Chapter 1 and 2 - Chemistry Online Version

Anatomy and Physiology I
BSC 1085C
Dr. Lovell
Overview of Anatomy and
Physiology
Anatomy – the study of the structure of
body parts and their relationships to one
another

Gross or macroscopic

Microscopic

Developmental
Physiology – the study of the function of
the body’s structural machinery
Why study anatomy and physiology
together?
Form Function
Anatomy Physiology
This is called the Principle of Complementarity of
structure and function
Function always reflects structure
What a structure can do depends on its specific
form
Levels of Structural Organization
Chemical – atoms combined to form molecules
Cellular – cells are made of molecules
Tissue – consists of similar types of cells
Organ – made up of different types of tissues
Organ system – consists of different organs that
work closely together
Organismal – made up of the organ systems
Levels of organization
Chemistry
BSC 1085C
Dr. Lovell
The Chemical Elements
Element = simplest form of matter with
unique chemical properties (cannot be broken
down by conventional chemical methods)
Each element is composed of more or
less identical building blocks called
atoms
24 elements have biological role

6 elements = 98.5% of body weight

trace elements in minute amounts
The major and minor
elements in biology
Major elements
in biology
Lesser elements
Structure of an Atom
Nucleus = center of atom

protons: single “+” charge, mass = 1 amu
The number of protons determines the atomic number and the
type of element the atom forms

neutrons: no charge, mass = 1 amu
Electron shells surround the nucleus

electrons: single “-” charge, little mass

valence electrons in the outermost shell
interact with other atoms
determine chemical behavior
Planetary Models of Elements
p+ represents protons, no represents neutrons

Atoms are most stable when the outermost shell
(valence electrons) is either full or empty

therefore, atoms will gain, lose, or share electrons with other
atoms
First level = 2 e-, second level = 8 e-, third level = 8 e-
Isotopes
Nearly all elements have two or more

structural variations called isotopes

Isotopes of the same element have the same
number of protons and electrons but a different
number of neutrons

For example carbon has 3 isotopes: 12C, 13C, 14C
How many neutrons does 13C have? How many electrons does it have?
Ions and Ionization
Ions - carry a charge due to an unequal
number of protons and electrons
Ionization = transfer of electrons from

one atom to another
( stability of valence shell)
Anions and Cations
Anion

atom that gained electrons (net negative charge)
Cation

atom that lost an electron (net positive charge)
Molecules and Chemical Bonds
Molecules

two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds
Compounds

When two or more different kinds of atoms bind, they
form molecules of a compound
Molecular formula (eg: C2H6O)

Type of elements and how many atoms of each
Structural formula

location of each atom

structural isomers
revealed
Chemical Bonds
4 types of chemical bonds

Ionic bonds

Covalent bonds

Hydrogen bonds

Van der Waals force
1. Ionic Bonds
Electrons are transferred
from one atom to the other
Attraction of oppositely charged ions
Weak bond (easily dissociates in water)
2. Covalent Bonds
Formed by sharing of valence electrons
Types of covalent bonds

single = sharing of single pair electrons

double = sharing of 2 pairs
Nonpolar /Polar Covalent Bonds
Non-Polar bond – electrons
shared equally
Hydrophobic (water hating)
Polar bond - electrons

shared unequally
Hydrophilic (water loving)
Water is Polar!
3. Hydrogen Bonds
Weakest bond = no sharing of electrons
Attraction between polar molecules

“+” hydrogen atoms to “-”oxygen (or nitrogen) atoms in a
2nd molecule
Physiological importance

properties of water created by shapes of large complex
molecules

Protein shape (therefore function) determined by folding
due to hydrogen bonds
Solvency
Solvency - ability to dissolve other
chemicals

Hydrophilic (charged substances) dissolve
easily in water

Hydrophobic (neutral substances) do not
easily dissolve in water (ie: fats and oils)
Water = universal solvent

metabolic reactions and transport of
substances
Water (H2O) as a Solvent
Polar water molecules
overpower the ionic bond
in Na+Cl-

hydration spheres form
around each ion

water molecules: negative
pole faces Na+, positive pole
faces Cl-
Acids, Bases and pH
An acid is a proton donor
(releases H+ ions)
A base is a proton acceptor
(accepts H+ ions)
pH = the concentration of H+
ions in solution (-log [H+] )

a pH < 7 is an acidic solution

a pH > 7 is a basic solution
Blood pH ≈ 7.35 to 7.45

a pH of 7.0 is neutral pH (pure
water)
is HCl an acid or base?

is NaOH an acid or base?
Organic Chemistry
Study of compounds containing carbon

Molecules that do NOT contain carbon are
termed inorganic (CO2 is an exception)
4 categories of carbon compounds

