Vitamins

Prepared by:
Khushboo Mehta
 VITAMINS
Vitamins may be regarded as organic
compounds required in the diet in small
amounts to perform specific biological
functions for normal maintenance of optimum
growth and health of the organism.
• There are about 15 vitamins, essential for
humans.
• They are classified as fat soluble and
water soluble vitamins.
• Fat soluble: A, D, E and K
• Water soluble: C and B group.
• The B complex vitamins may be sub
divided into energy releasing (B1, B2, B6,
biotin etc) and hematopoietic (folic acid
and B12).
• Administration of antibiotics often kills the
vitamin synthesizing bacteria present in
the gut, hence additional consumption of
vitamins is recommended.
• Generally, vitamins deficiencies are
multiple rather than individual with
overlapping symptoms.
• The term vitamers represents the
chemically similar substances that
possess qualitatively similar vitamin
activity.
Fat soluble Vitamins
 Vitamin A
• The fat soluble vitamin A, as such is
present only in foods of animal origin.
However, its provitamins carotenes are
found in plants.
• The term retinoids is often used to include
the natural and synthetic forms of vitamin
A.
• Retinol, retinal and retinoic acid are
regareded as vitamers of vitamin A.
Dietary sources
• Animal sources contain preformed vitamin A.
The best sources are liver, kidney, egg yolk,
milk, cheese, butter.
• Fish (cod or shark) liver oils are very rich in
vitamin A.
• Vegetables sources contain the provitamin A-
carotenes. Yellow and dark green vegetables
and fruits are good sources of carotenes. E.g.
carrots, spinach, amaranthus, pumpkins, mango,
papaya etc
Recommended dietary allowance
• The RDA of vitamin A for adults is around
1000 retinol equivalents (3500 IU) for man
and around 800 retinol equivalents (2500)
for woman.
• 1 international unit (IU) = 0.3 mg of retinol.
• The requirements increases in growing
childern, pregnant woman and lactating
mothers.
BIOCHEMICAL FUNCTIONS
• Vitamin A is necessary for a variety of
functions such as vision, proper growth
and differentiation, reproduction and
maintenance of epithelial cells.
• Rhodopsin: (mol. Wt. 35,000) is a
conjugated protein present in rods.
• Rods are involved in the dim light vision
whereas cones are responsible for bright
light and color vision.
• Dark adaptation time: when a person shifts
from a bright light to dim light (e.g. entry
into a dim cine theatre), rhodopsin stores
are depleted and vision is impaired.
However, within few minutes, known as
dark adaptation time, rhodopsin is
resynthesized and vision is improved.
Dark adaptation time is increased in
Vitamin A deficient individuals.
• Retinol and retinoic acid function almost
like steroid hormones. They regulate the
protein synthesis and thus involved in the
cell growth and differentiation.
• Vitamin A is essential to maintain healthy
epithelial tissue. This is due to the fact that
retinol and retinoic acid are required to
prevent keratin synthesis (responsible for
horny surface)
• Retinyl phosphate synthesized form
rationol is necessary for the synthesis of
Certain glycoproteins which are required for
growth and mucus secretion.
• Retinol and retinoic acid are involved in the
synthesis of transferrin, the iron transport
protein.
•Vitamin A is considered to be essential for
the maintenance of proper immune system
to fight against various infections.
• Chelesterol synthesis requires vitamin A.
Mevalonate an intermediate in the
cholesterol biosynthesis , is diverted for the
Synthesis of coenzyme Q in vitamin A
deficiency. It is pertinent to note that the
discovery of coenzyme Q was originally
made in vitamin A deficient animals.
• Carotenoids (most important β-carotene)
function as antioxidants and reduce the risk
of cancers initiated by free radicals and
strong oxidants. β –carotene is found to be
beneficial to prevent heart attacks. This is
also attributed to the antioxidant property.
Vitamin A deficiency
• The deficiency manifestations are related
to the eyes, skin and growth.
• Deficiency manifestation of the eyes: night
blindness (nyctalopia), is one of the
earliest symptoms of vitamin A deficiency.
Difficult to see in dim light- as dark
adaptation time is increased. Prolonged
deficiency irreversibly damages a number
of visual cells.
• Severe deficiency of vitamin A leads to
xeropthalmia. This is characterized by
dryness in conjuctiva and cornea,
keratinization of epithelial cells.
