View source for Scientific misconduct

{{short description|Violation of codes of scholarly conduct and ethical behavior in scientific research}}
{{for multi|dishonesty in educational settings|Academic dishonesty|unscientific claims presented as science|Pseudoscience}}
[[File:Piltdown man.jpg|thumb|A reconstruction of the skull purportedly belonging to the [[Piltdown Man]], a long-lasting case of scientific misconduct]]
'''Scientific misconduct''' is the violation of the standard codes of [[scholarly method|scholarly conduct]] and [[ethics|ethical behavior]] in the publication of [[professional]] [[science|scientific research]]. It is violation of [[scientific integrity]]: violation of the [[scientific method]] and of [[research ethics]] in [[science]], including in the [[design of experiments|design]], [[experiment|conduct]], and [[scientific literature|reporting]] of research. 

A ''[[The Lancet|Lancet]]'' review on ''Handling of Scientific Misconduct in Scandinavian countries'' provides the following sample definitions,<ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Nylenna | first1 = M.
| last2 = Andersen | first2 = D.
| last3 = Dahlquist | first3 = G.
| last4 = Sarvas | first4 = M.
| last5 = Aakvaag | first5 = A.
| title = Handling of scientific dishonesty in the Nordic countries. National Committees on Scientific Dishonesty in the Nordic Countries
| journal = Lancet
| volume = 354
| issue = 9172
| pages = 57–61
| year = 1999
| pmid = 10406378 | doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(98)07133-5
| s2cid = 36326829
}}</ref> reproduced in The COPE report 1999:<ref>{{cite journal |title=Coping with fraud |journal=The COPE Report 1999 |pages=11–18 |url=http://www.publicationethics.org.uk/reports/1999/1999pdf3.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928151119/http://www.publicationethics.org.uk/reports/1999/1999pdf3.pdf |quote=It is 10 years, to the month, since Stephen Lock ... Reproduced with kind permission of the Editor, The Lancet. |archive-date=2007-09-28 |access-date=2006-09-02|ref=COPE1999PDF}}</ref>
* Danish definition: "Intention or gross negligence leading to fabrication of the scientific message or a false credit or emphasis given to a scientist"
* Swedish definition: "Intention[al] distortion of the research process by fabrication of data, text, hypothesis, or methods from another researcher's manuscript form or publication; or distortion of the research process in other ways."

The consequences of scientific misconduct can be damaging for perpetrators and journal audience<ref>{{cite web|last=Xie |first=Yun |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2008/08/what-are-the-consequences-for-scientific-misconduct/ |title=What are the consequences of scientific misconduct?  |website=Ars Technica |date=2008-08-12 |access-date=2013-03-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://astro.berkeley.edu/~kalas/ethics/documents/redan08.pdf |doi=10.1126/science.1158052|title=SOCIOLOGY: Scientific Misconduct: Do the Punishments Fit the Crime?|year=2008|last1=Redman|first1=B. K.|last2=Merz|first2=J. F.|journal=Science|volume=321|issue=5890|page=775|pmid=18687942|s2cid=206512870}}</ref> and for any individual who exposes it.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Research Triangle Institute |title=Consequences of Whistleblowing for the Whistleblower in Misconduct in Science Cases |year=1995 |url=https://wiki.umn.edu/pub/IBS8099F10/WhistleBlowing/RTI_-_Consequences_of_Whistleblowing_report.pdf |access-date=2012-05-24 |archive-date=2017-08-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824051717/https://it.umn.edu/news/umwiki-retired }}</ref>  In addition there are public health implications attached to the promotion of medical or other interventions based on false or fabricated research findings. Scientific misconduct can result in loss of [[Trust (social science)|public trust]] in the integrity of science.<ref name="b110">{{cite journal | last=Morreim | first=E H | last2=Winer | first2=Jeffrey C | title=Guest authorship as research misconduct: definitions and possible solutions | journal=BMJ Evidence-Based Medicine | volume=28 | issue=1 | date=2023 | issn=2515-446X | doi=10.1136/bmjebm-2021-111826 | pages=1–4}}</ref>

Three percent of the 3,475 research institutions that report to the [[US Department of Health and Human Services]]' [[Office of Research Integrity]], indicate some form of scientific misconduct.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Singh|first1=Dr. Yatendra Kumar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R0U1EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA90|title=Introduction of Research Methods and Publication Ethics|last2=Kumar Dubey|first2=Bipin|publisher=Friends Publications (India)|year=2021|isbn=978-93-90649-38-9|location=New Delhi|pages=90}}</ref> However the ORI will only investigate allegations of impropriety where research was funded by federal grants. They routinely monitor such research publications for red flags and their investigation is subject to a statute of limitations. Other private organizations like the Committee of Medical Journal Editors (COJE) can only police their own members.<ref>[https://ori.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/42_cfr_parts_50_and_93_2005.pdf Part III. Department of Health and Human Services] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211022224139/https://ori.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/42_cfr_parts_50_and_93_2005.pdf |date=2021-10-22 }}</ref>

==Motivation==
According to [[David Goodstein]] of [[Caltech]], there are motivators for scientists to commit misconduct, which are briefly summarised here.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goodstein |first1=David |date=January–February 2002 |title=Scientific misconduct |journal=Academe |volume=88 |issue=1 |pages=28–31 |doi=10.2307/40252116 |jstor=40252116 |url=http://www.aaup.org/AAUP/pubsres/academe/2002/JF/Feat/good.htm}}</ref>
; Career pressure
:Science is still a very strongly career-driven discipline. Scientists depend on a good [[reputation]] to receive ongoing support and [[funding]], and a good reputation relies largely on the publication of high-profile scientific papers. Hence, there is a strong imperative to "[[publish or perish]]". This may motivate desperate (or fame-hungry) scientists to fabricate results.
; Ease of fabrication
: In many scientific fields, results are often difficult to reproduce accurately, being obscured by [[noise]], [[artifact (observational)|artifacts]], and other extraneous [[data]]. That means that even if a scientist does falsify data, they can expect to get away with it – or at least claim innocence if their results conflict with others in the same field. There are few strongly backed systems to investigate possible violations, attempt to press charges, or punish deliberate misconduct. It is relatively easy to cheat although difficult to know exactly how many scientists fabricate data.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Fanelli | first1 = D. | editor1-last = Tregenza | editor1-first = Tom | title = How Many Scientists Fabricate and Falsify Research? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Survey Data | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0005738 | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 4 | issue = 5 | pages = e5738 | year = 2009 | pmid =  19478950| pmc =2685008 |bibcode = 2009PLoSO...4.5738F | doi-access = free }}</ref>
;Monetary Gain
: In many scientific fields, the most lucrative options for professionals are often selling opinions. Corporations can pay experts to support products directly or indirectly via conferences. Psychologists can make money by repeatedly acting as an expert witness in custody proceedings for the same law firms.

