Introduction to Database

Management

Chapter- 1
(Week 1 & 2)
 Organizing Data in a Traditional
File Environment

• File organization Term and Concepts

• Computer system organizes data in a hierarchy
• Bit: Smallest unit of data; binary digit (0,1)
• Byte: Group of bits that represents a single
character
• Field: Group of characters as word(s) or
number
• Record: Group of related fields
• File: Group of records of same type
 Organizing Data in a Traditional
File Environment

• File organization Term and Concepts

• Computer system organizes data in a hierarchy
• Database: Group of related files
• Entity: Person, place, thing on which we
store information.
• Attribute: Each characteristic, or quality,
describing entity
• E.g., Attributes Date or Grade belong to entity
COURSE
 Organizing Data in a Traditional
File Environment
The Data Hierarchy
A computer system
organizes data in a
hierarchy that starts
with the bit, which
represents either a 0 or
a 1. Bits can be
grouped to form a byte
to represent one
character, number, or
symbol. Bytes can be
grouped to form a field,
and related fields can
be grouped to form a
record. Related records
can be collected to form
a file, and related files
can be organized into a
database.
 Organizing Data in a Traditional
File Environment
Traditional File Processing

The use of a traditional approach to file processing encourages each

functional area in a corporation to develop specialized applications and files.
Each application requires a unique data file that is likely to be a subset of the
master file. These subsets of the master file lead to data redundancy and
inconsistency, processing inflexibility, and wasted storage resources.
 Database

• A database is a collection of information that is

organized so that it can easily be accessed,
managed, and updated. In one view, databases
can be classified according to types of content:
bibliographic, full-text, numeric, and images.
• A database is a logically coherent collection of data
with some inherent meaning, representing some
aspect of real world and which is designed, built and
populated with data for a specific purpose. A
database is not necessarily computerized. It can
be generated and maintained manually, or it may be
computerized.
 Database

Databases are used in every part of day-to-day life. Examples

of common database use include: depositing or withdrawing
money from a bank, making a travel reservation, accessing a
library catalog, buying something from the internet etc. These
are examples of traditional database applications, where data
is stored either in textual or numeric format. Less traditional
database applications that are starting to become more
popular include multimedia databases, which store pictures,
video clips, and sounds, Geographic Information Systems
(GIS) that store maps, satellite images and weather data.
 Database Management
System
 A database management system (DBMS)
is a collection of interrelated data and a
set of programs to access those data.
The collection of data, usually referred to
a database, contains information relevant
to an enterprise.
 DBMS is a system that allows inserting,
updating, deleting and processing of data.
 Database Management
System
 A database management system is a
collection of programs that enable users to
create and maintain a database.
-----Elmarsi & Navathe
 A database management system, or DBMS, is
a software designed to assist in maintaining
and utilizing large collections of data. ---------
Ramakrishnan & Gehrke
 Goals/Purposes of DBMS
 The primary goal of a DBMS is to provide an
environment that is both convenient and efficient for
people to use in retrieving and storing information.
 Database systems are designed to manage large
bodies of information. Management of data
involves both defining structures for storage of
information and providing mechanisms for
manipulation of information.
 Goals/Purposes of DBMS

 The database system must ensure the

safety and security of the information
stored, despite system crashes or attempts
at unauthorized access.
 The system must avoid possible
anomalous results if data are to be shared
among several users.
 Database System
Applications

Databases are widely used. Some

representative applications are:

1. Banking: For customer information,

accounts, loans and banking transactions.
2. Airlines/Railways/Road Transport: For
ticket reservation, schedules and routes.
 Database System
Applications

3. Universities: For student information,

courses and grades (education
management).
4.Credit card transaction: For
purchases on credit card, monthly
statement generation
 Database System
Applications

5.Telecommunication: For keeping

records of call made, generating
monthly bills, maintaining balances on
prepaid calling cards, storing
information about the communication
networks.
 Database System
Applications

6.Finance: For storing information about

holdings, sales, and purchases of financial
instruments such as stocks and bonds.

