ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

(19A05502T)
UNIT – I

Introduction: What is AI, Foundations of AI, History of AI, The State

of Art. Intelligent Agents: Agents and Environments, Good Behavior:
The Concept of Rationality, The Nature of Environments And The
Structure of Agents.
INTRODUCTION:

In today's world, technology is growing very fast, and we are

getting in touch with different new technologies day by day.

Here, one of the booming technologies of computer science is

Artificial Intelligence which is ready to create a new revolution in
the world by making intelligent machines.

The Artificial Intelligence is now all around us. It is currently

working with a variety of subfields, ranging from general to
specific, such as self-driving cars, playing chess, proving theorems,
playing music, Painting, etc.

AI is one of the fascinating and universal fields of Computer

science which has a great scope in future. AI holds a tendency to
cause a machine to work as a human.
WHAT IS AI?

Artificial Intelligence is composed of two

words Artificial and Intelligence, where
Artificial defines "man-made," and
intelligence defines "thinking power",
hence AI means "a man-made thinking
power".
 “It is a branch of computer science by which we can create
intelligent machines which can behave like a human, think like
humans and able to make decisions.”

(OR)

“Artificial intelligence is the simulation of human intelligence

processes by machines, especially computer systems”.

 Artificial Intelligence exists when a machine can have human based

skills such as learning, reasoning, and solving problems
 With Artificial Intelligence you do not need to preprogram a
machine to do some work, despite that you can create a machine
with programmed algorithms which can work with own
intelligence, and that is the awesomeness of AI.
IMPACT OF AI IN OUR LIVES:
WHY ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE?

Before Learning about Artificial Intelligence, we should know that

what is the importance of AI and why should we learn it. Following

are some main reasons to learn about AI:

o With the help of AI, you can create such software or devices which

can solve real-world problems very easily and with accuracy such

as health issues, marketing, traffic issues, etc.

o With the help of AI, you can create your personal virtual Assistant,

such as Cortana, Google Assistant, Siri, etc.

o With the help of AI, you can build such Robots which can work

in an environment where survival of humans can be at risk.

o AI opens a path for other new technologies, new devices, and new

Opportunities.
GOALS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE:

Following are the main goals of Artificial Intelligence:

1. Replicate human intelligence

2. Solve Knowledge-intensive tasks

3. An intelligent connection of perception and action

4. Building a machine which can perform tasks that requires

human intelligence such as:
o Proving a theorem
o Playing chess
o Plan some surgical operation
o Driving a car in traffic
5. Creating some system which can exhibit intelligent
behavior, learn new things by itself, demonstrate, explain,
and can advise to its user.
ADVANTAGES OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE:

o High Accuracy with fewer errors: AI machines or systems

are prone to less errors and high accuracy as it takes
decisions as per pre-experience or information.
o High-Speed: AI systems can be of very high-speed and fast-
decision making, because of that AI systems can beat a chess
champion in the Chess game.
o High reliability: AI machines are highly reliable and can
perform the same action multiple times with high accuracy.
o Useful for risky areas: AI machines can be helpful in
situations such as defusing a bomb, exploring the ocean
floor, where to employ a human can be risky.
o Digital Assistant: AI can be very useful to provide digital
assistant to the users such as AI technology is currently used
by various E-commerce websites to show the products as per
customer requirement.
o Useful as a public utility: AI can be very useful for public
utilities such as a self-driving car which can make our
journey safer and hassle-free, facial recognition for
security
DISADVANTAGES OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Every technology has some disadvantages, and the same goes for
Artificial intelligence. Being so advantageous technology still, it
has some disadvantages which we need to keep in our mind while
creating an AI system. Following are the disadvantages of AI:

o High Cost: The hardware and software requirement of AI is

very costly as it requires lots of maintenance to meet current
world requirements.
o Can't think out of the box: Even we are making smarter
machines with AI, but still they cannot work out of the box,
as the robot will only do that work for which they are trained,
or programmed.
o No feelings and emotions: AI machines can be an outstanding

performer, but still it does not have the feeling so it cannot

make any kind of emotional attachment with human, and may

sometime be harmful for users if the proper care is not taken.

o Increase dependency on machines: With the increment of

technology, people are getting more dependent on devices and

hence they are losing their mental capabilities.

o No Original Creativity: As humans are so creative and can

imagine some new ideas but still AI machines cannot beat this

power of human intelligence and cannot be creative and

imaginative.
APPLICATIONS OF AI:

Artificial Intelligence has various applications in today's society. It

is becoming essential for today's time because it can solve

complex problems with an efficient way in multiple industries,

such as Healthcare, entertainment, finance, education, etc. AI is

making our daily life more comfortable and fast.