==Forms==
The U.S. [[National Science Foundation]] defines three types of research misconduct: [[Fabrication (science)|fabrication]], falsification, and [[plagiarism]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nsf.gov/oig/session.pdf |title=New Research Misconduct Policies|publisher=NSF |access-date=2013-03-01  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910021419/https://www.nsf.gov/oig/session.pdf |archive-date=2012-09-10 }}</ref><ref>45 [[Code of Federal Regulations|CFR]] Part 689 [http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/waisidx_07/45cfr689_07.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081023015109/http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/waisidx_07/45cfr689_07.html|date=2008-10-23}}</ref>
* ''Fabrication'' is making up results and recording or reporting them.  This is sometimes referred to as "drylabbing".<ref name=Shapiro1992>{{Cite journal | last = Shapiro | first =  M.F. | year = 1992 | title = Data audit by a regulatory agency: Its effect and implication for others | journal = Accountability in Research | volume = 2 | issue = 3 | pages = 219–229 | doi = 10.1080/08989629208573818 | pmid = 11653981}}</ref> A more minor form of fabrication is where references are included to give arguments the appearance of widespread acceptance, but are actually fake, or do not support the argument.<ref>Emmeche, slide 5</ref>
* ''Falsification'' is manipulating research materials, equipment, or processes or changing or omitting data or results such that the research is not accurately represented in the research record.
* ''Plagiarism'' is the appropriation of another person's ideas, processes, results, or words without giving appropriate credit. One form is the appropriation of the ideas and results of others, and publishing as to make it appear the author had performed all the work under which the data was obtained. A subset is '''citation plagiarism''' – willful or negligent failure to appropriately credit other or prior discoverers, so as to give an improper impression of priority. This is also known as, "citation amnesia", the "disregard syndrome" and "bibliographic negligence".<ref>{{cite journal|first=Eugene |last=Garfield |url=http://www.garfield.library.upenn.edu/papers/demandcitationvigilance012102.html |title=Demand Citation Vigilance |journal=The Scientist |volume=16 |issue=2 |page=6  |date=January 21, 2002 |access-date=2009-07-30}}</ref> Arguably, this is the most common type of scientific misconduct. Sometimes it is difficult to guess whether authors intentionally ignored a highly relevant cite or lacked knowledge of the prior work.  Discovery credit can also be inadvertently reassigned from the original discoverer to a better-known researcher. This is a special case of the [[Matthew effect (sociology)|Matthew effect]].<ref>Emmeche, slide 3, who refers to the phenomenon as Dulbecco's law.</ref>
** Plagiarism-fabrication – the act of taking an unrelated figure from an unrelated publication and reproducing it exactly in a new publication, claiming that it represents new data.
** Self-plagiarism – or [[multiple publication]] of the same content with different titles or in different journals is sometimes also considered misconduct; [[scientific journal]]s explicitly ask authors not to do this. It is referred to as "salami" (i.e. many identical slices) in the jargon of medical journal editors. According to some editors this includes publishing the same article in a different language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wame.org/resources/publication-ethics-policies-for-medical-journals#orig|title=Publication Ethics Policies for Medical Journals|publisher=The World Association of Medical Editors|access-date=2009-07-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090731131343/http://www.wame.org/resources/publication-ethics-policies-for-medical-journals/#orig|archive-date=2009-07-31}}</ref>


