Fundamentals of Database systems

Chapter 1

Introduction to
Database System
 Chapter Objectives

At the end of the chapter students should able to know:

 The meaning of the term ‘database’, DBMS, Database systems.
 The characteristics of Database systems.
 The problems with the file-based approach.
 Uses of database systems and Functions of a DBMS.
 Users and actors of database system
 Components of DBMS environment.
 The history of the development of DBMSs.
 The advantages and disadvantages of DBMSs.
 Definitions

 Data- is a collection of facts and figures that can be processed

to produce information.
 Information- is processed data that gives full meaning.
 Meta data- is data about the data.
 Database: is a collection of related data.
 A database is a persistent, logically coherent collection of inherently
meaningful data, relevant to some aspect of the real world.
 A database represents some aspect of the real world, sometimes
called the miniworld or the Universe of Discourse (UoD).
Database Management System(DBMS)

 A database management system (DBMS) is a collection of

programs that enables users to create and maintain a database.
 The DBMS is a general-purpose software system that facilitates
the processes of defining, constructing, manipulating, and sharing
databases among various users and applications.
 DBMS stores data in such a way that it becomes easier to
retrieve, manipulate, and produce information.
Database Management System(DBMS)

 Defining a database involves specifying the data types,

structures, and constraints of the data to be stored in the database.
 The database definition or descriptive information is also
stored by the DBMS in the form of a database catalog or
dictionary; it is called meta-data.
 Constructing the database is the process of storing the data on
some storage medium that is controlled by the DBMS.
 Sharing a database allows multiple users and programs to access
the database simultaneously.
Database Management System(DBMS)

 Manipulating a database includes functions such as querying the

database to retrieve specific data, updating the database to reflect
changes in the miniworld, and generating reports from the data.
 Typically, a DBMS provides the following facilities:
 It allows users to define the database, usually through a Data Definition
Language (DDL). The DDL allows users to specify the data types and
structures and the constraints on the data to be stored in the database.
 It allows users to insert, update, delete, and retrieve data from the
database, usually through a Data Manipulation Language (DML).
Database Management System(DBMS)
 It provides controlled access to the database. For example, it may provide:

– Security System, which prevents unauthorized users accessing the

database;
– Integrity System, which maintains the consistency of stored data;
– Concurrency Control System, which allows shared access of the
database;
– Recovery Control System, which restores the database to a previous
consistent state following a hardware or software failure;
– User-accessible Catalog, which contains descriptions of the data in the
database.

 Database System
– The DBMS software together with the data itself.
– Sometimes, the applications are also included.
Database system environment
 An Example

 Let us consider a simple example that most readers may be familiar

with: a UNIVERSITY database for maintaining information concerning

students, courses, and grades in a university environment.

 The database is organized as five files, each of which stores data

records of the same type.

– The STUDENT file stores data on each student,
– The COURSE file stores data on each course,
– The SECTION file stores data on each section of a course,
– The GRADE_REPORT file stores the grades that students receive in the
various sections they have completed, and
– The PREREQUISITE file stores the prerequisites of each course.
 Con…
 To define this database, we must specify the structure of the records of
each file by specifying the different types of data elements to be stored
in each record.
Con…
Typical DBMS Functionality

 Define a particular database in terms of its data types, structures,

and constraints
 Construct or Load the initial database contents on a secondary
storage medium
 Manipulating the database:

 Retrieval: Querying, generating reports

 Modification: Insertions, deletions and updates to its content
 Accessing the database through Web applications
 Cont…

 Processing and Sharing by a set of concurrent users and

application programs –yet, keeping all data valid and consistent
 Other features:
• Protection or Security measures to prevent unauthorized
access
• Active processing to take internal actions on data
• Presentation and Visualization of data
• Maintaining the database and associated programs over the
lifetime of the database application Called database,
software, and system maintenance
Characteristics-

DBMS was a new concept then, and all the research was done to
make it overcome the deficiencies in traditional style of data
management.
1. Real-world entity − A modern DBMS is more realistic and uses
real-world entities to design its architecture.
– It uses the behavior and attributes too.
– For example, a school database may use students as an entity
and their age as an attribute.
2. Relation-based tables − DBMS allows entities and relations
among them to form tables.
– A user can understand the architecture of a database just by
looking at the table names.
Characteristics …