1. AI in Astronomy

o Artificial Intelligence can be very useful to solve

complex universe problems. AI technology can be

helpful for understanding the universe such as how it

works, origin, etc.

2.AI in Healthcare

o In the last, five to ten years, AI becoming more

advantageous for the healthcare industry and going to

have a significant impact on this industry.

o Healthcare Industries are applying AI to make a better

and faster diagnosis than humans. AI can help doctors

with diagnoses and can inform when patients are

worsening so that medical help can reach to the

patient before hospitalization.

3.AI in Gaming

o AI can be used for gaming purpose. The AI machines

can play strategic games like chess, where the machine

needs to think of a large number of possible places.

4.AI in Finance

o AI and finance industries are the best matches for each

other. The finance industry is implementing

automation, chatbot, adaptive intelligence, algorithm

trading, and machine learning into financial processes.

5.AI in Social Media
o Social Media sites such as Face book, Twitter, and Snap chat
contain billions of user profiles, which need to be stored
and managed in a very efficient way. AI can organize and
manage massive amounts of data. AI can analyze lots of
data to identify the latest trends, hash tag, and requirement
of different users.

6.AI in Data Security

o The security of data is crucial for every company and cyber-
attacks are growing very rapidly in the digital world. AI
can be used to make your data more safe and secure.
Some examples such as AEG bot, AI2 Platform, are used to
determine software bug and cyber-attacks in a better way.

7.AI in Travel & Transport

o AI is becoming highly demanding for travel industries. AI is
capable of doing various travel related works such as from
making travel arrangement to suggesting the hotels, flights,
and best routes to the customers. Travel industries are using
AI-powered chatbots which can make human-like
interaction with customers for better and fast response.
8.AI in Automotive Industry
o Some Automotive industries are using AI to provide
virtual assistant to their user for better performance. Such
as Tesla has introduced TeslaBot, an intelligent virtual
assistant.
o Various Industries are currently working for developing
self-driven cars which can make your journey more safe
and secure.

9.AI in Robotics:
o Artificial Intelligence has a remarkable role in Robotics.
Usually, general robots are programmed such that they
can perform some repetitive task, but with the help of AI,
we can create intelligent robots which can perform tasks
with their own experiences without pre-programmed.
o Humanoid Robots are best examples for AI in robotics,
recently the intelligent Humanoid robot named as Erica
and Sophia has been developed which can talk and behave
like humans.
10.AI in Entertainment
o We are currently using some AI based applications in our daily
life with some entertainment services such as Netflix or Amazon.
With the help of ML/AI algorithms, these services show the
recommendations for programs or shows.
11.AI in Agriculture
o Agriculture is an area which requires various resources, labor,
money, and time for best result. Now a day's agriculture is
becoming digital, and AI is emerging in this field. Agriculture is
applying AI as agriculture robotics, solid and crop monitoring,
predictive analysis. AI in agriculture can be very helpful for
farmers.
12.AI in E-commerce
o AI is providing a competitive edge to the e-commerce industry,
and it is becoming more demanding in the e-commerce business.
AI is helping shoppers to discover associated products with
recommended size, color, or even brand.
13.AI in education:
o AI can automate grading so that the tutor can have more time to
teach. AI chatbot can communicate with students as a teaching
assistant.
o AI in the future can be work as a personal virtual tutor for
students, which will be accessible easily at any time and any
place.
FOUNDATIONS OF AI:

Few technologies have captured the human imagination like artificial

intelligence. Stories of intelligent robots and artificial beings have
pervaded our myths and legends since antiquity, sparking both excitement
and fear as our ancestors considered the existence of autonomous
machines. These myths continue to influence the narrative surrounding AI
and, though we’re closer to developing artificial general intelligence than
ever before, it can be difficult to separate fact from fiction given today’s
buzzword-laden media.
Though certain use cases have undoubtedly been overhyped, AI has the
potential to transform every aspect of how we work, play, and live. In this
post, we’ll lay the foundation for understanding this technology by:
 Defining artificial intelligence and describing how it’s
impacting our rapidly-changing world