Effect on Growth:
Vitamin A deficiency results in growth retardation
due to imperiment in skeletal formation.
Effect on Reproduction :
The reproductive system is adversely affected in
Vitamin A deficiency. Degeneration of germinal
epithelium leads to sterility in males.
Effect on Skin and epitelial cells :
The skins becomes rough and dry.
Keratinization of epithelial cells of
gastrointestinal tract, urinary tract and
respiratory tract is noticed. This leads to
increased bacterial infection. Vitamin A
deficiency is associated with formation of
urinary stones. The plasma level of retinol
binding protein is decreased in Vitamin A
deficiency .
Hypervitaminosis
• Excessive consumption of vitamin A leads
to toxicity.
• The symptoms of hypervitaminosis A
include dermatitis (drying and redness of
skin), enlargement of liver, skeletal
decalcification, tenderness of long bones,
loss of weight, irritability, loss of hair, joint
pains etc.
 Vitamin D
• Vitamin D is a fat soluble vitamin. It
resembles sterol in structure and functions
like a hormone.
• Vitamin D was isolated by Angus (1931)
who named it calciferol.
Chemistry
• Ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) is formed from
ergosterol and is present on plants.
• Cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) is found in animals.
Both the sterol are similar in structure except
that ergocalciferol has an additional methyl
group and a double bond.
• Ergocalciferol and cholecalciferol are Sources
for vitamin D activity and are referred to as
provitamins.
• Calcitriol (1, 25- DHCC) is the biologically active
form of vitamin D.
 Biochemical functions
• Calcitriol regulates the plasma level of
calcium and phosphate.
• Calcitriol acts at 3 different levels
• intestine
• kidney
• bone to maintain plasma calcium level
( normal 9-11 mg/dl)
• Action of calcitriol on the intestine:
calcitriol increases the intestinal
absorption of calcium and phosphate.
• Action of calcitriol on the bone:
• Calcitriol stimulates the calcium uptake for
deposition as calcium phosphate. Calcitriol
is essential for bone formation.
• Action of calcitriol on the kidney:
• Calcitriol is also involved in mininmizing
the excretion of calcium and phosphate
through the kidney by decreasing their
excretion and enhancing reabsorption.
• Calcitrol action is similar to steroid
hormones.
• Cacitriol synthesis is self regulated by a
feedback mechanism i.e., calcitriol
decreases its own synthesis.
Deficiency symptoms
• Insufficient exposure to sunlight and
consumption of diet lacking vitamin D results in
its deficiency.
• Deficiency of vitamin D causes rickets in childern
and osteomalacia in adults.
• Vitamin d is often called as antiarachitic vitamin.
• In rickets plasma calcitriol level is decreased
and alkaline phosphatase activity is elevated.
Hypervitaminosis
• Vitamin D is stored mostly in liver and
slowly metabolized.
• Vitamin D is the most toxic in overdoses.
• Toxic effects- demineralization of bone
(resorption) and increased calcium
absorption from the intestine,
hypercalcemia, loss of appetite, nausea,
increased thirst, loss of weight.
 Vitamin E (tocopherol)
• Vitamin E is a naturally occurring
antioxidant.
• Essential for normal reproduction in many
animals, hence known as anti sterility
vitamin.
• Described as a vitamin in search of a
disease.
Chemistry
• Vitamin E is the name given to a group of
tocopherols and tocotrienols.
• About eight tocopherols (vitmin E vitamers) have
been identified α, β, gama, sigma etc.
• α - tochopherols is the most active.
• The tochopherols are the derivatives of 6-
hydroxy chromane (tocol) ring with isoprenoid
(3units) side chain.
• The antioxidant property is due to chromane
ring.
Absorption , transport and storage
Vitamin E is absorbed along with fat in the
small intestine. Bile salts are necessary for
the absorption. In the liver, it is incorporated
into lipoproteins (VLDL and LDL) and
transported. Vitamin E is stored in adipose
tissue, liver and muscle. The normal plasma
level of tocopherol in less than 1 mg/dl.
Biochemical Functions
Most of the functions of vitamin E are related
to its antioxidant property.
• FUNCTIONS
1) Vitamin E is essential for the membrane
structure and integrity of the cell, hence it
is regarded as a membrane antioxidant.
