage of a DC machines having (p) poles and (Z)
conductors on the armature with (a) parallel path between brushes
as below :
E A  pZ  K
2
where Ka= pZ /(2πa) = machine constant

The mechanical torque which also equal to electromagnetic

torque, is found
as follows:
 e    EA IA  A
 KI
Inm the case of a generator, m is the input mechanical torque,
which is converted to electrical power. For the motor, e is
developed electromagnetic torque, which used to drive the
mechanical load.

1
5
Basic Principle of
Operation

ARMATURE winding are defined as the

winding which a voltage is induced.
FIELD windings are defined as the
windings that produce the main flux in
the machines.
The magnetic field of the field winding
is approximately sinusoidal, thus AC
voltage is induced in the armature
winding as the rotor turns under the
magnetic field of stator.
The COMMUTATOR and BRUSH
combination converts the AC
generated voltages to DC.

1
6
Basic Principle of
Operation
The induced or generated DC voltage (EA) appearing between the
brushes is a
function of the field current (IF) and the speed of rotation () of the
machine.
This generated voltage is :

Where
K’ = voltage constant
 = rotation per min
If the losses of the DC machine are neglected, the electrical power is
equal to the
mechanical power

E A I A   m
1
7
DC Motor Equivalent
Circuit
The
brush
voltage
drop
RA
External variable
resistor used to
control the amount Armature circuit
of current in the (entire rotor
field circuit structure)
Field Coils

Note: Because a dc motor is the same physical machine as a dc

generator, its equivalent circuit is exactly the same as generator
except for the direction of current flow.

1
8
Simplified Equivalent
Circuit

The brush drop voltage (Vbrush ) is often only a very tiny fraction of the
generated voltage in the machine – Neglected or included in RA.
Internal resistance of the field coils is sometimes lumped
together with the variable resistor and called RF - Combining Radj
with field resistance (RF).

1
9
The Magnetization Curve of a DC
machine
The internal generated voltage in the EA 
motor K
From the equation,
EA is directly proportional to the
flux () in the motor and speed
of the motor ().
The field current (IF) in dc
machines produces a field
magnetomotive force (mmf)
This magnetomotive force
(mmf) produces a flux () in
the motor in accordance with
its magnetization curve.
The magnetization curve of a ferromagnetic
IF  mmf  flux material ( vs F)

2
0
The Magnetization Curve of a DC
machine

Since the field current (IF) is

directly proportional to
magnetomotive force (mmf)
and……. EA  

EA is directly proportional to the

flux, the magnetization curve is
presented as a plot EA versus field
current for a given speed.

The magnetization curve of a dc

machine expresses as a plot of EA
versus IF, for a fixed speed ω0

Note: To get the maximum possible power, the motors and

generators are designed to
operate near the saturation point on the magnetization curve (at
the knee of the curve). 2
1
The Magnetization
Curve

The induced torque

developed by the motor is EA  

given as
 i n d  KI A

The magnetization curve of a

dc machine expresses as a
plot of EA versus IF, for a
fixed speed ω0

2
2
The equivalent circuit of Separately Excited
DC Motor

Separately excited motor is a motor whose field current is

supplied from a separate constant-voltage power supply.

I F  VF IL  A
RF
I
VT   I A RA
EA
2
3
The equivalent circuit of a Shunt
DC Motor

I F  VT
RF
A shunt dc motor is a motor VT  E A  I
whose field circuit get its power
A RA
directly across the IL  I A  F
armature terminals of the I
motor.

2
4
How Shunt response to load? - Speed-
Torque Characteristics
Consider the DC shunt motor. From the Kirchoff’s
Law
VT  E A  I A R A
Induced Voltage VT  K 
I A RA
E A  K
Substituting the expression for
induced voltage between VT and
EA .

