Enzyme cofactors
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Many enzymes require non-protein cofactors to help catalyze reactions. There are two main types of enzymes: simple protein enzymes and conjugated enzymes, which contain both a protein and non-protein cofactor. The cofactor, combined with the protein apoenzyme, form the active holoenzyme. Cofactors can be inorganic ions or organic coenzymes and prosthetic groups. Coenzymes often function as carriers in redox or group transfer reactions and many are vitamin derivatives, acting as precursors. Common coenzymes include coenzyme A, NAD+, FAD, pyridoxal phosphate, and tetrahydrofolate. Metal ions also play important roles in many enzyme reactions by
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In this presentation, i tell about substrate level phosphorylation
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MICROBtruru4u47474u4u4u44uy5uruhrIO.pptx
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Coenzymes and Cofactors -pg.pptx
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Significance of silicon
Significance of siliconMuhammad Mudassir Silicon is the second most common element in the Earth's crust. Silicones are polymeric organosilicon compounds containing Si-O-Si linkages and Si-C bonds. They have many useful properties including low conductivity, thermal stability, chemical inertness, and resistance to oxygen, ozone, and UV light. Silicones have various applications including use in textiles as coatings and softeners, in medicine as elastomers for devices like catheters, and in plants and human health where silicon plays a role in photosynthesis, stress resistance, and bone/tissue health.
Conducting polymers
Conducting polymersMuhammad Mudassir This document outlines how plastics can become conductive through a process called doping. It discusses that polymers are normally insulating but certain polymers like polyacetylene can conduct electricity when doped. Doping involves introducing charges into the polymer through oxidation or reduction. This leaves holes that allow electrons to move along the polymer chain. Factors that affect conductivity include the number of charge carriers, their mobility, temperature, and presence of doping materials. Applications of conductive plastics include uses in electronics, solar cells, LEDs, electromagnetic shielding, and smart windows.
Water splitting on semiconductor catalysts under visible light irradiation
Water splitting on semiconductor catalysts under visible light irradiationMuhammad Mudassir This document discusses photocatalytic water splitting to produce hydrogen fuel using solar energy. It begins by outlining the need to find renewable hydrogen production methods, as fossil fuel reserves are depleting. It then explains that photocatalytic water splitting uses a photocatalyst to split water into hydrogen and oxygen when exposed to sunlight, providing a renewable method. However, the process is not yet highly efficient due to recombination of the photogenerated charge carriers in the photocatalyst before they can react at the surface to split water. Improving the efficiency and durability of photocatalysts remains an ongoing challenge.
Natural and chemical biocides
Natural and chemical biocidesMuhammad Mudassir This document discusses biocides, which are formulations containing active substances that control or destroy harmful organisms. It provides background information on biocides, including types (chemical and natural), major classes, and common active ingredients. The document outlines both arguments for biocides, such as increased food supply and farmer profits, and risks, like negative health and environmental impacts. It also describes common applications of biocides in areas like agriculture, swimming pools, cosmetics/pharmaceuticals, and medical device sterilization. In conclusion, the document states that biocide use should be minimized and carefully regulated due to the risks involved.
Artificial sweeteners
Artificial sweetenersMuhammad Mudassir Artificial sweeteners are used as sugar substitutes that provide sweetness with fewer calories than sugar. Some are produced naturally while others like aspartame, saccharin, acesulfame-K, sucralose, and neotame are synthesized. They are used by those watching their sugar intake, managing diabetes, or concerned with weight gain. While safe for most in moderation, artificial sweeteners come with restrictions for those with rare conditions like phenylketonuria. They are many times sweeter than sugar but provide no calories, making them a popular sugar substitute.
Supramolecular chemistry
Supramolecular chemistryMuhammad Mudassir Supramolecular chemistry is the chemistry of intermolecular bonds between two or more chemical species. It was pioneered in the late 19th century and Nobel Prizes have been awarded for its development. Supramolecular interactions include ion-ion, ion-dipole, and dipole-dipole interactions. Building blocks include macrocycles, structural units, and biologically derived units. Control relies on thermodynamics and the molecular environment. Applications include materials technology, catalysis, medicine, and other devices. Intensive research is enabling new functional materials and more effective catalysis through template-directed synthesis.