 Simplifying the field of AI into five core research areas

 Bringing each research area to life with anecdotes and

examples
Artificial Intelligence is the automation of activities we normally
attribute to human thinking and rationality, such as problem-
solving, decision-making, and learning. AI lives within the
intersection of many classic disciplines, including philosophy,
neuroscience, behavioral economics, computer science, and
mechanical engineering. These interdisciplinary roots help explain
why AI has captured our imagination: this burgeoning research
field offers a little something for people of all interests and
backgrounds. As we evolve our understanding of what AI is and
how it works, we simultaneously make headway against the
academic community’s most challenging research questions:
HISTORY OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE:
Artificial Intelligence is not a new word and not a new technology for
researchers. This technology is much older than you would imagine. Even
there are the myths of Mechanical men in Ancient Greek and Egyptian
Myths. Following are some milestones in the history of AI which defines the
journey from the AI generation to till date development.
Maturation of Artificial Intelligence (1943-1952)

o Year 1943: The first work which is now recognized as AI was

done by Warren McCulloch and Walter pits in 1943. They
proposed a model of artificial neurons.
o Year 1949: Donald Hebb demonstrated an updating rule for
modifying the connection strength between neurons. His rule is
now called Hebbian learning.
o Year 1950: The Alan Turing who was an English
mathematician and pioneered Machine learning in 1950. Alan
Turing publishes "Computing Machinery and Intelligence" in
which he proposed a test. The test can check the machine's
ability to exhibit intelligent behavior equivalent to human
intelligence, called a Turing test.
The birth of Artificial Intelligence (1952-1956)

o Year 1955: An Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon

created the "first artificial intelligence program “Which
was named as "Logic Theorist". This program had
proved
38 of 52 Mathematics theorems, and find new and more
elegant proofs for some theorems.
o Year 1956: The word "Artificial Intelligence" first
adopted by American Computer scientist John
McCarthy at the Dartmouth Conference. For the first
time, AI coined as an academic field.

At that time high-level computer languages such as

FORTRAN, LISP, or COBOL were invented. And the
enthusiasm for AI was very high at that time.
The golden years-Early enthusiasm (1956-1974)

o Year 1966: The researchers emphasized developing algorithms

which can solve mathematical problems. Joseph Weizenbaum
created the first chatbot in 1966, which was named as ELIZA.
o Year 1972: The first intelligent humanoid robot was built in Japan
which was named as WABOT-1.
The first AI winter (1974-1980)

o The duration between years 1974 to 1980 was the first AI winter
duration. AI winter refers to the time period where computer
scientist dealt with a severe shortage of funding from government
for AI researches.
o During AI winters, an interest of publicity on artificial intelligence
was decreased.

A boom of AI (1980-1987)

o Year 1980: After AI winter duration, AI came back with "Expert

System". Expert systems were programmed that emulate the
decision-making ability of a human expert.
o In the Year 1980, the first national conference of the American
Association of Artificial Intelligence was held at Stanford
University.

The second AI winter (1987-1993)

o The duration between the years 1987 to 1993 was the second AI
Winter duration.
o Again Investors and government stopped in funding for AI research
as due to high cost but not efficient result. The expert system such
as XCON was very cost effective.
The emergence of intelligent agents (1993-2011)

o Year 1997: In the year 1997, IBM Deep Blue beats world chess champion,
Gary Kasparov, and became the first computer to beat a world chess
champion.
o Year 2002: for the first time, AI entered the home in the form of
Roomba, a vacuum cleaner.
o Year 2006: AI came in the Business world till the year 2006. Companies
like Facebook, Twitter, and Netflix also started using AI.