VT  K  I A RA
I A  d
Since then,K
current IA can be
expressed as  RA
VT  K K AR
Finally, solving for the motor's speed
  K  (K)2 
VT

yield
2
5
Speed-Torque
Characteristics
This equation is a straight line with a negative slope. The graph
shows the torque-speed characteristics of a shunt dc motor.

RA
 K  (K)2 
VT

  then , with constant VT,

otherwise it affect the torque-speed curve

Torque-speed characteristic of a shunt or separately

excited dc motor

2
6
 Speed-Torque
Characteristics
Affect of Armature Reaction (AR) will reduce flux as the load
also
increase
increase),
( so it will increase motor speed E A 
(). =>
If the motor has compensating winding, the flux K () will
be constant.

RA
 (K)2 
VT
  K

Torque-speed characteristic of a motor with armature

reaction present.

2
7
Speed-Torque
Characteristics

In order for the motor speed to vary linearly with torque, the
other term in
this expression must be constant as the load changes.
The terminal supplied by the dc power source is assumed to be
constant – if not, then the voltage variations will effect the
shape of the torque-speed curve.
However, in actual machine, as the load increase, the flux is
reduced because of the armature reaction. Since the
denominator terms decrease, there is less reduction in speed
and speed regulation is improved (as shown in previous
slide).
If a motor has compensating windings, of course there will
be no flux- weakening problem in the machines, and the flux
in the machine will be constant

2
8
Speed Control of Shunt DC
Motor

Two common ways in which the speed () of a shunt dc

machine can be controlled.
• Adjusting the field resistance RF (and thus the field flux)
• Adjusting the terminal voltage applied to the armature.

The less common method of speed control is by

• Inserting a resistor in series with armature circuit.

2
9
1 : Changing The Field
Resistance
 VT 
1. Increasing RF causes IF
 F   to
  decrease.
2. Decreasing
R IF
decreases .
3. Decreasing  A  K 
lowers E
 
4. Decreasing A by V
A  T  E A  
E increasing I  RA 

5. Increase IA by  in d  (K  I A )
increasing
with the change in IA dominant over the change in flux
().
6
.
 ind  load
Increasing τind makes  and the speed ω
increases. 3
0
1: Changing The Field
Resistance
7. Increasing speed to increases E = K
A
again.

8. Increasing EA decreases IA.

 in d   at a higher
9. Decreasing IA decreases
speed ω
Decreasing RF would reverse the whole load
process, and
until
the speed of the motor in d would drop.

The effect of field resistance

speed control on a shunt motor’s
torque speed characteristic: over
the motor’s normal operating
range

3
1
 2: Changing The Armature
Voltage
Armature voltage control of a
shunt (or separately excited) dc
motor.

1. An increase in VA by increasing IA = [ (VA  –

EA)/RA]
2. Increasing IA  i n d  (KI A )
increases
increasing
3. Increasing τind makes  in d  ω.
4.
lo a dIncreasing ω increases EA =(Kω  )

5. Increasing EA by decreasing IA = [(VA –

EA)/RA]
6. Decreasing IA decreases τind until at a higher
 ω.
 in d load
3
2
2: Changing The Armature
Voltage

The speed control is shifted by

this method, but the slope of
the curve remains constant

The effect of armature voltage speed control on a shunt

motor’s torque speed characteristic

3
3
3 : Inserting Resistor in Series with
Armature Circuit
Add resistor in
series with RA

Equivalent circuit of DC
shunt motor
The effect of armature resistance
speed control on a shunt motor’s
torque – speed
characteristic

Additional resistor in series will drastically increase the

slope of the motor’s characteristic, making it operate more
slowly if loaded
3
4
3 : Inserting Resistor in Series with
Armature Circuit
Add resistor in
series with RA
RA
VT
  K  (K) 2 ind


The above equation shows
if RA increase, speed will
Equivalent circuit of DC decrease
shunt motor

This method is very wasteful method of speed control, since the

losses in the inserted resistor is very large. For this it is
rarely used.