(it protects the cell from non enzymatic
oxidation)
2) It prevents the peroxidation of poly-
unsaturated fatty acids in various tissues
and membranes. It protects RBC from
hemolysis by oxidizing agent (e.g H2O2).
3) It is closely associated with reproductive
functions and prevents sterility. Vitamin E
preserves and maintains germinal
epithelium of gonads for proper
reproductive function.
4) It increases the synthesis of heam.
5) It is required for cellular respiration
through electron transport chain
(believed to stabilize coenzyme Q).
6) Vitamin E prevents the oxidation of
vitamin A and carotenes.
7) It is required for proper storage of creatine in
skeletal muscle.
8) Vitamin E is needed for optimal absorption of
amino acids from the intestine.
9) It is involved in proper synthesis of nucleic
acids.
10)Vitamin E protects liver from being damaged by
toxic compounds such as carbon tetrachloride.
11)Vitamin E has been recommended for the
prevention of chronic diseases such as cancer
and heart diseases.
Deficiency
• Increased fragility of RBCs, hemolytic or
macrocytic anemia and heart problem.
Hypervitaminosis:
Leads to hemorrhages.
Least toxic fat soluble vitamin.
 VITAMIN K
• Vitamin K is the only fat soluble vitamin
with a specific coenzyme function. It is
required for the production of blood
clotting factors, essential for coagulation.
CHEMISTRY
Vitamin K exists in different forms
vitamin K1 (Phylloquinone) is present in
plants.
Vitamin K2 (menaquinone) is produced by
the Intestinal bacteria and also found in
animals.
Vitamin K3 (menadione) is synthetic form.
•All the three vitamin (k1,k2,k3) are
naphthoquinone derivatives. Isoprenoid side chain
is present in vitamins K1 and k2.
•The three vitamins are stable to heat. Their
activity is, however, lost by oxidizing agents,
irradiation, strong acids and alkalies.
•Absorption , transport and storage
Vitamin k is taken in the diet or synthesized by the
intestinal bacteria. Its absorption takes place along
with fat (chylomicrons) and is dependent on bile
Salt. Vitamin K is transported along with LDL and
is stored mainly in liver and , to a lesser extent, in
other tissues.
Biochemical functions
The functions of vitamin K are concerned
with blood clotting process. It brings about
the post-translational (after protein
biosynthesis in the cell) modification of
certain blood clotting factors. The clotting
factors II (prothrombin) VII, IX and X are
synthesized as inactive precursors
(zymogens) in the liver.
•Vitamin K act as a Coenzyme for the
carboxylation of glutamic acid residues
present in the proteins and this reaction is
catalysed by a carboxylase (microsomal). It
involves the conversion of glutamate (Glu) to
carboxyglutamate.
•Vitamin K is also required for the
carboxylation of glutamic acid residues of
Osteocalcin, a calcium binding protein
present in the bone.
Recommended dietary allowance (RDA)
Strictly speaking there is no RDA for vitamin
K, since it can be adequately synthesized
in the gut. It is however , recommended
that half of the body requirement is
provided in the diet, while the other half is
met from the bacterial synthesis.
Accordingly , the suggested RDA for an
adult is 70-140 μg/day.
Dietary Sources
Cabbage, cauliflower , tomatoes , alfa alfa,
Spinach and other green vegetables are
good sources. It also present in egg yolk,
meat, liver, cheese and dairy products.
Deficiency symptoms
• The deficiency of vitamin K is uncommon ,
since it is present in the diet in sufficient
quantity and is adequately synthesized by
the intestinal bacteria.
• vitamin K deficiency may occur due to
 its poor absorption (lack of bile salts)
 loss of vitamin into feces (diarrhea )
 Administration of antibiotics (killing of
intestinal flora).
•Deficiency of vitamin k leads to the lack of
active prothrombin in the circulation. The
result is that blood coagulation is adversely
affected. The individual bleeds profusely
even for minor injuries .The blood clotting
time is increased.
Hypervitaminsis K
Administration of large doses of vitamin K
produces hemolytic anemia and jaundice,
Particularly in infants. The toxic effect is due
to increased breakdown of RBC.
Water Soluble Vitamins
 Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)
• Vitamin C is a water soluble versatile
vitamin.