Deep learning, big data and artificial general intelligence (2011-

present)

o Year 2011: In the year 2011, IBM's Watson won jeopardy, a quiz show,
where it had to solve the complex questions as well as riddles. Watson had
proved that it could understand natural language and can solve tricky
questions quickly.
 o Year 2012: Google has launched an Android app feature
"Google now", which was able to provide information to
the user as a prediction.
o Year 2014: In the year 2014, Chatbot "Eugene Goostman"
won a competition in the infamous "Turing test."
o Year 2018: The "Project Debater" from IBM debated on
complex topics with two master debaters and also
performed extremely well.
o Google has demonstrated an AI program "Duplex" which
was a virtual assistant and which had taken hairdresser
appointment on call and lady on other side didn't notice that
she was talking with the machine.

Now AI has developed to a remarkable level. The concept of

Deep learning, big data, and data science are now trending like a
boom. Nowadays companies like Google, Facebook, IBM, and
Amazon are working with AI and creating amazing devices. The
future of Artificial Intelligence is inspiring and will come with
high intelligence.
THE STATE OF ART:

Types of Artificial Intelligence:

Artificial Intelligence can be divided in various types, there are mainly
two types of main categorization which are based on capabilities and
based on functionally of AI. Following is flow diagram which explains
the types of AI.
AI type-1: Based on Capabilities
1.Weak AI or Narrow AI:
o Narrow AI is a type of AI which is able to perform a
dedicated task with intelligence. The most common and
currently available AI is Narrow AI in the world of
Artificial Intelligence.
o Narrow AI cannot perform beyond its field or limitations,
as it is only trained for one specific task. Hence it is also
termed as weak AI. Narrow AI can fail in unpredictable
ways if it goes beyond its limits.
o Apple Siri is a good example of Narrow AI, but it operates
with a limited pre-defined range of functions.
o IBM's Watson supercomputer also comes under Narrow
AI, as it uses an Expert system approach combined with
Machine learning and natural language processing.
o Some Examples of Narrow AI are playing chess,
purchasing suggestions on e-commerce site, self-driving
cars, speech recognition, and image recognition.
1.General AI:
o General AI is a type of intelligence which could
perform any intellectual task with efficiency like a
human.
o The idea behind the general AI to make such a system
which could be smarter and think like a human by its
own.
o Currently, there is no such system exist which could
come under general AI and can perform any task as
perfect as a human.
o The worldwide researchers are now focused on
developing machines with General AI.
o As systems with general AI are still under research and
it will take lots of efforts and time to develop such
systems.
1.Super AI:
o Super AI is a level of Intelligence of Systems at
which machines could surpass human intelligence,
and can perform any task better than human with
cognitive properties. It is an outcome of general
AI.
o Some key characteristics of strong AI include
capability include the ability to think, to reason,
solve the puzzle, make judgments, plan, learn, and
communicate by its own.

Super AI is still a hypothetical concept of Artificial

Intelligence. Development of such systems in real is still
world changing task.
Artificial Intelligence type-2: Based on functionality
1.Reactive Machines
o Purely reactive machines are the most basic types of Artificial
Intelligence.
o Such AI systems do not store memories or past experiences for
future actions.
o These machines only focus on current scenarios and react on
it as per possible best action.
o IBM's Deep Blue system is an example of reactive machines.
o Google's Alpha Go is also an example of reactive machines.

2.Limited Memory
o Limited memory machines can store past experiences or some
data for a short period of time.
o These machines can use stored data for a limited time period
only.
o Self-driving cars are one of the best examples of Limited
Memory systems. These cars can store recent speed of nearby
cars, the distance of other cars, speed limit, and other
information to navigate the road.

3.Theory of Mind
o Theory of Mind AI should understand the human emotions,
people, beliefs, and be able to interact socially like humans.
 These types of AI machines are still not developed, but
researchers are making lots of efforts and
improvement for developing such AI machines.

4.Self-Awareness
o Self-awareness AI is the future of Artificial
Intelligence. These machines will be super intelligent,
and will have their own consciousness, sentiments, and
self-awareness.
o These machines will be smarter than human mind.
o Self-Awareness AI does not exist in reality still and it is
a hypothetical concept.
 INTELLIGENT AGENTS:

AGENTS IN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE:

An AI system can be defined as the study of the rational agent and its
environment. The agents sense the environment through sensors and
act on their environment through actuators. An AI agent can have
mental properties such as knowledge, belief, intention, etc.