3
5
The Series DC
Motor

Equivalent circuit of a
series DC motor.

The Kirchhoff’s voltage law

equation for this motor

VT  E A  I A (RA  RS )

3
6
Induced Torque in a Series
DC Motor
The induced or developed torque is given by  ind 
The flux in this motor is directly proportional to its
KI
armature
A current. Therefore, the flux in the motor can be
given by

  cI A
where c is a constant of proportionality. The induced torque in
this machine is thus given by
2
 in d  KI A  KcI A
This equation shows that a series motor give more torque per
ampere than any other dc motor, therefore it is used in applications
requiring very high torque, example starter motors in cars, elevator
motors, and tractor motors in locomotives.
3
7
The Terminal Characteristic of a
Series DC Motor.
To determine the terminal characteristic of a series dc motor, an
analysis will be based on the assumption of a linear magnetization
curve, and the effects of saturation will be considered in a graphical
analysis

The assumption of a linear magnetization curve implies that the flux in

given
the :motor
by  A
cI
The derivation of a series motor’s torque-speed characteristic
starts
Kirchhoff’s
with voltage
law: VT  EA  I A
(R A  RS )
expressed as: 2

IA  ind
 Kc
3
8
The Terminal Characteristic of a
Series DC Motor.
Also, EA = K, substituting these expression
yields:
VT  K  ind A  RS)
 Kc (R

We IA   ;
know
c
Substituting the equations so the induced torque equation can
written as
K
 ind c 
2

Therefore, the flux in the c

series motor can be   ind
written as :
 K
3
9
The Terminal Characteristic of a
Series DC Motor.
Substituting the previous equation for VT
yields:
c
VT   ind   ind A  RS)
K K  Kc ( R

The resulting torque – speed

relationship is

 VT 1

R A  RS
 Kc Kc
 ind
One disadvantage of series motor can be seen immediately
from this equation. When the torque on this motor goes to
zero, its speed goes to infinity.
In practice, the torque can never go entirely to zero,
because of the mechanical, core and stray losses that
must be overcome.
4
0
The Terminal Characteristic of a
Series DC Motor.
However, if no other load is connected to the motor, it can turn
fast enough to seriously damage itself.
NEVER completely unload a series motor, and never connect one to
a load by a
belt or other mechanism that could break.

Fig : The ideal torque-

speed characteristic of
a series dc motor

4
1
 Speed Control of Series DC
Motor
Method of controlling the speed in series motor.
1. Change the terminal voltage of the motor. If the terminal voltage is
increased, the speed also increased, resulting in a higher speed for
any given torque. This is only one efficient way to change the speed
of a series motor.
 VT 1

R A  RS
 Kc Kc
 ind
2. By the insertion of a series resistor into the motor circuit, but this
technique is very wasteful of power and is used only for
intermittent period during the start-up of some motor.

4
2
 The Compounded DC
Motor.

series series
shunt

shunt
The equivalent compound DC motor (a) Long-shunt connection
(cumulative compounding) (b) Short-shunt connection (differential
compounding)
A compound DC motor is a motor with both a shunt and a series
field
Two field windings : One is connected in series with armature
(series field) and the other is connected in parallel with the
armature (shunt field).

4
3
The Compounded DC
Motor.

series series

shunt
shunt

The equivalent compound DC motor (a) Long-shunt connection

(b) Short- shunt connection

If the magnetic fluxes produced by both series field and shunt field
windings are in same direction, that is, additive, the dc motor is
cumulative compound. If the magnetic fluxes are in opposite, the dc
motor is differential compound.

4
4
The Compounded DC
Motor.

series series

shunt
shunt

The equivalent compound DC motor (a) Long-shunt connection

(b) Short- shunt connection

In long shunt compound dc motor, the series field is connected in

series with armature and the combination is in parallel with the shunt
field. In the short shunt field compound dc motor, the shunt field is in
parallel with armature and the combination is connected in series
with the series field.