7. Sales: For customer, product and

purchase information.
 Database System
Applications
8. Manufacturing: For management of
supply chains and for tracking production
of items in factories, inventories of items
in warehouses/stores and order for items.

9. Human resources: For information

about employees, salaries, payroll taxes
and benefits and for generation of pay
checks.
Some Commercial Database
Management Software

 For Personal Computers

1. Microsoft Access
2. FoxPro
3. dBase
 Some Commercial Database
Management Software

1.Oracle – Oracle 8i, Oracle9i, Oracle 10g, 11g

2. Microsoft SQL Server
3. IBM DB2/DB2UDB
4. Informix
5. Sybase
6. Ingress
Some Open Source Database
Management Software

1. CUBRID
2. Firebird
3. MariaDB
4. MongoDB
5. Postgre SQL
6. MySQL
7. SQLite
 Database Systems Vs File
Systems ( Why DBMS?)
 Ordinary file system has a number of major
drawbacks:

1. Data redundancy and inconsistency-

Multiple file formats, duplication of
information in different files.
2.Difficulty in accessing data
- Need to write a new program to carry out
each new task
Database Systems Vs File
Systems ( Why DBMS?)

3.Data isolation
-Multiple files and formats
4.Integrity problems
- Integrity constraints (e.g. account balance
> 0) become part of program code
- Hard to add new constraints or change
existing ones.
Database Systems Vs File
Systems ( Why DBMS?)

5. Atomicity problems
- Failures may leave database in an
inconsistent state with partial updates
carried out. E.g., transfer of funds from
one account to another should either
complete or not happen at all.
 Database Systems Vs File
Systems ( Why DBMS?)
 6. Concurrent-access anomalies
- Needed for system performance and
usability
- Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can
lead to inconsistencies. E.g. two people
reading a balance and updating it at the
same time.
 Database Systems Vs File
Systems ( Why DBMS?)

7. Security problems: Not every user of

the database system should be able to
access all the data.

Database systems offer solutions to

all these problems
 View of Data

 A database system is a collection of

interrelated files and set of programs that
allow users to access and modify these
files. A major purpose of a database
system is to provide users an abstract
view of the data. That is, the system
hides certain details of how the data is
stored and maintained.
 Data Abstraction

Several levels of data abstraction are

maintained to simplify users’ interaction
with the system:

1. Physical level: The lowest level of

abstraction describes how data are
actually stored. It describes complex
low-level data structures in detail.
 Data Abstraction

 2. Logical level: The next higher level

of abstraction describes what data
stored in database, and what
relationships exist among those data.
The logical level thus describes the
entire database in terms of a number of
relatively simple structures.
 Data Abstraction

 For Example:
 create table customer (
customer_id varchar(10),
customer_name varchar
(35), customer_street
varchar (20),
salary number (10,2));
 Data Abstraction
 3. View level: The highest level of
abstraction describes only part of the entire
database. Computer users see a set of
application programs that hide details of
data types. Several views of database are
defined and users see these views. In
addition to hiding details, the views also
provide a security mechanism to prevent
users from accessing certain part of the
database.
Data Abstraction
 Instances and Schemas

 Schema: The overall design of the

database is called the database
schema. Schemas are changed
infrequently, if at all. This corresponds
to the variable declaration (with type
definition) of a programming language.
 Instances and Schemas

Schemas are:
1.Physical schema: Describes the database
design at physical level
2.Logical schema: Describes the database
design at logical level
3.View schema: Describes the database design
at view level
 Instances and Schemas

Instances: Databases change over time as

information is inserted and deleted. The
collection of information stored in the
database at a particular moment is called an
instance of the database. While executing,
each variable of a programming language has
a particular value at a given instant. The values
of the variable in a program at a point in time
correspond to an instance of the database
schema.
 Instances and Schemas
 Physical Data Independence – The ability to
modify the physical schema without changing
the logical schema is called physical data
independence.
- Applications depend on the logical schema
(or the view schema)
- In general, the interfaces between the
various levels and components should be well
defined so that changes in some parts do not
seriously influence others.
 Data Models