Carbohydrates (sugars)

Lipids (fats and oils)

proteins

nucleotides and nucleic acids
Organic Molecules:
Carbohydrates
Hydrophilic organic molecule (love or hate water?)
General formula
 (CH2O)n n = number of carbon atoms
 for glucose, n = 6, so formula is C6H12O6
 2:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen
Monosaccharides
Simple sugars
General formula is C6H12O6

structural isomers
Major monosaccharides: glucose, galactose
and fructose

produced by digestion of complex carbohydrates
glucose is blood sugar
Disaccharides
Sugar molecule
composed of 2
monosaccharides
Major disaccharides

sucrose = table sugar
glucose + fructose

lactose = sugar in milk
glucose + galactose

maltose = grain products
glucose + glucose
Polysaccharides
Long chains of glucose subunits
Starch: energy storage in plants

digestible by humans for energy
Cellulose: structural molecule of plant cell walls

fiber in our diet
Glycogen: energy storage in animals

liver synthesizes after a meal and breaks down
between meals
Organic Molecules: Lipids
Hydrophobic organic molecule

composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
Five primary types in humans

fatty acids

triglycerides

phospholipids

steroids

eicosanoids
1: Fatty Acids
Chain of 4 to 24 carbon atoms

carboxyl (acid) group on one end, methyl group on the other
and hydrogen bonded along the sides
Classified

saturated - carbon atoms saturated with hydrogen

unsaturated - contains C=C bonds without hydrogen
2. Triglycerides (Neutral Fats
3 fatty acids bonded to glycerol molecule
(dehydration synthesis)
Function - energy storage, insulation and shock
absorption
3. Phospholipids
Triglyceride with one fatty acid replaced by a
phosphate group
Amphiphilic character

fatty acid “tails”
are hydrophobic

Phosphate “head”
is hydrophilic
4. Steroids and Cholesterol
Steroid = lipid with carbon atoms in four
rings

all steroids are derived from cholesterol
Cholesterol

important component of cell membranes

produced only in animal liver cells
naturally produced by our body
Organic Molecules: Proteins
Protein = long chain of amino acids
Combination (sequence of amino
acids) determines structure and function
Amino acid = carbon with 3 attachments

Amino (NH2), carboxy (COOH) and radical group (R
group)
20 unique amino acids


-R groups differ

properties determined by -R group
Protein Structure and Shape
Primary structure

amino acid sequence
Secondary structure

coiled or folded shape

hydrogen bonds between
negative C=O and positive
N-H groups
Tertiary structure

further folding and bending
into globular and fibrous shapes
Quaternary structure

associations of two or more
separate polypeptide chains
Proteins: Enzymes
Proteins often act
as biological
catalysts

promote rapid
reaction rates
Substrate -
substance an
enzyme acts upon
Product – substance
produced due to
enzymatic activity
Organic Molecules: Nucleotides
3 components

nitrogenous base

sugar (monosaccharide)

one or more phosphate
groups
Physiological important nucleotides

ATP = energy carrying molecule

cAMP = activates metabolic pathways

Adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine,
uracil (these are the nitrogenous bases that
are found in nucleotides in DNA and RNA)
Nucleic Acids
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

100 million to 1 billion nucleotides long

contains genetic code
RNA (ribonucleic acid) – 3 types


transfer RNA, messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA

70 to 10,000 nucleotides long

involved in protein synthesis, coded for by
DNA
Nucleotides and nitrogenous bases
DNA is composed
of nucleotides built
from 1 of 4
nitrogenous bases
(A, T, G, C), deoxy-
ribose sugar and a
phospate group
RNA is similar to DNA except it has a

ribose sugar and the nitrogenous base
uracil (U) instead of thymine (T)
Complementary Base Pairing in
DNA and RNA
Nitrogenous bases
united by hydrogen
bonds
DNA base pairings

A-T and C-G
Law of complementary
base pairing

one strand determines
base sequence of other
From DNA to
protein
DNA in nucleus
1) Transcription
(DNA → mRNA)
2) RNA leaves nucleus
and enters
cytoplasm
3) Ribosomes attach to
mRNA
4) tRNA brings in amino
acids according to
base pair sequence
of the mRNA strand
5) amino acids are added to the growing peptide chain
DNA transcribed into mRNA which is then translated into

proteins

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Anatomy and Physiology I

p+ represents protons, no represents neutrons

Nearly all elements have two or more

Ionization = transfer of electrons from

Polar bond - electrons

is HCl an acid or base?

20 unique amino acids

RNA (ribonucleic acid) – 3 types

RNA is similar to DNA except it has a

DNA transcribed into mRNA which is then translated into

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