4
5
The Compounded DC
Motor.
The Kirchhoff’s voltage law equation for a compound dc
motor is:
VT  E A  I A (R A 
RS )
The currents in the compounded motor are
related by :
VT
IF 
I A  IL  IF F

The net magnetomotive force given by R

F net = F F ± FSE - FAR

FF = magnetmotive force (shunt field)

FSE = magnetomotive force (series
field)
FAR = magnetomotive force (armature
reaction)
4
6
The Compounded DC
Motor.
The effective shunt field current in the compounded DC motor
given by:

I F*  I N
F
NSE A
F
AR
F NF
I
NSE = winding turn per pole on series
winding
NF = winding turn per pole on shunt
winding

The positive (+) sign is for cumulatively compound

motor
The negative (-) sign is for differentially compound
motor

4
7
The Torque Speed Characteristic of a Cumulatively
Compounded DC Motor

The cumulatively compounded motor has a higher starting torque

than a shunt motor (whose flux is constant) but a lower starting
torque than a series motor (whose entire flux is proportional to
armature current).

It combines the best features of both the shunt and the series
motors. Like a series motor, it has extra torque for starting; like
a shunt motor, it does not over speed at no load.

At light loads, the series field has a very small effect, so the motor
behaves
approximately as a shunt dc motor.

As the load gets very large, the series flux becomes quite
important and the torque speed curve begins to look like a series
motor’s characteristic.

A comparison of these torque speed characteristics of each types is

shown in next slide. 4
8
The Torque Speed Characteristic of a Cumulatively
Compounded DC Motor

Fig (a) The torque-speed characteristic of a cumulatively

compounded dc motor compared to series and shunt motors
with the same full-load rating.
Fig. (b) The torque-speed characteristic of a cumulatively
compounded dc motor compared to a shunt motor with the
same no-load speed.
4
9
The Torque Speed Characteristic of a Differently
Compounded DC Motor

In a differentially compounded DC motor, the shunt

magnetomotive force and
series magnetomotive force subtract from each other.
This means that as the load on the motor
increase, IA increase and the flux in the (IA)
As the decreased,
motor flux decrease, the speed of the motor increase, ()
This speed increase causes an-other increase in load, which further
increase IA, Further decreasing the flux, and increasing the speed
again.

All the phenomena resulting the differentially compounded motor is

unstable
and tends to run away.

This instability is much worse than that of a shunt motor with

armature reaction, and make it unsuitable for any application.

5
0
Speed Control in the Cumulatively
Compounded DC Motor

The techniques available for control of speed in a cumulatively

compounded
dc motor are the same as those available for a shunt motor:

1. Change the field resistance, RF

2. Change the armature voltage, VA
3. Change the armature resistance, RA

The arguments describing the effects of changing RF or VA are very

similar to the arguments given earlier for the shunt motor.

5
1
DC Motor
Starter
In order for a dc motor to function properly on the job, it must have
some special control and protection equipment associated with it. The
purposes of this equipment are:

1. To protect the motor against damage due to short circuits in the

equipment

2. To protect the motor against damage from long term overloads

3. To protect the motor against damage from excessive starting

currents

4. To provide a convenient manner in which to control the operating

speed of the
motor

5
2
DC Motor Problem on
Starting
DC motor must be protected from physical damage during the
starting period. At starting conditions, the motor is not turning, and
so EA = 0 V.
Since the internal resistance of a normal dc motor is very low, a
very high current flows, hence the starting current will be
Consider the high,
dangerously dc shunt
could severelyVdamage the motor, even if
I  E V
motor:
they last for only a moment. A  R A  R A
T A T

When EA = 0 and RA is very small, then the current IA will be very

high.