• Scurvy has been known to man for
centuries. It was the first disease found to
be associated with diet.
Chemistry
• Ascorbic acid is a hexose derivative and
closely resembles monosaccharides in
structure.
• The acidic property of Vitamin C is due to
the enolic hydroxyl group. It is a strong
reducing agent.
• It is stable at acidic pH
• L- ascorbic acid undergoes oxidation to
form dehydroascorbic acids and this
reaction is reversible.
• Both these form are biologically active.
• D-Ascorbic acid is inactive.
• The plasma and tissues predominantly
contain ascorbic acid in reduced form.
• Oxidation of ascorbic acid is rapid in the
presence of copper, hence vitamin C
becomes inactive if the foods are prepared
in copper vessels.
• It is also a heat labile Vitamin.
Biosynthesis and metabolism.
• Many animals can synthesze ascorbic
acid from glucose.
• Man, other primates guinea pigs and bats
cannot synthesize ascorbic acid due to the
deficiency of a single enzyme namely L-
gulonolactone oxidase.
• Vitamin C is rapidly absorbed from the
intestine. It is not stored in the body to a
significant extent.
• Ascorbic acid is excreted in urine as such
or as its metabolites diketogulonic acid
and oxalic acid.
 Dietary sources
• gooseberry (amla)
• Citrus fruits like lemon, lime, orange
guava, barries,etc
• green vegetables (cabbage, spinach)
tomatoes, potatoes (particularly skin) are
rich in ascorbic acid.
• Milk is poor source of vitamin C.
• Every fruit that tastes sour is not a rich
source of vitamin C. e.g. tamarind
 Recommended dietary allowance.
• About 60 to 70 mg vitamin C intake per
day will meet the person’s requirement.
• Additional intakes (20%-40%) are
recommended for women during
pregnancy and lactation.
 Biochemical functions
• Most of the function of vitamin C are related to
its property to undergoes reversible oxidation –
reduction.
• Collagen formation: vitamin C plays the role of
a coenzyme in hydroxylation of proline and
lysine while protocollagen is converted to
collagen. In this way, Vitamin C is necessary for
maintenance of normal connective tissue and
wound healing process.
• Collagen is also important in bone formation
• Iron and hemoglobin metaboilsm: Ascorbic
acid enhances iron absorption by keeping it in
the ferrous form. The degradation of hemoglobin
to bile pigments requires ascorbic acid.
• Sparing action of other vitamins: asorbic acid
is a strong antioxidant. It spares vitamin A,
vitamin E and some B-complex vitamins from
oxidation
• Immunological function: vitamin C
enhances the synthesis of
immunoglobulins (antibodies) and increses
the phagocytic action of leucocytes.
• Prevention action on cancer: vitamin C
reduces the risk of cancer and coronary
heart diseases.
• Helps in retarding ageing process.
 Deficiency symptoms
• The deficiency of ascorbic acid result in
the Scurvy. This disease is characterized
by spongy and sore gums, loose teeth
• As vitamin C is important in formation of
collagen deficiency of vitamin C leads to
muscle weakness and hemorrages.
• Defective collagen leads to osteoporosis.
• Increased susceptibility to infections,
delayed wound healing.
• anemia, swollen joints, fragile blood
vessels
• Fatigue
Vitamin B complex
 Thiamine (vitamin B1)
• Thiamine (anti- beri beri or antineuritic
vitamin) is a water soluble.
• It has a specific coenzyme, thiamine
pyrophosphate (TPP) which is mostly
associated with carbohydrate metabolism.
Chemistry
• Thiamine contains a pyrimidine ring and a
thiazole ring held by a methylene bridge.
• Thiamine is the only natural compound
with thiazole ring.
• It is destroyed by heat, reducing agent or
oxidizing agent.
 Dietary Sources
•Cereals, pulses, oil seed, nuts and yeast
are good sources.
•Thiamine is mostly concentrated in the
outer layer (bran) of Cereals. Polishing of
rice removes about 80% of thiamine.
• Vitamin B1 is also present in animal food
like pork, liver, heart, kidney, milk etc.
Recommended diatary allowance (RDA)
The daily requirement of thiamine depends
on the intake of carbohydrate. A dietary
supply of 1-1.5 mg/day is recommended for
adults (about 0.5 mg/1000 cals of energy).