What is an Agent?
An agent can be anything that perceive its environment through
sensors and act upon that environment through actuators. An Agent
runs in the cycle of perceiving, thinking, and acting. An agent can
be:

o Human-Agent: A human agent has eyes, ears, and other organs

which work for sensors and hand, legs, vocal tract work for
actuators.
 o Robotic Agent: A robotic agent can have cameras,

infrared range finder, NLP for sensors and various

motors for actuators.

o Software Agent: Software agent can have keystrokes,

file contents as sensory input and act on those inputs

and display output on the screen.

Hence the world around us is full of agents such as

thermostat, cellphone, camera, and even we are also agents.

TERMS:

Sensor: Sensor is a device which detects the change in the environment

and sends the information to other electronic devices. An agent
observes its environment through sensors.

Actuators: Actuators are the component of machines that converts

energy into motion. The actuators are only responsible for moving and
controlling a system. An actuator can be an electric motor, gears, rails,
etc.

Effectors: Effectors are the devices which affect the environment.

Effectors can be legs, wheels, arms, fingers, wings, fins, and display
screen.
Intelligent Agents:

An intelligent agent is an autonomous entity which acts

upon an environment using sensors and actuators for
achieving goals. An intelligent agent may learn from the
environment to achieve their goals. A thermostat is an
example of an intelligent agent.

Following are the main four rules for an AI agent:

o Rule 1: An AI agent must have the ability to perceive

the environment.
o Rule 2: The observation must be used to make
decisions.
o Rule 3: Decision should result in an action.
o Rule 4: The action taken by an AI agent must be a
rational action.
TERMS:

Sensor: Sensor is a device which detects the change in

the environment and sends the information to other
electronic devices. An agent observes its environment
through sensors.

Actuators: Actuators are the component of machines that

converts energy into motion. The actuators are only
responsible for moving and controlling a system. An
actuator can be an electric motor, gears, rails, etc.

Effectors: Effectors are the devices which affect the

environment. Effectors can be legs, wheels, arms, fingers,
wings, fins, and display screen.
Structure of an AI Agent:
The task of AI is to design an agent program which implements the agent function. The structure
of an intelligent agent is a combination of architecture and agent program. It can be viewed as:

Agent = Architecture + Agent program

Following are the main three terms involved in the structure of an AI agent:

Architecture: Architecture is machinery that an AI agent executes on.

Agent Function: Agent function is used to map a percept to an action.

f:P* → A
Agent program: Agent program is an implementation of agent function. An agent program
executes on the physical architecture to produce function f.

PEAS Representation
PEAS is a type of model on which an AI agent works upon. When we define an AI agent or
rational agent, then we can group its properties under PEAS representation model. It is made up
of four words:

o P: Performance measure
o E: Environment
o A: Actuators
o S: Sensors

Here performance measure is the objective for the success of an agent's behavior.

Exampl PEAS for self-driving cars:

e:
Let's suppose a self-driving car then PEAS representation will be:

Performance: Safety, time, legal drive, comfort

Structure of an AI Agent:
The task of AI is to design an agent program which implements the agent function. The structure
of an intelligent agent is a combination of architecture and agent program. It can be viewed as:

Agent = Architecture + Agent program

Following are the main three terms involved in the structure of an AI agent:

Architecture: Architecture is machinery that an AI agent executes on.

Agent Function: Agent function is used to map a percept to an action.

f:P* → A
Agent program: Agent program is an implementation of agent function. An agent program
executes on the physical architecture to produce function f.

PEAS Representation
PEAS is a type of model on which an AI agent works upon. When we define an AI agent or
rational agent, then we can group its properties under PEAS representation model. It is made up
of four words:

o P: Performance measure
o E: Environment
o A: Actuators
o S: Sensors

Here performance measure is the objective for the success of an agent's behavior.

Exampl PEAS for self-driving cars:

e:
Let's suppose a self-driving car then PEAS representation will be:

Performance: Safety, time, legal drive, comfort

Environment: Roads, other vehicles, road signs, pedestrian

Actuators: Steering, accelerator, brake, signal, horn

Sensors: Camera, GPS, speedometer, odometer, accelerometer, sonar.

AGENTS AND ENVIRONMENTS:
 An environment is everything in the world which surrounds the agent, but it is not a part
of an agent itself. An environment can be described as a situation in which an agent is
present.
 The environment is where agent lives, operate and provide the agent with something to
sense and act upon it. An environment is mostly said to be non-feministic.