Other types of research misconduct are also recognized:
* [[Ghostwriter|Ghostwriting]] – the phenomenon where someone other than the named author(s) makes a major contribution. Typically, this is done to mask contributions from authors with a [[conflict of interest]].
* ''Guest authorship''<ref name="b110">{{cite journal | last=Morreim | first=E H | last2=Winer | first2=Jeffrey C | title=Guest authorship as research misconduct: definitions and possible solutions | journal=BMJ Evidence-Based Medicine | volume=28 | issue=1 | date=2023 | issn=2515-446X | doi=10.1136/bmjebm-2021-111826 | pages=1–4}}</ref> - phenomenon where authorship is given to someone who has not made any substantial contribution.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icmje.org/#author|title=ICMJE – Home|website=www.icmje.org|access-date=3 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wame.org/resources/publication-ethics-policies-for-medical-journals#authorship|title=Publication Ethics Policies for Medical Journals|publisher=The World Association of Medical Editors|access-date=2009-07-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090731131343/http://www.wame.org/resources/publication-ethics-policies-for-medical-journals/#authorship|archive-date=2009-07-31}}</ref> This can done by senior researchers who muscle their way onto the papers of inexperienced junior researchers<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Kwok | first1 = L. S. | title = The White Bull effect: Abusive coauthorship and publication parasitism | doi = 10.1136/jme.2004.010553 | journal = Journal of Medical Ethics | volume = 31 | issue = 9 | pages = 554–556 | year = 2005 | pmid =  16131560| pmc =1734216 }}</ref> as well as others that stack authorship in an effort to guarantee publication. This is much harder to prove due to a lack of consistency in defining "authorship" or "substantial contribution".<ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Bates | first1 = T.
| last2 = Anić | first2 = A.
| last3 = Marusić | first3 = M.
| last4 = Marusić | first4 = A.
| title = Authorship Criteria and Disclosure of Contributions: Comparison of 3 General Medical Journals with Different Author Contribution Forms
| doi = 10.1001/jama.292.1.86
| journal = JAMA
| volume = 292
| issue = 1
| pages = 86–88
| year = 2004
| pmid = 15238595
| doi-access = 
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1136/bmj.314.7086.1009
| last1 = Bhopal | first1 = R.
| last2 = Rankin | first2 = J.
| last3 = McColl | first3 = E.
| last4 = Thomas | first4 = L.
| last5 = Kaner | first5 = E.
| last6 = Stacy | first6 = R.
| last7 = Pearson | first7 = P.
| last8 = Vernon | first8 = B.
| last9 = Rodgers | first9 = H.
| title = The vexed question of authorship: Views of researchers in a British medical faculty
| journal = BMJ
| volume = 314
| issue = 7086
| pages = 1009–1012
| year = 1997
| pmid = 9112845
| pmc = 2126416
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Wager | first1 = E.
| title = Do medical journals provide clear and consistent guidelines on authorship?
| journal = MedGenMed
| volume = 9
| issue = 3
| pages = 16
| year = 2007
| pmid = 18092023
| pmc = 2100079
}}</ref>
* Scientific misconduct can also occur during the [[Scholarly peer review|peer-review]] process by a reviewer or editor with a conflict of interest. [[Coercive citation|Reviewer-coerced]] citation can also inflate the perceived [[Impact factor|citation impact]] of a researcher's work and their reputation in the scientific community,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wren |first1=Jonathan D |last2=Valencia |first2=Alfonso |last3=Kelso |first3=Janet |title=Reviewer-coerced citation: case report, update on journal policy and suggestions for future prevention |journal=Bioinformatics |date=15 September 2019 |volume=35 |issue=18 |pages=3217–3218 |doi=10.1093/bioinformatics/btz071 |pmid=30698640 |pmc=6748764 }}</ref> similar to excessive self-citation. Reviewers are expected to be impartial and assess the quality of their work. They are expected to declare a conflict of interest to the editors if they are colleagues or competitors of the authors. A rarer case of scientific misconduct is editorial misconduct,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chaplain |first1=Mark |last2=Kirschner |first2=Denise|author2-link=Denise Kirschner |last3=Iwasa |first3=Yoh |title=JTB Editorial Malpractice: A Case Report |journal=Journal of Theoretical Biology |date=March 2020 |volume=488 |pages=110171 |doi=10.1016/j.jtbi.2020.110171 |pmid=32007131 |bibcode=2020JThBi.48810171C |doi-access= }}</ref> where an editor does not declare conflicts of interest, creates pseudonyms to review papers, gives strongly worded editorial decisions to support reviews suggesting to add excessive citations to their own unrelated works or to add themselves as a co-author or their name to the title of the manuscript.
* Publishing in a [[predatory journal]], knowingly or unknowingly, was discussed as a form of potential scientific misconduct.<ref name="pmid33836895">{{cite journal | vauthors = de La Blanchardière A, Barde F, Peiffer-Smadja N, Maisonneuve H | title = Revues prédatrices: une vraie menace pour la recherche médicale. 2 Evaluer leurs conséquences et engager une riposte | trans-title = Predatory journals: A real threat for medical research. 2 Assess their consequences and initiate a response | language = French | journal = Rev Med Interne | volume = 42 | issue = 6 | pages = 427–433 | date = June 2021 | pmid = 33836895 | doi = 10.1016/j.revmed.2021.03.327 | s2cid = 241560050 | url = }}</ref><ref name="pmid34393593">{{cite journal | vauthors = Yeo-Teh NS, Tang BL | title = Wilfully submitting to and publishing in predatory journals – a covert form of research misconduct? | journal = Biochem Med (Zagreb) | volume = 31 | issue = 3 | pages = 395–402 | date = October 2021 | pmid = 34393593 | pmc = 8340504 | doi = 10.11613/BM.2021.030201}}</ref>
* The peer-review process can have limitations when considering research outside the conventional scientific paradigm: social factors such as "[[groupthink]]" can interfere with open and fair deliberation of new research.<ref>Brown, C. (2005) Overcoming Barriers to Use of Promising Research Among Elite Middle East Policy Groups, Journal of Social Behaviour and Personality, Select Press.</ref>
* Sneaked references  – the act of subtly embedding references that are not present in a manuscript in the metadata of this accepted manuscript without the original authors being capable of noticing or correcting such modifications. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Besançon |first1=L. |last2=Cabanac |first2=G. |last3=Labbé |first3=C. |last4=Magazinov |first4=A. |year=2024 |title=Sneaked references: Fabricated reference metadata distort citation counts |journal=Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1002/asi.24896|arxiv=2310.02192 }}</ref>

=== Photo manipulation ===<!-- this section is linked from [[peer review]] -->
Compared to other forms of scientific misconduct, image fraud (manipulation of images to distort their meaning) is of particular interest since it can frequently be detected by external parties. In 2006, the ''Journal of Cell Biology'' gained publicity for instituting tests to detect [[photo manipulation]] in papers that were being considered for publication.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/24/science/24frau.html?_r=1 | work=[[New York Times]] | title=It May Look Authentic; Here's How to Tell It Isn't | author=Nicholas Wade | date=2006-01-24 | access-date=2010-04-01| author-link=Nicholas Wade }}</ref> This was in response to the increased usage of programs such as [[Adobe Photoshop]] by scientists, which facilitate photo manipulation. Since then more publishers, including the [[Nature Publishing Group]], have instituted similar tests and require authors to minimize and specify the extent of photo manipulation when a manuscript is submitted for publication. However, there is little evidence to indicate that such tests are applied rigorously. One ''Nature'' paper published in 2009<ref name="Kato" /> has subsequently been reported to contain around 20 separate instances<ref>{{cite web|author=11jigen |url=http://katolab-imagefraud.blogspot.co.uk/2012/01/dna-demethylation-in-hormone-induced.html |title=Shigeaki Kato (the University of Tokyo): DNA demethylation in hormone-induced transcriptional derepression |website=Katolab-imagefraud.blogspot.co.uk |date=2012-01-15 |access-date=2013-08-04}}</ref> of image fraud.