For children RDA is 0.7-1.2 mg/day. The
requirement marginally increases in
pregnancy an lactation (2 mg/day) old range
and alcoholism.
 Biochemical function
• Active coenzyme form of thiamine is
thiamine pyrophosphate.
• The coenzyme thiamine pyrophosphate or
cocarboxylase is intimately connected with
the energy releasing reactions in the
carbohydrate metabolism.
• Some of the reactions are dependent on
TPP, besides the other coenzyme.
 pyruvate dehydrogenase
• Pyruvate acetyl Co-A
2-O dehydrogenase complex
• 2-oxoglutarte succinyl CoA
• Ribose 5 P+ xylose 5 P
transketolase

Sedoheptulose 7 P + glyceraldehyde 3 P
• α- ketoglutrate dehydrogenase is an
enzyme of TCA cycle, this enzyme require
TPP.
• Transketolase is dependent on TPP. This
is an enzyme of hexose monophosphate
shunt (HMP).
• The branched chain α- keto acid
dehydrogenase (decarboxylase) catalyses
the oxidative decarboxylation of branched
chain amino acids (valine, leucine and
isoleucine) to the respective keto acids.
This enzyme also require TPP.
• TPP plays an important role in the
transmission of nerve impulse. It is
believed that TPP is required for
acetylcholine synthesis and the ion
translocation of neural tissue.
Deficiency symptoms
The deficiency of vitamin B1 results in a
condition called beri-beri . Beri – beri is
mostly seen in populations consuming
exclusively polished rice as staple food.
The early symptoms of thiamine deficiency
are loss of appetite (anorexia) weekness,
constipation , nausea, mental depression,
etc. Numbness in the legs complaints of
pins and needles sensation are reported.
Wet Beri – Beri
This is characterized by edema of legs, face,
trunk and serious cavities. Breatless and
palpitation are present. The calf muscles are
slightly swollen. The systolic blood pressure
is elevated while diastolic is decreased. Fast
and bouncing pulse is observed. The heart
becomes weak and death may occur due to
Heart failure.
Dry beri-beri
This is associated with neuro-logical
manifestations resulting in peripheral
neuritis. Edema is not commonly seen.
The muscles become progressively weak
and walking becomes difficult. The
affected individuals depend on support to
walk and become bedridden and may
even die if not treated.
The symptoms of beri-beri are often mixed in
which case it is referred to as mixed beri-beri.
Infantile Beri-Beri
This is seen in infants born to mothers suffering
form thiamine deficiency. The breast milk of
these mothers contain low thiamine content.
Infantile beri-beri is characterized by
sleeplessness, restlessness, vomiting Most of
these symptoms are due to cardiac dilatation.
Death may occur suddenly due to cardiac
failure.
Wernicke – Korsakoff syndrome
This is a disorder mostly seen in chronic
alcoholics. The body demands of thiamine
increase in alcoholism. Insufficient intake or
impaired intestinal absorption of thiamine
will lead to this syndrome. It is characterized
by loss of memory, apathy and a rhythmical
to and fromotion of the eye balls.
RIBOFLAVIN (VITAMIN B2)
Chemistry
•Riboflavin contains 6,7 dimethyl
isoalloxazine i.e. flavin (a hetercyclic 3 ring
sturcture) Attached to D-ribitol by a nitrogen
atom.
•Riboflavin is sensitive to heat and light.
When exposed to ultra-violet rays of
sunlight, it is converted to lumiflavin which
exhibits yellow fluroscenes.
Recommended dietary allowance (RDA)
•The daily requirement of riboflavin for an
adult is 1.5-2.0mg.
• For children it is 1.0-1.8mg.
•Higher intakes (by 0.2-0.5 mg/day) are
advised for pregnant and lactating women.
Dietary sources
•Milk and milk products, meat, eggs, liver ,
kidney are rich sources.
• Cereals , fruit, vegetables and fish are
moderate sources.
Coenzymes of riboflavin
Flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin
adenine dinucleotide (FAD) are the two
coenzyme forms of riboflavin. The ribitol (5
carbon) is linked to phosphate in FMN.
FAD is formed from FMN by the transfer of
an AMP moiety from ATP.