Features of Environment:
As per Russell and Norvig, an environment can have various features from the point of view of
an agent:

1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable

2. Static vs Dynamic
3. Discrete vs Continuous
4. Deterministic vs Stochastic
5. Single-agent vs Multi-agent
6. Episodic vs sequential
7. Known vs Unknown
8. Accessible vs Inaccessible

9. Fully observable vs Partially Observable:

o If an agent sensor can sense or access the complete state of an environment at each point
of time then it is a fully observable environment, else it is partially observable.
o A fully observable environment is easy as there is no need to maintain the internal state to
keep track history of the world.
o An agent with no sensors in all environments then such an environment is called
as unobservable.

10.Deterministic vs Stochastic:
AGENTS AND ENVIRONMENTS:
 An environment is everything in the world which surrounds the agent, but it is not a part
of an agent itself. An environment can be described as a situation in which an agent is
present.
 The environment is where agent lives, operate and provide the agent with something to
sense and act upon it. An environment is mostly said to be non-feministic.

Features of Environment:
As per Russell and Norvig, an environment can have various features from the point of view of
an agent:

1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable

2. Static vs Dynamic
3. Discrete vs Continuous
4. Deterministic vs Stochastic
5. Single-agent vs Multi-agent
6. Episodic vs sequential
7. Known vs Unknown
8. Accessible vs Inaccessible

9. Fully observable vs Partially Observable:

o If an agent sensor can sense or access the complete state of an environment at each point
of time then it is a fully observable environment, else it is partially observable.
o A fully observable environment is easy as there is no need to maintain the internal state to
keep track history of the world.
o An agent with no sensors in all environments then such an environment is called
as unobservable.

10.Deterministic vs Stochastic:
 o If an agent's current state and selected action can completely determine the next state of
the environment, then such environment is called a deterministic environment.
o A stochastic environment is random in nature and cannot be determined completely by an
agent.
o In a deterministic, fully observable environment, agent does not need to worry about
uncertainty.

3. Episodic vs Sequential:
o In an episodic environment, there is a series of one-shot actions, and only the current
percept is required for the action.
o However, in Sequential environment, an agent requires memory of past actions to
determine the next best actions.

4. Single-agent vs Multi-agent
o If only one agent is involved in an environment, and operating by itself then such an
environment is called single agent environment.
o However, if multiple agents are operating in an environment, then such an environment is
called a multi-agent environment.
o The agent design problems in the multi-agent environment are different from single agent
environment.
 o If an agent's current state and selected action can completely determine the next state of
the environment, then such environment is called a deterministic environment.
o A stochastic environment is random in nature and cannot be determined completely by an
agent.
o In a deterministic, fully observable environment, agent does not need to worry about
uncertainty.

3. Episodic vs Sequential:
o In an episodic environment, there is a series of one-shot actions, and only the current
percept is required for the action.
o However, in Sequential environment, an agent requires memory of past actions to
determine the next best actions.

4. Single-agent vs Multi-agent
o If only one agent is involved in an environment, and operating by itself then such an
environment is called single agent environment.
o However, if multiple agents are operating in an environment, then such an environment is
called a multi-agent environment.
o The agent design problems in the multi-agent environment are different from single agent
environment.

5. Static vs Dynamic:
o If the environment can change itself while an agent is deliberating then such environment
is called a dynamic environment else it is called a static environment.
o Static environments are easy to deal because an agent does not need to continue looking
at the world while deciding for an action.
o However for dynamic environment, agents need to keep looking at the world at each
action.

SREC 50
 o Taxi driving is an example of a dynamic environment whereas Crossword puzzles are an
example of a static environment.

6. Discrete vs Continuous:
o If in an environment there are a finite number of percepts and actions that can be
performed within it, then such an environment is called a discrete environment else it is
called continuous environment.
o A chess game comes under discrete environment as there is a finite number of moves that
can be performed.
o A self-driving car is an example of a continuous environment.

7. Known vs Unknown
o Known and unknown is not actually a feature of an environment, but it is an agent's state
of knowledge to perform an action.
o In a known environment, the results for all actions are known to the agent. While in
unknown environment, agent needs to learn how it works in order to perform an action.
o It is quite possible that a known environment to be partially observable and an Unknown
environment to be fully observable.