Reactive dyes
Reactive dyesMuhammad Mudassir Reactive dyes are organic dyes that form covalent bonds with cellulose fibers. They were first commercially produced in 1956 and have advantages like excellent color fastness and ease of washing. Reactive dyes contain three parts - a chromophore for color, a reactive group that bonds to fibers, and a bridging group connecting these. Dyeing involves exhaustion of dye onto fibers, fixation through alkaline conditions forming covalent bonds, and washing unfixed dye away. Reactive dyeing gives very colorfast results due to the strong covalent bonds formed.
Mesoporous materials
Mesoporous materialsMuhammad Mudassir Mesoporous materials have pore sizes between 2-50 nm which gives them high surface areas of 400-1000 m2/g. Common types include MCM-41, MCM-48, MCM-50, HMS, and SBA-15. They can be synthesized using hard or soft templating methods. Applications include drug delivery, adsorption, chromatography, catalysis, sensors, and diagnostics due to their chemical stability, large pore volumes, and tunable surface properties.
Cationic and anionic res ponsive gels
Cationic and anionic res ponsive gelsMuhammad Mudassir This document discusses cationic and anionic responsive microgels. It defines microgels as crosslinked, polymeric, colloidal particles that can swell and deswell in response to stimuli. It classifies microgels based on the nature of crosslinks and response. Cationic microgels contain basic groups while anionic microgels contain acidic groups. Their properties change with pH and ionic strength. Microgels can be synthesized via precipitation or microemulsion polymerization. Applications include use in coatings, pharmaceuticals, and materials reinforcement.
Application of ionic liquids in pharmaceuticals
Application of ionic liquids in pharmaceuticalsMuhammad Mudassir Ionic liquids are salts that are liquid below ambient temperature. They are composed solely of ions without water. Ionic liquids based on imidazole have been well studied as novel solvents. Ionic liquids have wide-ranging properties including low vapor pressure, high viscosity, thermal stability, and ability to dissolve both polar and nonpolar compounds. They have various applications in pharmaceuticals as solvents, for drug delivery, and to address issues like low drug solubility and polymorphism.
Recent advances in battery science and technology
Recent advances in battery science and technologyMuhammad Mudassir This document discusses the history and types of batteries. It begins with defining batteries and describing their invention by Volta in 1800. It then discusses the increasing demand for batteries to power electronics and electric vehicles. The document outlines several recent advances in batteries, including sodium-ion and solid-state designs that improve safety. It concludes that continued research in nanoscience and new materials could enable breakthroughs in sustainable battery technologies.
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Mossbauer spectroscopyMuhammad Mudassir Mossbauer spectroscopy uses gamma ray absorption to probe the local electronic environment of atomic nuclei. It works by measuring small shifts in the resonant absorption peaks of nuclei in different chemical states. The document outlines the basic principles, typical methods, applications in physics, chemistry, biology, mineralogy and metallurgy, as well as limitations, of Mossbauer spectroscopy.
Microbial fuel cells
Microbial fuel cellsMuhammad Mudassir Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) are bioelectrochemical systems that use bacteria to generate electricity. MFCs can be categorized as mediated or unmediated. Mediated MFCs use chemical mediators to transfer electrons from bacteria to an anode, while unmediated MFCs directly transfer electrons via bacterial membrane proteins. MFCs have the potential to generate electricity from wastewater treatment and can be used as biosensors to measure pollutant levels. However, challenges remain in improving catalytic rates, energy production levels, and reducing costs before widespread applications can be realized.
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Liqued crystalsMuhammad Mudassir Liquid crystals are an intermediate phase between solid and liquid that have properties of both. They lack a fixed shape but their molecules align in the same direction, giving them orientational order. There are several types of liquid crystals including nematic, smectic, and cholesteric that differ in their molecular arrangements. Liquid crystals are used widely in applications like digital displays, thermometers, and protective clothing due to their optical and thermal properties.
Composites of nano zincoxide for efficientphotocatalytic activity
Composites of nano zincoxide for efficientphotocatalytic activityMuhammad Mudassir This document discusses composites of nano zinc oxide for efficient photocatalytic activity. It introduces various nanocomposites including ZnO-CuO and explains their properties. The document then describes the preparation of pure ZnO nanostructures and ZnO-CuO nanocomposites via hydrothermal methods. It investigates the photocatalytic activity of ZnO-CuO composites in degrading methyl orange dye under UV light and finds they have higher degradation rates than pure ZnO. In conclusion, hydrothermally synthesized ZnO/CuO nanocomposites have enhanced photocatalytic properties due to efficient charge transfer between ZnO and CuO.