Although the type of manipulation that is allowed can depend greatly on the type of experiment that is presented and also differ from one journal to another, in general the following manipulations are not allowed:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Restrictions of Image Manipulation |url=https://www.amed.go.jp/content/000048624.pdf |access-date=April 22, 2024 |website=AMED}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Editorial Policies |url=https://rupress.org/jcb/pages/editorial-policies#data-integrity |access-date=2024-04-22 |website=rupress.org}}</ref>
* splicing together different images to represent a single experiment
* changing [[brightness]] and [[contrast (vision)|contrast]] of only a part of the image
* any change that conceals information, even when it is considered to be non-specific, which includes:
** changing brightness and contrast to leave only the most intense signal
** using [[clone tool]]s to hide information
* showing only a very small part of the photograph so that additional information is not visible

Image manipulations are typically done on visually repetitive images such as those of [[Blot (biology)|blots]] and microscope images.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ritchie|first=Stuart|date=2021-07-02|title=Why Are Gamers So Much Better Than Scientists at Catching Fraud?|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2021/07/gamers-are-better-scientists-catching-fraud/619324/|access-date=2021-07-19|website=The Atlantic|language=en}}</ref>

===Helicopter research===
{{excerpt|Helicopter research}}

==Responsibilities==
===Authorship responsibility===
All authors of a scientific publication are expected to have made reasonable attempts to check findings submitted to academic journals for publication.

Simultaneous submission of scientific findings to more than one journal or duplicate publication of findings is usually regarded as misconduct, under what is known as the Ingelfinger rule, named after the editor of [[The New England Journal of Medicine]] 1967–1977, Franz Ingelfinger.<ref>{{cite journal
 |last1=Toy |first1=Jennifer
 |year=2002
 |title=The Ingelfinger Rule: Franz Ingelfinger at The New England Journal of Medicine 1967–77
 |url=http://cseditors.wpengine.com/wp-content/uploads/v25n6p195-198.pdf
 |journal=[[Science Editor]]
 |volume=25 |issue=6 |pages=195–198
}}</ref>

[[Honorary authorship|Guest authorship]] (where there is stated authorship in the absence of involvement, also known as gift authorship) and ghost authorship (where the real author is not listed as an author) are commonly regarded as forms of research misconduct. In some cases coauthors of faked research have been accused of inappropriate behavior or research misconduct for failing to verify reports authored by others or by a commercial sponsor. Examples include the case of [[Gerald Schatten]] who co-authored with [[Hwang Woo-Suk]], the case of Professor Geoffrey Chamberlain named as guest author of papers fabricated by Malcolm Pearce,<ref name="BMJ1995">{{Cite journal |title=Lessons from the Pearce affair: handling scientific fraud |journal=[[BMJ]] |date= June 17, 1995 |volume=310 |issue=6994 |pages=1547–148 |doi=10.1136/bmj.310.6994.1547 |pmid=7787632 |pmc=2549935 | last1 = Lock | first1 = S}} {{registration required}}</ref> (Chamberlain was exonerated from collusion in Pearce's deception)<ref name="Independent Committee of Inquiry into the publication of articles in the British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology">{{cite web |title=Independent Committee of Inquiry into the publication of articles in the British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (1994–1995) |url=http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cats/7/4972.htm |access-date=2011-08-26}}</ref> – and the coauthors with [[Jan Hendrik Schön]] at Bell Laboratories. More recent cases include that of Charles Nemeroff,<ref name="the-scientist.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.the-scientist.com/news/home/24445/|title=Journal editor quits in conflict scandal|website=The Scientist|access-date=3 April 2018}}</ref> then the editor-in-chief of ''Neuropsychopharmacology'', and a well-documented case involving the drug [[Actonel]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.thejabberwock.org/wiki/index.php?title=Actonel_Case_Media_Reports |title=Actonel Case Media Reports - Scientific Misconduct Wiki |access-date=2008-03-22 |archive-date=2009-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090202055309/http://www.thejabberwock.org/wiki/index.php?title=Actonel_Case_Media_Reports }}</ref>

Authors are expected to keep all study data for later examination even after publication. The failure to keep data may be regarded as misconduct. Some scientific journals require that authors provide information to allow readers to determine whether the authors might have commercial or non-commercial conflicts of interest. Authors are also commonly required to provide information about ethical aspects of research, particularly where research involves human or animal participants or use of biological material. Provision of incorrect information to journals may be regarded as misconduct. Financial pressures on universities have encouraged this type of misconduct. The majority of recent cases of alleged misconduct involving undisclosed conflicts of interest or failure of the authors to have seen scientific data involve collaborative research between scientists and biotechnology companies.<ref name="the-scientist.com"/><ref>{{cite web|last=Dickerson |first=John |url=http://www.slate.com/id/2133061/ |title=Did a British university sell out to P&G?  |website=Slate |date= 2005-12-22|access-date=2013-08-04}}</ref>

=== Research institution responsibility ===
In general, defining whether an individual is guilty of misconduct requires a detailed investigation by the individual's employing academic institution. Such investigations require detailed and rigorous processes and can be extremely costly. Furthermore, the more senior the individual under suspicion, the more likely it is that conflicts of interest will compromise the investigation. In many countries (with the notable exception of the United States) acquisition of funds on the basis of fraudulent data is not a legal offence and there is consequently no regulator to oversee investigations into alleged research misconduct. Universities therefore have few incentives to investigate allegations in a robust manner, or act on the findings of such investigations if they vindicate the allegation.

Well publicised cases illustrate the potential role that senior academics in research institutions play in concealing scientific misconduct. A King's College (London) internal investigation showed research findings from one of their researchers to be 'at best unreliable, and in many cases spurious'<ref>{{cite journal | author = Wilmshurst P | year = 2002| title = Institutional corruption in medicine (2002) | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 325 | issue = 7374| pages = 1232–1235 | doi=10.1136/bmj.325.7374.1232| pmid = 12446544| pmc = 1124696}}</ref> but the college took no action, such as retracting relevant published research or preventing further episodes from occurring.

In a more recent case<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jayaraman |first=K. S. |title=Indian scientists battle journal retraction | journal=Nature |volume=447 | issue=7146 |date=June 14, 2007 | doi = 10.1038/447764a | pages=764 | pmid=17568715|bibcode=2007Natur.447..764J |doi-access=free }}</ref> an internal investigation at the National Centre for Cell Science (NCCS), Pune determined that there was evidence of misconduct by [[Gopal Kundu]], but an external committee was then organised which dismissed the allegation, and the NCCS issued a memorandum exonerating the authors of all charges of misconduct. Undeterred by the NCCS exoneration, the relevant journal (''[[Journal of Biological Chemistry]]'') withdrew the paper based on its own analysis.