Biochemical functions
The flavin coenzymes (mostly FAD and to a
lesser extent FMN) participate in many
redox reactions responsible for energy
Production.
Enzymes that use flavin coenzymes (FMN
or FAD) are called flavoproteins. The
coenzymes (prosthetic groups) often bind
rather tightly, to the protein (apoenzyme)
Either by non-covalent bonds (mostly) or
covalent bonds in the holoenzyme. Many
flavoproteins contain metal atoms (iron,
molybdenum etc). Which are known as
metalloflavoproteins.
The coenzymes FAD and FMN are
associated with certain enzymes involved in
carbohydrate , lipid, protein and purine
metabolism , besides the electron transport
chain.
Deficiency symptoms
Riboflavin deficiency symptoms include
cheilosis (fissures at the corners of the
mouth), glossitis (tongue smooth and
purplish) and dermatitis. Riboflavin
deficiency as such is uncommon. It is mostly
seen along with other vitamin deficiences.
Chronic alcoholics are suscepitible to B2
deficiency. (Assay of the enzymes
glutathione reductase in erythrocytes will be
useful in assessing Riboflavin deficiency)
NIACIN
Chemistry and synthesis of coenzymes
• Niacin is a pyridine derivative. Structurally,
it is pyridine 3-carboxylic acid.
• This vitamin occur in nature in two forms
nicotinic acid and nicotinamide.
• The coenzymes of niacin are NAD+ and
NADP
•They can be synthesized by the essential
amino acid tryptophan.
Dietary Sources
•The rich natural sources of niacin include
Liver, yeast, whole grains, cereals, pulses
like beans and peanuts.
•Milk, fish, egg and vegetables are moderate
sources.
• The essential amino acid typtophan can
be transformed into niacin. 60mg of
tryptophan is equivalent to 1 mg of niacin.
for the synthesis of niacin coenzymes.
• Nicotinamide liberated on the degradation
of NAD+ and NADP+ is mostly excreted in
urine as N-methylnicotinamide
Recommended dietary allowance (RDA)
The daily requirement of niacin for an adult
is 15-20 mg and for children around 10-15
mg . Very often the term niacin equivalents
(NE) is used while expressing its RDA. One
NE= 1 mg niacin or 60 mg of tryptophan.
Pregnancy an lacatation in women impose
an additional metabolic burden and increase
the niacin requirement.
Biochemical Functions
The coenzymes NAD+ and NADP+ are
involved in a variety of oxidation -reduction
Reaction. They accept hydride ion
(hydrogen atom- one electron H- ) and
undergo reduction in the pyridine ring: This
results in the neutralization of positive
charges.
A large number of enzymes (about 40)
belonging to the class oxidoreductases are
dependent on NAD+ and NADP+. NADH
produced is oxidized in the electron
transport chain to generate ATP. NADPH is
also important for many biosynthetic
reactions as it donates reducing equivalents.
Deficiency symptoms
Niacin deficiency results in a condition
Called pellagra (Italian rough skin). This
disease involves skin , gastrointestinal tract
and central nervous system. The symtoms
of pellagra are commonly referred to a three
Ds. The disease also progresses in that
order dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia, and if
not treated may rarely lead to death .
Dermatitis (inflammation of skin) is usually
found in the areas of the skin exposed to
sunlight (neck , dorsal part of feet, ankle
And part of face). Diarrhea may be in the
form of loose stool, often with blood and
muscus. Prolonged diarrhea leads to weight
loss. Dementia is associated with
degeneration of nervous tissues. The
symptoms of dementia , include anxiety ,
irritability , poor memory, insomnia
(sleeplessness) etc.
Pellagra is mostly seen among people
whose staple diet is corn or maize. Niacin
present in maize is unavailable to the body
As it is in bound form. Further , tryptophan
content is low in maize.
PYRIDOXINE (VITAMIN B6)
VITAMIN B6 is used to collectively represent
the three compounds namely pyridoxine
pyridoxal and pyridoxamine (the vitamers of
B6).
Chemistry
Vitamin B6 compounds are pyridine
derivatives. They differ from each other in
the structure of a functional group attached
to 4th carbon in the pyridine ring. Pyridoxine
Is a primary alcohol, pyridoxal is an
aldehyde from while pyridoxamine is an
amine
 Pyridoxamine is mostly present in plants
while pyridoxal and pyridoxamine are found
in animal foods. Pyridoxine can be
converted to pyridoxal and pyridoxamine,
but the latter two cannot form pyridoxine.