Two methods of limiting the starting current :

• Insert a starting resistor in series with armature to limit the
current flow (until EA can build up to do the limiting). The
resistor must be not permanently to avoid excessive losses
and cause torque speed to drop excessively with increase of
load.
• Manual DC motor starter, totally human dependant
5
3
 Inserting a Starting Resistor in Series & Manual DC
Motor

Fig : A shunt motor with a

starting
resistor in series with an Fig : A Manual DC Motor
armature. Contacts 1A, 2A and
3A short circuit portions of the Human dependant:
starting resistor when they • Too quickly, the resulting current
close flow would be too large.
• Too slowly, the starting resistor
could burn-
up
5
4
DC Motor Efficiency
Calculations
To calculate the efficiency of a dc motor, the following losses
must be determined :

• Copper losses (I2R losses)

• Brush drop losses
• Mechanical losses
• Core losses
• Stray losses

Pconv = Pdev = EAIA=indω

Pin =VTIL
Pout =out m

I2R losses Mechanical Core loss Stray losses

losses

5
5
DC Motor Efficiency
Calculations
Electrical or Copper losses : Copper losses are the losses that
occur in the Armature and field windings of the machine. The
copper losses for the armature and field winding are given by :
Armature Loss PA = Must consider RS for series
Field
IA RA Loss FP F=
2
and compound DC Motors
PA = Armature I 2R F

PF = Field Circuit Losses

Losses

The resistance used in these calculations is usually the winding

resistance at normal operating temperature

Brush Losses : The brush drop loss is the power loss across
the contact potential at the brushes of the machines. It is
given by the equation:
PBD = VBDIA

5
6
DC Motor Efficiency
Calculations
Magnetic or core loss : These are the hysteresis and eddy
current losses occuring in the metal of the motor.

Mechanical loss : These are friction and windage losses.

• Friction losses include the losses caused by bearing friction and
the friction between the brushes andcommutator.
• Windage losses are caused by the friction between rotating
parts and air inside the DC machine’s casing.

Stray losses (or Miscellaneous losses) : These are other losses

that cannot be placed in one of the previous categories. (Is about
1% of full load-RULE OF
THUMB) [[pg 318,Electric Machinery and Transformers, BHAG S. GURU]
and [pg 525, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, STEPHEN J. CHAPMAN]

5
7
DC Motor Efficiency
Calculations
Rotational losses is when the mechanical losses, Core losses and
Stray losses are lumped together. [pg. 193 Electromechanical
Energy Devices and Power System, ZIA A. ZAMAYEE & JUAN L.
BALA JR.]

It also consider as combination between mechanical and core losses

at no load and rated speed.[pg 317, Electric Machinery and
Transformers, BHAG S. GURU] and [pg 593, Electric Machinery
Fundamentals, STEPHEN J. CHAPMAN]

Motor efficiency : Poutput

 X100%
Pinput

Pinput  Plosses
 X100%

Pinput
5
8
Speed
Regulation
The speed regulation is a measure of the change speed from no-
load to full load. The percent speed regulation is defined

Speed Regulation
nl   fl X100%

(SR):  fl
or

nl   fl X100%

 fl

+Ve SR means that the motor speed will decrease when

the load on its shaft is
increased.
-Ve SR means that the motor speed increases with
increasing load.
5
9
 DC Generators

DC generators are dc machines used as generator. There are

five major types of dc generators, classified according to the
manner in which their field flux is produced:

• Separately excited generator: In separately excited generator, the

field flux is derived from a separately power source independent of
the generator itself.

• Shunt generator: In a shunt generator, the field flux is derived by

connecting the field circuit directly across the terminals of the
generators.

• Series generator: In a series generator, the field flux is produced by

connecting the field circuit in series with the armature of the
generator.

• Cumulatively compounded generator: In a cumulatively compounded

generator, both a shunt and series field is present, and their effects
are additive.