===Scientific peer responsibility===
Some academics believe that scientific colleagues who suspect scientific misconduct should consider taking informal action themselves, or reporting their concerns.<ref>See {{cite journal |author1=Gerald Koocher  |author2=Patricia Keith-Spiegel  |name-list-style=amp |date=22 July 2010| title= Peers Nip Misconduct in the Bud | doi = 10.1038/466438a | bibcode=2010Natur.466..438K | volume=466 |issue=7305  | journal=Nature | pages=438–440 | pmid=20651674|s2cid=4396687 }} and (with Joan Sieber) Responding to Research Wrongdoing: A User Friendly Guide, July 2010.</ref> This question is of great importance since much research suggests that it is very difficult for people to act or come forward when they see unacceptable behavior, unless they have help from their organizations. A "User-friendly Guide," and the existence of a confidential [[organizational ombudsman]] may help people who are uncertain about what to do, or afraid of bad consequences for their speaking up.<ref name="ioa2009">{{Cite journal |title=Dealing with{{snd}}or Reporting{{snd}}'Unacceptable' Behavior{{snd}}with additional thoughts about the 'Bystander Effect' |year=2009 |first1=Mary |last1=Rowe |first2=Linda |last2=Wilcox |first3=Howard |last3=Gadlin |journal=Journal of the International Ombudsman Association |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=52–64 |url=http://web.mit.edu/ombud/publications/coming-forward.pdf }}</ref>

===Responsibility of journals===
Journals are responsible for safeguarding the research record and hence have a critical role in dealing with suspected misconduct. This is recognised by the [[Committee on Publication Ethics]] (COPE) which has issued clear guidelines<ref>[http://www.publicationethics.org/files/retraction%20guidelines.pdf Retraction Guidelines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200326074637/http://publicationethics.org/files/retraction%20guidelines.pdf |date=2020-03-26 }} (PDF)</ref> on the form (e.g. retraction) that concerns over the research record should take.
* The COPE guidelines state that journal editors should consider retracting a publication if they have clear evidence that the findings are unreliable, either as a result of misconduct (e.g. data fabrication) or honest error (e.g. miscalculation or experimental error). Retraction is also appropriate in cases of redundant publication, plagiarism and unethical research.
* Journal editors should consider issuing an [[expression of concern]] if they receive inconclusive evidence of research or publication misconduct by the authors, there is evidence that the findings are unreliable but the authors' institution will not investigate the case, they believe that an investigation into alleged misconduct related to the publication either has not been, or would not be, fair and impartial or conclusive, or an investigation is underway but a judgement will not be available for a considerable time.
* Journal editors should consider issuing a correction if a small portion of an otherwise reliable publication proves to be misleading (especially because of honest error), or the author / contributor list is incorrect (i.e. a deserving author has been omitted or somebody who does not meet authorship criteria has been included).

Evidence emerged in 2012 that journals learning of cases where there is strong evidence of possible misconduct, with issues potentially affecting a large portion of the findings, frequently fail to issue an expression of concern or correspond with the host institution so that an investigation can be undertaken. In one case,<ref name="Kato">{{Cite journal
| last1 = Kim | first1 = M. S.
| last2 = Kondo | first2 = T.
| last3 = Takada | first3 = I.
| last4 = Youn | first4 = M. Y.
| last5 = Yamamoto | first5 = Y.
| last6 = Takahashi | first6 = S.
| last7 = Matsumoto | first7 = T.
| last8 = Fujiyama | first8 = S.
| last9 = Shirode | first9 = Y.
| doi = 10.1038/nature08456
| last10 = Yamaoka | first10 = I.
| last11 = Kitagawa | first11 = H.
| last12 = Takeyama | first12 = K. I.
| last13 = Shibuya | first13 = H.
| last14 = Ohtake | first14 = F.
| last15 = Kato | first15 = S.
| title = DNA demethylation in hormone-induced transcriptional derepression
| journal = Nature
| volume = 461
| issue = 7266
| pages = 1007–1012
| year = 2009
| pmid = 19829383
| bibcode = 2009Natur.461.1007K| s2cid = 4426439
}}{{Retracted|doi=10.1038/nature11164|pmid=22699624|http://retractionwatch.com/2012/06/13/shikeagi-kato-who-resigned-post-in-march-retracts-nature-paper/ ''Retraction Watch''|intentional=yes}}</ref> Nature allowed a [[Erratum|corrigendum]] to be published despite clear evidence of image fraud. Subsequent retraction of the paper required the actions of an independent whistleblower.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://retractionwatch.wordpress.com/2012/06/13/shikeagi-kato-who-resigned-post-in-march-retracts-nature-paper/ |title=Shikeagi Kato, who resigned post in March, retracts Nature paper  |website=[[RetractionWatch]]  |date= 2012-06-13|access-date=2013-03-01}}</ref>