3. Isolation of data and application − A database system is

entirely different than its data.
A database is an active entity, whereas data is said to be passive,
on which the database works and organizes. DBMS also stores
metadata, which is data about data, to ease its own process.
4. Less redundancy − DBMS follows the rules of normalization,
which splits a relation when any of its attributes is having
redundancy in values.
5. Normalization is a mathematically rich and scientific process that
reduces data redundancy.
 Characteristics …
5. Consistency− Consistency is a state where every relation in a
database remains consistent.
 There exist methods and techniques, which can detect attempt of
leaving database in inconsistent state.
 A DBMS can provide greater consistency as compared to earlier
forms of data storing applications like file-processing systems.

6. Query Language − DBMS is equipped with query language, which

makes it more efficient to retrieve and manipulate data.
– A user can apply as many and as different filtering options as required to
retrieve a set of data.
– Traditionally it was not possible where file-processing system was used.
 Characteristics …

8. ACID Properties − DBMS follows the concepts of Atomicity,

Consistency, Isolation, and Durability (normally shortened as ACID). These
concepts are applied on transactions, which manipulate data in a database.
– Atomicity − is, either all of its operations are executed or not at all.
– Consistency − No transaction should have any adverse effect on the data
residing in the database.
– Isolation − No transaction will affect the existence of any other
transaction.
– Durability − The database should be durable enough to hold all its latest
updates even if the system fails or restarts.
 Characteristics …

9. Multiuser and Concurrent Access − DBMS supports multi-

user environment and allows them to access and manipulate
data in parallel.
10. Multiple views − DBMS offers multiple views for different
users. A user who is in the Sales department will have a
different view of database than a person working in the
Production department.
 File-based approach
– A collection of application programs that perform services for the
end-users such as the production of reports.
• Each program defines and manages its own data.
• Traditionally, data was organized in file formats.
 DBMS vs File Management System
DBMS is a system software for creating
A file management system is a software
and managing databases that provides a
that manages data files in a computer
systematic way to create, retrieve, update
system.
and manage data.
Data Redundancy
In a file management system, data
Data redundancy is low in a DBMS.
redundancy is high.
Consistency

Data consistency is low in the file

In DBMS, the data consistency is high.
management system.
Data Sharing
Sharing data is harder in file
Sharing data is easier in DBMS.
management system.
Integrity

In file management system, the data

Data integrity is high in DBMS.
integrity is low.
 DBMS vs File Management System

Operations
Updating, searching, retrieving data is Updating, searching, retrieving data is
easier in DBMS because of queries. harder in a file management system.
Security
Data is not very secure in file
In DBMS, the data is more secure.
management system.
Backup and Recovery Process
Backup and recovery process is complex Backup and recovery process is simple in
in a DBMS. a file system.
Number of Users
DBMS is suitable for large organizations File management system is suitable for
to support multiple users. small organizations or single users.
Advantages of Using the DBMS Approach

• Controlling Redundancy
• Restricting Unauthorized Access
• Providing Persistent Storage for Program Objects
• Providing Storage Structures and Search
• Techniques for Efficient Query Processing
• Providing Backup and Recovery
• Providing Multiple User Interfaces
• Representing Complex Relationships among Data
• Enforcing Integrity Constraints
• Permitting Inferencing and Actions Using Rules
 Disadvantage File-based approach
 Separation and isolation of data
 Duplication of data and inconsistency
 Data dependence
 Incompatible file formats
 Fixed queries/proliferation of application programs
 Difficulty in accessing data
 Integrity problems
 Atomicity problems
 Concurrent-access anomalies
 Security problems
 Users

 A typical DBMS has users with different rights and permissions

who use it for different purposes.
 Some users retrieve data and some back it up.