• Differentially compounded generator: In differentially compounded

6
generator: In a differentially compounded generator, both a shunt 0
 DC Generators

These various types of dc generator differ in their terminal (voltage-

current)
characteristic, and the application is depending to which is suited.
DC generators are compared by their voltages, power ratings,
efficiencies and voltage regulations:
Vnl V f l
VR  100%
V fl

+VR = Dropping
characteristics
-VR = Rising characteristic

6
1
Equivalent Circuit of DC
Generators

The equivalent circuit of a A simplified equivalent circuit

DC of a DC generator, with RF
generator
combining the resistances of the
field coils and the variable
control resistor

6
2
 Separately Excited Generator

Fig : Separately excited

DC generator

IL 
IA
A separately excited DC generator is a generator whose field current is
supplied by
a separately external DC voltage source

VT = Actual voltage measured at the terminals of the

generator IL = current flowing in the lines connected
to the terminals.
EA = Internal generated
voltage. IA = Armature
6
current. 3
 The Terminal Characteristic of A
Separately Excited DC Generator

Take note about the axes

between motors ( and
ind) and generators (VT
and IL)

The terminal characteristic of a separately excited dc generator (a) with and (b) without
compensating windings (EA = K)

For DC generator, the output quantities are its terminal voltage

and line
current. The terminal voltage is VT = EA – IARA (IA = IL)

Since the internal generated voltage EA is independent of IA, the

terminal characteristic of the separately excited generator is
a straight line.
6
4
 The Terminal Characteristic of A
Separately Excited DC Generator

When the load is supplied by the generator is increased, IL (and

therefore IA) increase. As the armature current increase, the IARA
drop increase, so the terminal voltage of the generator falls.
(Figure (a) PREVIOUS SLIDE)

This terminal characteristic is not always entirely accurate. In the

generators without compensating windings, an increase in IA
causes an increase in the armature reaction, and armature
reaction causes flux weakening. This flux weakening causes a
decrease in EA = Kω which further decreases the terminal voltage
of the generator. The resulting terminal characteristic is shown in
Figure b (PREVIOUS SLIDE)

6
5
 Control of Terminal
Voltage
We control torque-speed in DC Motor, while in DC Generator we
control VT

The terminal voltage of a separately excited DC generator can be

controlled by
changing the internal generated voltage EA of the machine.

VT = EA – IARA

If EA increases, VT will increase, and if EA decreases, VT will decreases.

Since the internal generated voltage, EA = KΦω, there are two
possible ways to control the voltage of this generator:

1. Change the speed of rotation. If ω increases, then EA = KΦω

increases, so VT
= EA - IARA increases too.

2. Change the field current. If RF is decreased, then the field current

6
increases (IF =VF/RF ). Therefore, the flux Φ in the machine 6
The Shunt DC Generator
A shunt DC generator is a DC generator that supplies its own field
current by having its field connected directly across the terminals
of the machine.

I A  IF  IL
VT  E A  I A RA
V 
IF   T 
R
 F 

B cause of generator supply it own

e field
c rrent, it required voltage buildup
u
Figure : The equivalent circuit
of a
shunt DC generator.
6
7
 Voltage Buildup in A Shunt
Generator
Assume the DC generator has no load connected to it and that the
prime mover starts to turn the shaft of the generator. The voltage
buildup in a DC generator depends on the presence of a residual
flux in the poles of the generator.
This voltage is given E  K 
A res
by

This voltage, EA (a volt or two appears at terminal of generators), and

it causes a current IF to flow in the field coils. This field current
produces a magnetomotive force in the poles, which increases the
flux in them.

EA, then VT increase and cause further increase IF, which further
increasing
the flux  and so on.

The final operating voltage is determined by intersection of the

field resistance line and saturation curve. This voltage buildup
process is depicted in the next slide 6
8
Voltage Buildup in A Shunt
Generator

Voltage buildup
occurred in
discrete steps

EA may be a volt
or two appear
at the terminal
during start-up

6
9
Voltage Buildup in A Shunt
Generator
Several causes for the voltage to fail to build up during starting
which are :
• Residual magnetism. If there is no residual flux in the
poles, there is no
Internal generated voltage, EA = 0V and the voltage will never
build up.