The cases of [[Joachim Boldt]] and [[Yoshitaka Fujii]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://retractionwatch.wordpress.com/2012/03/07/major-fraud-probe-of-japanese-anesthesiologist-yoshitaka-fujii-may-challenge-retraction-record/ |title=Major fraud probe of Japanese anesthesiologist Yoshitaka Fujii may challenge retraction record |website=[[RetractionWatch]] |date= 2012-03-08|access-date=2013-08-04}}</ref> in [[anaesthesiology]]  focussed attention on the role that journals play in perpetuating scientific fraud as well as how they can deal with it. In the Boldt case, the editors-in-chief of 18 specialist journals (generally anaesthesia and intensive care) made a joint statement regarding 88 published clinical trials conducted without Ethics Committee approval. In the Fujii case, involving nearly 200 papers, the journal ''[[Anesthesia & Analgesia]]'', which published 24 of Fujii's papers, has accepted that its handling of the issue was inadequate.  Following publication of a letter to the editor from Kranke and colleagues in April 2000,<ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Kranke | first1 = P.
| last2 = Apfel | first2 = C. C.
| last3 = Roewer | first3 = N.
| last4 = Fujii | first4 = Y.
| title = Reported data on granisetron and postoperative nausea and vomiting by Fujii et al. Are incredibly nice!
| journal = Anesthesia and Analgesia
| volume = 90
| issue = 4
| pages = 1004–1007
| year = 2000
| pmid = 10735823 | doi=10.1213/00000539-200004000-00053
| doi-access = free
}}</ref> along with a non-specific response from Dr. Fujii, there was no follow-up on the allegation of data manipulation and no request for an institutional review of Dr. Fujii's research. ''Anesthesia & Analgesia'' went on to publish 11 additional manuscripts by Dr. Fujii following the 2000 allegations of research fraud, with Editor Steven Shafer stating<ref>[http://www.aaeditor.org/FujiiStatementOfConcern.pdf Fujii Statement of Concern] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304002429/http://www.aaeditor.org/FujiiStatementOfConcern.pdf |date=2016-03-04 }} (PDF)</ref> in March 2012 that subsequent submissions to the Journal by Dr. Fujii should not have been published without first vetting the allegations of fraud. In April 2012 Shafer led a group of editors to write a joint statement,<ref>[http://www.aaeditor.org/Fujii_Joint_EIC_Stmt.pdf Fujii Join EIC Statement] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304042852/http://www.aaeditor.org/Fujii_Joint_EIC_Stmt.pdf |date=2016-03-04 }} (PDF)</ref> in the form of an ultimatum made available to the public, to a large number of academic institutions where Fujii had been employed, offering these institutions the chance to attest to the integrity of the bulk of the allegedly fraudulent papers.

==Consequences of scientific misconduct==
===Consequences for science===
The consequences of scientific fraud vary based on the severity of the fraud, the level of notice it receives, and how long it goes undetected.  For cases of fabricated evidence, the consequences can be wide-ranging, with others working to confirm (or refute) the false finding, or with research agendas being distorted to address the fraudulent evidence.  The [[Piltdown Man]] fraud is a case in point:  The significance of the bona-fide fossils that were being found was muted for decades because they disagreed with Piltdown Man and the preconceived notions that those faked fossils supported.  In addition, the prominent paleontologist [[Arthur Smith Woodward]] spent time at Piltdown each year until he died, trying to find more Piltdown Man remains.  The misdirection of resources kept others from taking the real fossils more seriously and delayed the reaching of a correct understanding of human evolution.  (The [[Taung Child]], which should have been the death knell for the view that the human brain evolved first, was instead treated very critically because of its disagreement with the Piltdown Man evidence.)

In the case of Prof [[Don Poldermans]], the misconduct occurred in reports of trials of treatment to prevent death and myocardial infarction in patients undergoing operations.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Vogel|first1=G.|title=Suspect Drug Research Blamed for Massive Death Toll|journal=Science|date=30 January 2014|volume=343|issue=6170|pages=473–474|doi=10.1126/science.343.6170.473|ref=Science2014|pmid=24482457|bibcode=2014Sci...343..473V}}</ref> The trial reports were relied upon to issue guidelines that applied for many years across North America and Europe.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Cole|first1=G. D.|last2=Francis|first2=D. P.|title=Perioperative beta blockade: guidelines do not reflect the problems with the evidence from the DECREASE trials|journal=BMJ|date=29 August 2014|volume=349|issue=aug29 8|pages=g5210|doi=10.1136/bmj.g5210|url=http://www.bmj.com/content/349/bmj.g5210|pmid=25172044|s2cid=13845087}}</ref>

In the case of Dr Alfred Steinschneider, two decades and tens of millions of research dollars were lost trying to find the elusive link between infant sleep apnea, which Steinschneider said he had observed and recorded in his laboratory, and [[sudden infant death syndrome]] (SIDS), of which he stated it was a precursor. The cover was blown in 1994, 22 years after Steinschneider's 1972 ''[[Pediatrics (journal)|Pediatrics]]'' paper claiming such an association,<ref name="aappublications646">{{cite journal |author=Steinschneider A |title=Prolonged apnea and the sudden infant death syndrome: clinical and laboratory observations |journal=[[Pediatrics (journal)|Pediatrics]] |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=646–654 |date=October 1972 |doi=10.1542/peds.50.4.646 |pmid=4342142 |s2cid=8561269 |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/abstract/50/4/646}}</ref> when [[Waneta Hoyt]], the mother of the patients in the paper, was arrested, indicted and convicted on five counts of second-degree murder for the smothering deaths of her five children.<ref name="amazon1997">{{cite book |author1=Talan, Jamie |author2=Firstman, Richard |title=The death of innocents |publisher=Bantam Books |location=New York |year=1997 |isbn=978-0553100136 }}</ref> While that in itself was bad enough, the paper, presumably written as an attempt to save infants' lives, ironically was ultimately used as a defense by parents suspected in multiple deaths of their own children in cases of [[Münchausen syndrome by proxy]]. The 1972 ''Pediatrics'' paper was cited in 404 papers in the interim and is still listed on Pubmed without comment.<ref>{{cite journal|title= Prolonged apnea and the sudden infant death syndrome: clinical and laboratory observations|date=2013-03-25 |pmid=4342142 | volume=50|issue=4 |journal=Pediatrics|pages=646–654 | last1 = Steinschneider | first1 = A|doi=10.1542/peds.50.4.646 |s2cid=8561269 }}</ref>{{original research?|date=October 2024}}

===Consequences for those who expose misconduct===
The potentially severe consequences for individuals who are found to have engaged in misconduct also reflect on the institutions that host or employ them and also on the participants in any peer review process that has allowed the publication of questionable research.  This means that a range of actors in any case may have a motivation to suppress any evidence or suggestion of misconduct.  Persons who expose such cases, commonly called [[whistleblower]]s, find themselves open to retaliation by a number of different means.<ref name="BMJ1995"/> These negative consequences for exposers of misconduct have driven the development of whistle blowers charters – designed to protect those who raise concerns (''for more details refer to [[retaliation (law)]]'').