Dietary sources
Animal sources such as egg yolk, fish, milk,
meat are rich in B6. wheat, corn, cabbage,
roots and tubers are good vegetables
sources.
 Recommended dietary allowance
• The requirement of pyridoxine for an adult
is 2- 2.2mg/day.
• During lactation, pregnancy and old age,
an intake of 2.5mg/dl is recommended.
Synthesis of coenzyme
The active form of vitamin B6 is the
coenzyme pyridoxal phosphate (PLP). PLP
can be synthesized from the three
compounds pyridoxine , pyridoxal and
Pyridoxamine. B6 is excreted in urine as 4-
pyridoxic acid.
Biochemical functions
•PLP is closely associated with the
metabolism of amino acids. The synthesis of
certain specialized products such as
serotonin, histamine, niacin coenzymes from
amino acids is dependent on pyridoxine.
• Pyridoxal phosphate participates in
reactions like transamination,
decarboxylation, deamination,
transsulfuration, condensation.
• Pyridoxal phosphate is required for the
synthesis of δ- amino levulinic acids, the
precursor for the heme synthesis.
• The synthesis of niacin coenzymes from
tryptophan is dependent on PLP. The
enzyme kynureninase requires PLP.
• PLP plays important role in the
metabolism of sulphur containing amino
acids.
• The enzyme glycogen phosphorylase that
cleaves glycogen to glucose 1-phosphate
contains PLP, covalently bound to lysine
residue.
• Adequate intake of B6 is useful to prevent
hyperoxaluria and urinary stone formation.
 Deficiency symptoms
Pyridoxine deficiency is associated with
neurological symtoms such as depression,
irritability, nervousness and mental
confusion.
Decrease in hemoglobin levels, associated
with hypochromic microcytic anemia, is seen
in B6 deficiency. This is due to a reduction in
heam production.
 BIOTIN (vitamin B7 or vitamin H)
sulfur containing B-complex vitamin
Chemistry
•Biotin is a heterocyclic, sulfur containing,
monocarboxylic acid.
•The structure is formed by fusion of
imidazole and thiophene rings with a valeric
acid side chain.
•Biotin is convalently bound to amino group
of lysine to form biocytin in the enzymes.
Biocytin may be regarded as the coenzyme
of biotin.
Dietary Sources
A large amount of biotin is produced by
bacteria. The rich sources are liver , kidney ,
egg yolk, milk, tomatoes grain etc.
Recommended dietary allowance (RDA)
A daily intake of about 100-300 mg is
recommended for adults. In fact, biotin is
normally synthesized by the intestinal
bacteria. However , to what extent the
synthesized biotin contributes to the body
requirements is not clearly known.
Biochemical functions
•Biotin serves as a carrier of Co2 in
carboxylation reactions.
pyruvate carboxylase
•Pyruvate gluconeogenesis oxaloacetate

Propipnyl Co A carboxylase
•Propipnyl Co A β oxidation of fatty acid methylonyl
Co A
Acetyl Co A carboxylase
•Acetyl Co A fatty acid synthesis malonyl Co A
Deficiency symptoms
•Deficiency of biotin may occur after
prolonged antibiotic treatment.
•The symptoms of biotin deficiency include
anemia , loss of appetite, nausea,
dermatitis, glossitis etc.
•Biotin deficiency may also result in
depression , muscle pain and dermatitis.
 PANTOTHENIC ACID
•Panthothenic acid is widely distributed in
nature.
•It is present in form of Coenzyme A.
Chemistry and synthesis of coenzyme A
•Pantothenic acid consists of two
components, pantoic acid and β- alanine,
held together by a peptide linkage.
•Synthesis of coenzyme A from
pantothenate occurs in a series of reactions.
Dietary sources
•Pantothenic acid is one of the most widely
distributed vitamins found in plant and
animals.
•The rich sources are egg, liver , meat ,
yeast, milk etc.
Recommended dietary allowance (RDA)
•The requirement of pantothenic acid for
humans is not clearly known. A daily intake
of about 5-10 mg is advised for adults.