• Critical resistance. Normally, the shunt generator builds up to a

voltage determined by the intersection of the field resistance line
and the saturation curve. If the field resistance is greater than
critical resistance, the generator fails to build up and the voltage
remains at the residual level. To solve this problem, the field
resistance is reduced to a value less than critical resistance.
Refer Figure 9-51 page 605 (Chapman)

Critical
resistance

7
1
Voltage Buildup in A Shunt
Generator

• The direction of rotation of the generator may have

been reversed, or the connections of the field may have
been reversed. In either case, the residual flux produces an
internal generated voltage EA. The voltage EA produce a field
current which produces a flux opposing the residual flux,
instead of adding to it.
Under these conditions, the flux actually decreases below
res and no voltage can ever build up.

7
1
 The Terminal Characteristic of a Shunt DC
Generator

Figure : The terminal

characteristic of a shunt dc
generator

As the load on the generator is increased, IL increases and so IA =

IF + IL also increase. An increase in IA increases the armature
resistance voltage drop IARA, causing VT = EA -IARA to decrease.

However, when VT decreases, the field current IF in the machine

decreases with it. This causes the flux in the machine to decrease;
decreasing EA. Decreasing EA causes a further decrease in the
terminal voltage, VT = EA - IARA
7
2
Voltage Control for Shunt DC
Generator
There are two ways to control the voltage of a shunt generator:
1. Change the shaft speed, ωm of the generator.
2. Change the field resistor of the generator, thus changing the
field current.

Changing the field resistor is the principal method used to

control terminal voltage in real shunt generators. If the field
resistor RF is decreased, then the field current IF = VT/RF increases.

When IF , the machine’s flux , causing the internal generated

voltage
EA. EA causes the terminal voltage of the generator to increase as
well.

7
3
 The Series DC Generator

Figure : The equivalent circuit

of a series dc generator

A series DC generator is a generator whose field is connected in

series with its armature. Because the field winding has to carry
the rated load current, it usually have few turns of heavy wire.
Clear distinction, shunt generator tends to maintain a constant
terminal voltage
while the series generator has tendency to supply a constant
load current. voltage law for this
The Kirchhoff’s VT  E A  I A (RA  RS )
equation :

7
4
 Terminal Characteristic of a Series
Generator

Figure : A series generator

terminal characteristic with
large armature reaction
effects

The magnetization curve of a series DC generator looks very much like the
magnetization curve of any other generator. At no load, however, there is
no field current, so VT is reduced to a very small level given by the
residual flux in the machine. As the load increases, the field current
rises, so EA rises rapidly. The IA (RA
+ RS) drop goes up too, but at first the increase in EA goes up more
rapidly than the
IA(RA + RS) drop rises, so VT increases. After a while, the machine
approaches
saturation, and EA becomes almost constant. At that point, the 7
5
The Cumulatively Compounded DC
Generator

Figure : The equivalent

circuit of a cumulatively
compounded DC generator
with a long shunt
connection

A cumulatively compounded DC generator is a DC generator with both

series and shunt fields, connected so that the magnetomotive
forces from the two fields are additive.

7
6
The Cumulatively Compounded DC
Generator

The total magnetomotive force on this machine

is given by
F = FF + FSE - FAR
wher FF = the net
shunt field magnetomotive
e force FSE = the series field
magnetomotive force
FAR = the armature reaction
magnetomotive force

NFI*F = NFIF + NSEIA - FAR

I *  N SE

NF I
F A
F
I N F
FAR

7
7
The Cumulatively Compounded DC
Generator

The other voltage and current relationships for this generator are

I A  IF  IL
VT

I F E  I (R  R )
 A A A S
F
VT
R

7
8
The Cumulatively Compounded DC
Generator

Another way to hook up a cumulatively compounded generator. It is

the “short- shunt” connection, where series field is outside the
shunt field circuit and has current IL flowing through it instead of IA.