 The users of a DBMS can be broadly categorized as follows −

I. Administrators

−Maintain the DBMS and are responsible for administrating the database.
– responsible to look after its usage and by whom it should be used.
– Can create access profiles for users and apply limitations to maintain
isolation and force security.
– Look after DBMS resources like system license, required tools, and other
software and hardware related maintenance.
– The DBA is responsible for authorizing access to the database,
coordinating and monitoring its use, acquiring software & hardware
resources as needed.
– The DBA is accountable for problems such as security breaches and poor
system response time.
 II. Designers −

– Database designers are responsible for identifying the data to be stored in the
database and for choosing appropriate structures to represent and store this
data. These tasks are mostly undertaken before the database is actually
implemented and populated with data.
– It is the responsibility of database designers to communicate with all
prospective database users in order to understand their requirements and to
create a design that meets these requirements.
– Database designers are the group of people who actually work on the
designing part of the database.
– Keep a close watch on what data should be kept and in what format.
– Identify and design the whole set of entities, relations, constraints, &
views.
 III. End Users −

– End users are those who actually reap the benefits of having a DBMS.

– End users can range from simple viewers who pay attention to the logs or
market rates to sophisticated users such as business analysts.
– Categories of End-users

• Casual: access database occasionally when needed

• Naïve or Parametric: they make up a large section of the end-user
population.
They use previously well-defined functions in the form of “canned
transactions” against the database.
Examples are bank-tellers or reservation clerks who do this activity for
an entire shift of operations.
• Sophisticated

• These include business analysts, scientists, engineers, others

thoroughly familiar with the system capabilities.
– Many use tools in the form of software packages that work closely with
the stored database.

• Stand-alone:
– Mostly maintain personal databases using ready-to-use packaged
applications.
– An example is a tax program user that creates its own internal database.
– Another example is maintaining an address book
System Analysts and Application Programmers
(Software Engineers)

• System analysts determine the requirements of end users,

especially naive and parametric end users, and develop
specifications for standard canned transactions that meet these
requirements.
• Application programmers implement these specifications as
programs; then they test, debug, document, and maintain these
canned transactions. Such analysts and programmers—
commonly referred to as software developers or software
engineers
 Workers behind the Scene

• These persons are typically not interested in the database content itself.
• They are associated with the design, development, and operation of the
DBMS software and system environment.
We call them the workers behind the scene, and they include the following
categories:
– DBMS system designers and implementers design and implement the
DBMS modules and interfaces as a software package.
– Tool developers design and implement tools
– Operators and maintenance personnel (system administration personnel)
are responsible for the actual running and maintenance of the hardware and
software environment for the database system.
Historical Development of Database Technology

• Early Database Applications:

– The Hierarchical and Network Models were introduced
in mid 1960s and dominated during the seventies.
• Relational Model based Systems:
– Relational model was originally introduced in 1970, was
heavily researched and experimented with in IBM Research
and several universities.
– Relational DBMS Products emerged in the 1980s.
Object-Oriented Applications and the Need for More Complex Databases

– Object-Oriented Database Management Systems

(OODBMSs) were introduced in late 1980s and early 1990s.
– Used to cater the need of complex data processing in CAD.
– Many relational DBMSs have incorporated object database
concepts, leading to a new category called object-relational
DBMSs (ORDBMSs)
– Extended relational systems add further capabilities (e.g. for
multimedia data, XML, and other data types)
Data on the Web and E-commerce Applications:

– Web contains data in HTML (Hypertext markup language)

with links among pages.
– This has given rise to a new set of applications and E-
commerce is using new standards like XML (extended
Markup Language).
– Script programming languages such as PHP and JavaScript
allow generation of dynamic Web pages that are partially
generated from a database
• Also allow database updates through Web pages
 When not to use a DBMS

• Main inhibitors (costs) of using a DBMS:

– High initial investment and possible need for additional hardware.

– Overhead for providing generality, security, concurrency control, recovery,

and integrity functions.
• When a DBMS may be unnecessary:

– If the database and applications are simple, well defined, and not expected
to change.
– If there are stringent real-time requirements that may not be met because of
DBMS overhead.
– If access to data by multiple users is not required.
When not to use a DBMS

• When no DBMS may suffice:

– If the database system is not able to handle the complexity
of data because of modeling limitations
– If the database users need special operations not supported
by the DBMS.
Review Questions

1. Discuss each of the following terms:

a. Data
b. Database
c. Database management system
d. Database application program
e. Data independence
f. Security
g. Integrity
h. Views