===Regulatory Violations and Consequences ''<sup>(example)</sup>''===
[https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/cfr/part050/part050-0005.html Title 10 Code of Federal Regulation (CFR) Part 50.5, Deliberate Misconduct] of the [[Nuclear Regulatory Commission|U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)]] regulations, addresses the prohibition of certain activities by individual involved in NRC-licensed activities. 10 CFR 50.5 is designed to ensure the safety and integrity of [[Nuclear industry|nuclear]] operations. [https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/cfr/part050/part050-0009.html 10 CFR Part 50.9, Completeness and Accuracy of Information], focuses on the requirements for providing information and data to the NRC. The intent of 10 CFR 50.5 is to deter and penalize intentional wrongdoing (i.e., violations). 10 CFR 50.9 is crucial in maintaining transparency and reliability in the [[Nuclear industry|nuclear]] industry, which effectively emphasizes honesty and integrity in maintaining the safety and security of nuclear operations. Providing false or misleading information or data to the NRC is therefore a violation of 10 CFR 50.9.

Violation of any of these rules can lead to severe penalties, including [[Termination of employment|termination]], [[Fine (penalty)|fines]] and [[criminal prosecution]]. It can also result in the [[revocation]] of licenses or certifications, thereby barring individuals or entities from participating in any NRC-licensed activities in the future.

==Data issues==
===Exposure of fraudulent data===
With the advancement of the internet, there are now several tools available to aid in the detection of [[plagiarism]] and [[multiple publication]] within biomedical literature. One tool developed in 2006 by researchers in Dr. [[Harold Garner]]'s laboratory at the [[University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas]] is [[Déjà vu]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dejavu.vbi.vt.edu/dejavu/ |title=Déjà vu: Medline duplicate publication database |website=dejavu.vbi.vt.edu |access-date=2013-08-04 |archive-date=2015-04-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150425082932/http://dejavu.vbi.vt.edu/dejavu/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> an open-access database containing several thousand instances of duplicate publication. All of the entries in the database were discovered through the use of text data mining algorithm [[eTBLAST]], also created in Dr. Garner's laboratory. The creation of Déjà vu<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dejavu.vbi.vt.edu/dejavu |title=Deja vu: Medline duplicate publication database |website=dejavu.vbi.vt.edu |access-date=2013-08-04  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140722061546/http://dejavu.vbi.vt.edu/dejavu/ |archive-date=2014-07-22 }}</ref> and the subsequent classification of several hundred articles contained therein have ignited much discussion in the scientific community concerning issues such as [[ethics|ethical behavior]], journal standards, and intellectual copyright. Studies on this database have been published in journals such as ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' and ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', among others.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Errami M |author2=Garner HR |doi=10.1038/451397a |title=A tale of two citations |date=2008-01-23 |volume=451 |issue=7177 |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |pages=397–399 |pmid=18216832|bibcode=2008Natur.451..397E |s2cid=4358525 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Long TC |author2=Errami M |author3=George AC |author4=Sun Z |author5=Garner HR |doi=10.1126/science.1167408 |title=Scientific Integrity: Responding to Possible Plagiarism |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |date=2009-03-06 |volume=323 |issue=5919 |pages=1293–1294 |pmid=19265004|s2cid=28467385 }}</ref>

Other tools which may be used to detect fraudulent data include [[error analysis (mathematics)|error analysis]]. Measurements generally have a small amount of error, and repeated measurements of the same item will generally result in slight differences in readings. These differences can be analyzed, and follow certain known mathematical and statistical properties. Should a set of data appear to be too faithful to the hypothesis, i.e., the amount of error that would normally be in such measurements does not appear, a conclusion can be drawn that the data may have been forged. Error analysis alone is typically not sufficient to prove that data have been falsified or fabricated, but it may provide the supporting evidence necessary to confirm suspicions of misconduct.

===Data sharing===
Kirby Lee and [[Lisa Bero]] suggest, "Although reviewing raw data can be difficult, time-consuming and expensive, having such a policy would hold authors more accountable for the accuracy of their data and potentially reduce scientific fraud or misconduct."<ref>{{cite journal | year = 2006 | title = Ethics: Increasing accountability | url = http://www.nature.com/nature/peerreview/debate/nature05007.html | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | last1 = Lee | first1 = Kirby  | doi = 10.1038/nature05007 | archive-url = https://archive.today/20120912175551/http://www.nature.com/nature/peerreview/debate/nature05007.html | access-date = 2010-08-16 | archive-date = 2012-09-12 }}</ref>

== Underreporting ==
The vast majority of cases of scientific misconduct may not be reported. The number of [[article retraction]]s in 2022 was nearly 5,500, but [[Ivan Oransky]] and Adam Marcus, co-founders of ''[[Retraction Watch]]'', estimate that at least 100,000 retractions should occur every year, with only about one in five being due to "honest error".<ref>{{cite news |title=There's far more scientific fraud than anyone wants to admit |first1=Ivan |last1=Oransky |first2= Adam |last2=Marcus |authorlink1=Ivan Oransky |authorlink2=Adam Marcus (science journalist) |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2023/aug/09/scientific-misconduct-retraction-watch |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=August 9, 2023 |accessdate=August 12, 2023}}</ref>

== Some notable cases ==
{{Main|List of scientific misconduct incidents}}
In 1998 [[Andrew Wakefield]] published a fraudulent research paper in ''[[The Lancet]]'' claiming links between the [[MMR vaccine]], [[Autism spectrum disorder|autism]], and [[inflammatory bowel disease]]. In 2010, he was found guilty of dishonesty in his research and banned from medicine by the UK [[General Medical Council]] following an investigation by [[Brian Deer]] of the London ''[[Sunday Times]]''.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=General Medical Council |date=24 May 2010 |title=Dr. Andrew Jeremy Wakefield: Determination on Serious Professional Misconduct (SPM) and Sanction |access-date=10 August 2011 |url=http://www.gmc-uk.org/Wakefield_SPM_and_SANCTION.pdf_32595267.pdf  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809092833/http://www.gmc-uk.org/Wakefield_SPM_and_SANCTION.pdf_32595267.pdf |archive-date=9 August 2011 }}</ref> 

The claims in Wakefield's paper were widely reported,<ref>{{cite news |title=The MMR hoax |last=Goldacre |first=B. |work=The Guardian |location=London |date=30 August 2008 |access-date=30 August 2008 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2008/aug/30/mmr.health.media}}</ref> leading to a sharp drop in vaccination rates in the UK and Ireland and [[MMR vaccine and autism#Disease outbreaks|outbreaks of mumps and measles]]. Promotion of the claimed link continues to fuel the [[anti-vaccination movement]].