 A data model is a collection of conceptual

tools for describing data, data relationship,
data semantics and consistency
constraints.
A. Base Models: Describes the design of
the database at the logical level.
 Data Models

 A. 1. Entity-Relationship Model: This

is a higher-level data model. It is
based on a perception of a real world
that consists of a collection of basic
objects, called entities and the
relationship among these objects.
 Data Models

 Entity: An entity is a “thing” or “object”

in the real world that is distinguishable
from all other objects. An entity has a set
of properties, called attributes and the
values for some set of properties/attributes
may uniquely identify an entity. An entity
may be concrete, such as a person or a
book, or it may be abstract, such as loan,
or a holiday, or a concept.
 Data Models

 customer- customer-id, customer-

name, customer-street, customer-city
 loan – loan-number, amount
 Data Models

 Relationship: A relationship is an
association among several entities. A
depositor relationship associates a
customer with each account that he or she
has.
The set of all entities of the same type and
the set of all relationships of the same
type are termed an entity set and
relationship set, respectively
Data Models
 Data Models

A. 2. Relational Model: This is a

lower level model. It uses a collection
of tables to represent both data and
relationships among those data.

Each table has multiple columns, and

each column has a unique name.
 Data Models

 The relational model is an example of a record-

based model. This is because the database is
structured in fixed-format records of several
types. Each table contains records of a particular
type. Each record type defines a fixed no. of
fields, or attributes. The columns of the table
correspond to the attributes of the record type.
 Data Models

 The relational model is the most widely

used data model and a vast majority of
current database systems are based on
the relational model.
The relational model is at a lower level
of abstraction than the E-R model.
Database designs are often carried out
in the E-R model and then translated to
the relational model.
Data Models
 Data Models
 B. Other Models:
B. 1. Object-oriented data model: Drawing increasing
attention. It can be seen as extending of E-R model with
notions of encapsulation, methods (functions) and object identity.
An object database (also object-oriented database
management system, OODBMS) is a database management
system in which information is represented in the form of
objects as used in object-oriented programming. Object
databases are different from relational databases which are
table-oriented.
Data Models
 Data Models

 B. 2. Object-relational data model: Combines the

features of object-oriented data model and
relational data model.
 An object-relational database (ORD), or object-
relational database management system
(ORDBMS), is a database management system
(DBMS) similar to a relational database, but with an
object-oriented database model: objects, classes
and inheritance are directly supported in
database schemas and in the query language.
 Data Models
 B. 3. Semi-structured data model: Permits the
specification of data where individual data items of
the same type may have different sets of attributes.
The extensible markup language (XML) is widely
used to represent semi-structured data.
 The semi-structured model is a database model
where there is no separation between the data and
the schema, and the amount of structure used
depends on the purpose. It can represent the
information of some data sources that cannot be
constrained by schema.
Data Models
 Data Models

 C. Historical Models: These are in

little use now.
C. 1. Network data model

C. 2. Hierarchical model
 Data Models

 The network model is a database

model conceived as a flexible way of
representing objects and their
relationships. Its distinguishing feature is
that the schema, viewed as a graph in
which object types are nodes and
relationship types are arcs, is not
restricted to being a hierarchy or lattice.
 Data Models
Network DBMS:
• Depicts data logically as many-to-many
relationships

The Network Data Model

 TYPES OF
RELATIONS

ONE-TO-ONE: STUDENT ID

CLASS
ONE-TO-MANY:
STUDENT STUDENT STUDENT
A B C
CLASS CLASS
MANY-TO-MANY:
1 2

STUDENT STUDENT STUDENT

A B C
 Data Models

 A hierarchical database model is a

data model in which the data is
organized into a tree-like structure.
The data is stored as records which
are connected to one another through
links. A record is a collection of fields,
with each field containing only one
value.
 Data Models

Hierarchical DBMS:

• Organizes data in a tree-like structure

• Supports one-to-many parent-child

relationships

• Prevalent in large legacy systems

A Hierarchical Database for a Human Resources
System
Thank
You