8. Accessible vs Inaccessible
o If an agent can obtain complete and accurate information about the state's environment,
then such an environment is called an Accessible environment else it is called
inaccessible.
o An empty room whose state can be defined by its temperature is an example of an
accessible environment.
o Information about an event on earth is an example of Inaccessible environment.
Good Behavior: The Concept of Rationality:
Rational Agent:
 A rational agent is an agent which has clear preference, models uncertainty, and acts in a
way to maximize its performance measure with all possible actions.
 A rational agent is said to perform the right things. AI is about creating rational agents to
use for game theory and decision theory for various real-world scenarios.
 For an AI agent, the rational action is most important because in AI reinforcement
learning algorithm, for each best possible action, agent gets the positive reward and for
each wrong action, an agent gets a negative reward.

Rationality:
The rationality of an agent is measured by its performance measure. Rationality can be judged on
the basis of following points:

o Performance measure which defines the success criterion.

o Agent prior knowledge of its environment.
o Best possible actions that an agent can perform.
o The sequence of percepts.

***************
Types of AI Agents:
Agents can be grouped into five classes based on their degree of perceived intelligence
and capability. All these agents can improve their performance and generate better action
over the time. These are given below:

o Simple Reflex Agent

o Model-based reflex agent
o Goal-based agents
o Utility-based agent
o Learning agent

1. Simple Reflex agent:

o The Simple reflex agents are the simplest agents. These agents take decisions on
the basis of the current percepts and ignore the rest of the percept history.
o These agents only succeed in the fully observable environment.
o The Simple reflex agent does not consider any part of percepts history during their
decision and action process.
o The Simple reflex agent works on Condition-action rule, which means it maps the
current state to action. Such as a Room Cleaner agent, it works only if there is dirt
in the room.
o Problems for the simple reflex agent design approach:
o They have very limited intelligence
o They do not have knowledge of non-perceptual parts of the current state
o Mostly too big to generate and to store.
o Not adaptive to changes in the environment.
 Fig: Simple Reflex Agent

2. Model-based reflex agent:

o The Model-based agent can work in a partially observable environment, and track
the situation.
o A model-based agent has two important factors:
o Model: It is knowledge about "how things happen in the world," so it is
called a Model-based agent.
o Internal State: It is a representation of the current state based on percept
history.
o These agents have the model, "which is knowledge of the world" and based on the
model they perform actions.
o Updating the agent state requires information about:
a. How the world evolves
b. How the agent's action affects the world.
 Fig: Model-based agent

3. Goal-based agents:
o The knowledge of the current state environment is not always sufficient to decide
for an agent to what to do.
o The agent needs to know its goal which describes desirable situations.
o Goal-based agents expand the capabilities of the model-based agent by having the
"goal" information.
o They choose an action, so that they can achieve the goal.
o These agents may have to consider a long sequence of possible actions before
deciding whether the goal is achieved or not. Such considerations of different
scenario are called searching and planning, which makes an agent proactive.
 Fig: Goal-based agent

4. Utility-based agents:
o These agents are similar to the goal-based agent but provide an extra component
of utility measurement which makes them different by providing a measure of
success at a given state.
o Utility-based agent act based not only goals but also the best way to achieve the
goal.
o The Utility-based agent is useful when there are multiple possible alternatives, and
an agent has to choose in order to perform the best action.
o The utility function maps each state to a real number to check how efficiently each
action achieves the goals.
 Fig: Utility-based agent

5. Learning Agents
o A learning agent in AI is the type of agent which can learn from its past
experiences, or it has learning capabilities.
o It starts to act with basic knowledge and then able to act and adapt automatically
through learning.
o A learning agent has mainly four conceptual components, which are:
a. Learning element: It is responsible for making improvements by learning
from environment
b. Critic: Learning element takes feedback from critic which describes that
how well the agent is doing with respect to a fixed performance standard.
c. Performance element: It is responsible for selecting external action
d. Problem generator: This component is responsible for suggesting actions
that will lead to new and informative experiences.
o Hence, learning agents are able to learn, analyze performance, and look for new
ways to improve the performance.