In 2011 [[Diederik Stapel]], a highly regarded Dutch [[social psychologist]] was discovered to have fabricated data in dozens of studies on human behaviour.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gretchen Vogel |title=Report: Dutch 'Lord of the Data' Forged Dozens of Studies (UPDATE) |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/report-dutch-lord-data-forged-dozens-studies-update |journal=[[Science (magazine)|Science]] |date=October 31, 2011}}</ref> He has been called "the biggest con man in academic science".<ref>{{cite news |title=The Mind of a Con Man |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/28/magazine/diederik-stapels-audacious-academic-fraud.html |date=2013-04-26|last1=Bhattacharjee |first1=Yudhijit }}</ref>

In 2020, [[Sapan Desai]] and his coauthors published two papers in the prestigious medical journals ''[[The Lancet]]'' and ''[[The New England Journal of Medicine]]'', early in the [[COVID-19]] pandemic. The papers were based on a very large dataset published by [[Surgisphere]], a company owned by Desai. The dataset was exposed as a fabrication, and the papers were soon retracted.<ref name="retractNEJM">{{cite journal |last1=Mehra |first1=Mandeep R. |last2=Desai |first2=Sapan S. |last3=Kuy |first3=SreyRam |last4=Henry |first4=Timothy D. |last5=Patel |first5=Amit N. |title=Retraction: Cardiovascular Disease, Drug Therapy, and Mortality in Covid-19. N Engl J Med. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa2007621. |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |date=4 June 2020 |volume=382 |issue=26 |page=2582 |doi=10.1056/NEJMc2021225 |pmid=32501665 |pmc=7274164 |url=}}</ref><ref name="Retract Lancet">{{cite journal |last1=Mehra |first1=Mandeep R |last2=Ruschitzka |first2=Frank |last3=Patel |first3=Amit N |title=Retraction—Hydroxychloroquine or chloroquine with or without a macrolide for treatment of COVID-19: a multinational registry analysis |journal=The Lancet |date=5 June 2020 |volume=395 |issue=10240 |page=1820 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31324-6 |pmid=32511943 |pmc=7274621 }}</ref>

In 2024, [[Eliezer Masliah]], head of the Division of Neuroscience at the [[National Institute on Aging]], was suspected of having manipulated and inappropriately reused images in over 100 scientific papers spanning several decades, including those that were used by the FDA to greenlight testing for the experimental drug [[prasinezumab]] as a treatment for Parkinson's.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/research-misconduct-finding-neuroscientist-eliezer-masliah-papers-under-suspicion |title=Did a top NIH official manipulate Alzheimer's and Parkinson’s studies for decades? |last=Piller |first=Charles |date=2024-09-26 |publisher=Science |doi=10.1126/science.z2o7c3k |language=en}}</ref>

== Solutions ==

=== Changing research assessment ===
Since 2012, the [[San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment|Declaration on Research Assessment]] (DORA), from San Francisco, gathered many institutions, publishers, and individuals committing to improving the metrics used to assess research and to stop focusing on the [[journal impact factor]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Read the Declaration |url=https://sfdora.org/read/ |access-date=2022-06-07 |website=DORA |language=en-US}}</ref>

==See also==
{{colbegin|colwidth=27em}}
* [[Academic dishonesty]]
* [[Archaeological forgery]]
* [[Bioethics]]
* [[Bullying in academia]]
* [[Committee on Publication Ethics]]
* [[Conflicts of interest in academic publishing]]
* [[Cyril Burt]]
* [[Dana-Farber Cancer Institute]]
* [[Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty]]
* [[Data fabrication]]
* [[Engineering ethics]]
* [[Fabrication (science)]]
* [[Hippocratic Oath for scientists]]
* [[International Committee of Medical Journal Editors]]
* [[Japanese scientific misconduct allegations]]
* [[Laurie Glimcher]]
* [[List of cognitive biases]]
* [[List of experimental errors and frauds in physics]]
* [[List of fallacies]]
* [[List of memory biases]]
* [[List of topics characterized as pseudoscience]]
* [[Lysenkoism]]
* [[Mertonian norms]]
* [[Metascience]]
* [[Pathological science]]
* [[Politicization of science]]
* [[Reproducibility]]
* [[Research ethics]]
* [[Research integrity]]
* [[Research paper mill]]
* [[Retractions in academic publishing|Retraction]]
* [[Scientific method]]
* [[Scientific plagiarism in India]]
* [[Scientific plagiarism in the United States]]
* [[Sham peer review]]
* [[Source criticism]]
* [[United States Office of Research Integrity]] (ORI)
* ''[[Betrayers of the Truth: Fraud and Deceit in the Halls of Science]]''
* ''[[EASE Guidelines for Authors and Translators of Scientific Articles]]''
* ''[[Straight and Crooked Thinking]]''
* ''[[The Great Betrayal: Fraud In Science]]''
{{colend}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite web|url=http://www.nbi.dk/natphil/kur/phd/3.Fraud_def_ex_01a.ppt|title=An old and a recent example of scientific fraud|access-date=2007-05-18|author=Claus Emmeche|format=PowerPoint}}
* {{cite book |title=The Icepick Surgeon: Murder, Fraud, Sabotage, Piracy, and Other Dastardly Deeds Perpetrated in the Name of Science |author=Sam Kean |publisher=Little, Brown and Company |year=2021 |isbn=978-0316496506}}
* Patricia Keith-Spiegel, Joan Sieber, and Gerald P. Koocher (November, 2010). [http://www.ethicsresearch.com/freeresources/rrwresearchwrongdoing.html ''Responding to Research Wrongdoing: A User Friendly Guide''].
* Jargin SV. Misconduct in Medical Research and Practice. Nova Science Publishers, 2020. https://novapublishers.com/shop/misconduct-in-medical-research-and-practice/

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140810105700/http://www.ease.org.uk/sites/default/files/ease_guidelines-june2014-ethics.pdf Publication ethics checklist] (PDF) (for routine use during manuscript submission to a scientific journal)

{{Science and technology studies|state=collapsed}}
{{Fraud}}

[[Category:Scientific misconduct| ]]

[[de:Wissenschaftliches Fehlverhalten]]