Figure : The equivalent circuit of a cumulatively DC

generator with a
short shunt connection

7
9
 The Terminal Characteristic of a
Cumulatively Compounded DC
Generator
When the load on the generator is increased, the load current IL also
increases. Since IA = IF + IL, the armature current IA increases too.
At this point two effects occur in the generator:

1. As IA increases, the IA (RA + RS) voltage drop increases as well. This

tends to cause a decrease in the terminal voltage, VT = EA –IA (RA
+ RS).

2. As IA increases, the series field magnetomotive force FSE = NSEIA

increases too. This increases the total magnetomotive
force Ftot = NFIF + NSEIA which increases the flux in the
generator. The increased flux in the generator increases EA,
which in turn tends to make VT = EA – IA (RA + RS) rise.

8
0
 Voltage Control of Cumulatively
Compounded DC Generator

The techniques available for controlling the terminal voltage of a

cumulatively compounded DC generator are exactly the same as the
technique for controlling the voltage of a shunt DC generator:

1. Change the speed of rotation. An increase in  causes EA = K to

increase,
increasing the terminal voltage VT = EA – IA (RA + RS).

2. Change the field current. A decrease in RF causes IF = VT/RF to

increase, which increase the total magnetomotive force in the
generator. As Ftot increases, the flux
 in the machine increases, and EA = K increases. Finally, an
increase in EA
raises VT.

8
1
Analysis of Cumulatively
Compounded DC Generators

The equivalent shunt field current Ieq due to the effects of the
series field and armature reaction is given by

I eq  N SE I A  FAR
NF NF

I F*  IF 
The total effective shunt field
eq
current is
I
where,
NSE = series field
turns NF = shunt
field turns FAR =
armature force IA =
armature current
8
2
Field
Resistance

IA (RA +
RS )

VT at no load condition will be the point at

which the resistor line and magnetization
curve intersect.
As load is added, mmf increased thus
increasing the field current Ieq and the
resistive voltage drop [IA(RA + RF)].
The upper tip triangle represents the
internal generated voltage EA.
The lower line represents the terminal
voltage VT
8
3
 The Differentially Compounded DC
Generator

I A  IL 
IF
I F  VT
RF
VT

 E A  I A (R A  RF )

The equivalent circuit of a differentially

compounded DC generator

A differentially compounded DC generator is a generator with both 8

4
The Differentially Compounded DC
Generator
The net magnetomotive force is

Fnet = FF – FSE – FAR Fnet = NFIF – NSEIA - FAR

And the equivalent shunt field current due to the series field and
armature
reaction is given by : I eq   N SE I A  FAR
N F N F

The total effective shunt field current in this

machine is

I F*  I F  Ieq
o
I F* 
N SE

NF I
F A
r
I N F
FAR
8
5
 Voltage Control of Differentially
Compounded DC Generator
Two effects occur in the terminal characteristic of a differentially
compounded DC generator are

1. As IA increases, the IA (RA + RS) voltage drop increases as well.

This increase tends to cause the terminal voltage to decrease VT.

2. As IA increases, the series field magnetomotive FSE = NSEIA

increases too. This increases in series field magnetomotive force
reduces the net magnetomotive force on the generator, (Ftot
= NFIF – NSEIA), which in turn reduces the net flux in the
generator. A decrease in flux decreases EA, which in turn
decreases VT.

Since both effects tend to decrease VT, the voltage drop drastically
as the load is increased on the generator as shown in next slide

8
6
Voltage Control of Differentially
Compounded DC Generator

8
7
 Voltage Control of Differentially
Compounded DC Generator

The techniques available for adjusting terminal voltage are exactly

the same as those for shunt and cumulatively compounded DC
generator:

1. Change the speed of rotation, m.

2. Change the field current, IF.

8
8