Biochemical Functions
•Coenzyme A is a central molecule involved
in all the metabolism (carbohydrate, lipid
and protien). It play a unique role in
integrating various metabolism pathways.
•More than 70 enzymes that depend on
coenzyme A are known.
•A few examples of enzymes involved the
participation of coenzyme are given here:
• Acetic acid acetyl CoA
• Succinic acid succinyl Co A
• Fatty acid acyl Co A
• Acetyl Co A and malonyl Co A are used in
synthesis and elongation of fatty acid.
• Acetyl Co A is the starting material for cholesterol
synthesis.
Deficiency symptoms
•The burning feet syndrome
• pain and mumbness in the toes,
sleeplessness, fatigue etc
•Pantothenic acid deficiency in experimental
animals results in anemia, fatty liver,
decreased steroid synthesis etc.
 Folic Acid
• Folic acids is also known as folacin
Chemistry
•Folic acid consists of three components
pteridine ring , p-amino benzoic acid (PABA)
and glutamic acid (1 to7 residues).
•Folic acid mostly has one glutamic acid
residues and is known as pteroyl-glutamic
acid (PGA).
•The active form of folic acid is
tetrahydrofolate (THF or FH4). It is
synthesized from folic acid by the enzyme
Dihydrofolate reductase. The reducing
equivalent are provided by 2 moles of
NADPH. (nicotinic acid)
Dietary sources
•Folic acid is widely distributed in nature.
The rich sources are green leafy vegetables,
whole grains, cereals, liver , kidney, yeast
and eggs.
•Milk is rather a poor source of folic acid
Recommended dietary allowance (RDA)
•The daily requirement of folic acid is around
200 μg.
•during pregnancy (400 μg / day) and
loctation (300 μg/day).
.
Biochemical functions
•Tetrahydrofolate (THF or FH4) the
coenzyme of folic acid is actively involved in
the one carbon metabolism.
• THF serves as an acceptor or donor of one
carbon units [formyl(-CHO) , methyl(-CH3),
formate(-HCOO-) etc] in a variety of reaction
involving amino acid and nucleotide
metabolism.
Many important compounds are synthesized
in one carbon metabolism.
1. Purines (carbon 2,8) which are
incorporated into DNA and RNA.
2.Pyrimidine nucleotide deoxythymidylic acid
(dTMP) involved in the synthesis of DNA.
3.Biosynthesis of amino acid histidine and
conversion of glycine to serine.
Deficiency symptoms
Folic acid deficiency is probably the most
common vitamin deficiency, observed
primarily in the pregnant women, in both
developed (including USA) and developing
countries (including india). The pregnant
women, lactating women, women on oral
contraceptives, and alcoholics are also
susceptible to folate deficiency.
•The macrocytic anemia (abnormally large RBC)
associated with megaloblastic changes in bone
marrow is a characteristic feature of folate
deficiency.
•Impaired synthesis of nucleic acid and amino
acids.
Cyanocobalamine (vitamin B12)
• Chemistry:
• The structure of vitamin B12 consist of
Tetrapyrrole ring system called corrin ring
Cobalt at the central place
A nucleotide and 6 dimethylbenzimedazoleriboside
• Coenzyme forms are 5-deoxy-adenocyl-
cobalamine and methyl-cobalamine.
• It is a red crystalline compound soluble in water.
• Destroyed in acidic and alkaline solution.
Sources:
• Absent in plants and synthesized by
bacteria.
• Liver is the richest source.
Daily requirement:
Children 0.5 µg
Adult 3 µg
Normal bacterial flora contribute sufficient to
• Functions of vitamin B12:
• The role of vitamin B12 is interrelated with
folic acid.
• It is required in reduction of ribonucleotide
to deoxyribonucleotide.
• Deficiency:
• Common reason for deficiency is poor
absorption.
• The deficiency leads to anemia,
inflammation of tongue and mouth;
sensory disturbance in nervous system.
 Lipoic acid
• Sulfur-containing fatty acid which ct as a
coenzyme in biological system.
• Also known as thioctic acid.
Sources:
• Liver and yeast
Function:
• Act as coenzyme for pyruvate
dehydrogenase complex and oxogluterate
dehydrogense complex. Which are
essential in oxidative decarboxylation of
pyruvate and 2-oxoglutarate.
Deficiency:
• Not clearly known