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Fly ash and its applications
Fly ash and its applicationsMuhammad Mudassir Fly ash has various applications including for desulphurization. For desulphurization, an absorbent is synthesized by mixing fly ash, calcium oxide, and calcium sulfate. This absorbent is then used to remove sulfur dioxide from flue gases through reactions that are affected by factors like absorbent particle size, temperature, humidity, and sulfur dioxide concentration. The desulphurization capacity increases with higher humidity but decreases with lower sulfur dioxide concentration and larger particle size, while temperature has a negligible impact. Fly ash thus helps reduce air pollution from coal burning, though it also has limitations like containing radioactive materials.
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Enzyme cofactors
- 2. Many enzymes need non-protein parts called cofactors that help in catalysis Two Types of Enzymes 1. Simple Protein Enzymes = Composed of a polypeptide chain (protein only 2. Conjugated Enzymes = Protein + Non- proteinous part ----The non-proteinous part of a conjugated enzyme is called a cofactor while the proteinous part of an enzyme is referred to as apoenzyme…… Cofactor + apoenzyme = Holoenzyme
- 3. Only the combination of an apoenzyme with its cofactor (i.e., a holoenzyme) is operative (a holoenzyme also refers to the assembled form of a multiple subunit protein).
- 4. • The cofactors can be inorganic ions or coenzymes (complex organic or metallo-organic molecules). • Some cofactors bind to the enzyme protein very tightly (non-covalently or covalently), they are thus called prosthetic groups, while loosely attached non- proteineous components are called as Coenzymes • Coenzymes usually function as transient carriers of specific function groups. Coenzymes can act as Co- Substrate…. • Vitamins (organic nutrients required in small amount in the diet) have been found to often act as precursors of coenzymes.
- 6. Prosthetic group is present in enzymes and non- enzyme proteins. Prosthetic group is always tightly attached to the proteinous part of an enzyme, Prosthetic group mainly participate in Redox reactions Example is heme, a prosthetic group present in cytochrome oxidase….
- 7. Coenzymes are of two types 1. Group transferring coenzymes….they are involved in transferring group from one substrate to another substrate (a) Coenzyme-A is involved in the transfer of acyl group from one substrate to another substrate (b) Biotin is involved is in transfer of –COO (c) Pyridoxal phosphate is involved in transfer of amino group 2. Electron transferring coenzymes …they are involved in redox reactions (a) NAD and NADH+H (b) FAD and FADH2 Most of the coenzymes are Vitamin B derivatives Coenzymes can act as co-substrates
- 8. (Vitamins)
- 9. Some common coenzymes • Acyl groups and others – Coenzyme A – Lipoic acid – Thiamine pyrophosphate – Pyridoxal phosphate – 5’-Deoxyadenosyl- cobalamin Transfers Acyl groups Acyl groups Aldehydes Amino groups Alkyl groups
- 10. Thiamine (Thiamine pyrophosphate…..Vitamin B1) • Catalyzes decarboxylation of keto acids, a feature of primary metabolism • e.g. pyruvic acid → acetaldehyde in glycolysis • pyruvic acid → acetyl-CoA usually found in phosphate form
- 11. Flavin Adenine mononeucleotide and Flavin adenine dinucleotide (Vitamin B2) • Involved in redox rxns of C-C bonds •Metabolism of carbs, fat, protein
- 12. Nicotinamide Adenine dinucleotide (Vitamin B3) • As part of NAD+ system, catalyzes redox rxns of alcohols/carbonyl compounds
- 13. Coenzyme A (Panthothenic acid OR Vitamin B5) • Synthesis of fatty acids (acetate pathway), some peptides, phenylpropanoids, isoprenoids • Fat, carbs and protein metabolism
- 14. Pyridoxamine, pyridoxal phosphate & pyridoxine (Vitamin B6) • Catalyzes transaminations & decarboxylations of amino acids • Metabolism energy pyridoxine
- 15. Tetrahydrofolate (Vitamin B9) • Role: Tetrahydrofolate functions in one-C metabolism as a carrier of methyl, methylene or formyl groups • Involved in amino acid and nucleotide metabolism, red blood cell formation
- 16. Metal ions perform three distinct functions during enzyme catalysis 1. Mediating Oxidation-reduction reactions through reversible changes in the metal ion oxidation state 2. Binds to substrate and properly orient them for reactions 3. Electrostatically stabilizes or shield negative charges ------------ ---1/3 of all known enzymes require metal ions for their catalytic activities 1. Metalloenzymes…metal ion is tightly bound to the enzyme 2. Metal activated enzymes….metal ion is loosely attached to the enzyme Two types of Enzymes on the basis of metal ions