Caulerpa taxifolia: Difference between revisions

Caulerpa taxifolia
Scientific classification
Clade:	Viridiplantae
Division:	Chlorophyta
Class:	UTC clade
Order:	Bryopsidales
Family:	Caulerpaceae
Genus:	Caulerpa
Species:	C. taxifolia
Binomial name
	Caulerpa taxifolia; (M.Vahl) C.Agardh, 1817

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Caulerpa taxifolia is a species of green seaweed, an alga of the genus Caulerpa, native to tropical waters of the Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean, and Caribbean Sea.^[2] The species name taxifolia arises from the resemblance of its leaf-like fronds^[3] to those of the yew (Taxus). ^{[citation needed]}

A strain of the species bred for use in aquariums has established non-native populations in waters of the Mediterranean Sea, the United States, and Australia.^[4] It is one of two species of algae listed in 100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien Species compiled by the IUCN Invasive Species Specialist Group.^[5]

Description

C. taxifolia is light green^[3] with stolons (stems) on the sea floor, from which sparsely-branched upright fronds of approximately 20–60 cm (8–24 in) in height arise.^[6] Algae in the genus Caulerpa synthesize a mixture of toxins^[7] termed caulerpicin, believed to impart a peppery taste to the plants.^[8] The effects of the specific toxin synthesized by C. taxifolia, caulerpenyne, have been studied,^[9]^[10] with extracts from C. taxifolia being found to negatively affect P-glycoprotein-ATPase in the sea sponge G. cydonium.^[11]

Like all members of the genus Caulerpa, C. taxifolia consists of a single cell with many nuclei. The algae has been identified as the largest known single-celled organism.^[12] Wild-type C. taxifolia is monoecious.^[13]

Use in aquaria

Caulerpa species are commonly used in aquaria for their aesthetic qualities and ability to control the growth of undesired species.^[14] C. taxifolia has been cultivated for use in aquaria in western Europe since the early 1970s.^[15] A clone of the alga that was resistant to cold was observed in the tropical aquarium at the Wilhelma Zoo in Stuttgart^[16] and further bred by exposure to chemicals and ultraviolet light.^[17] The zoo distributed the strain to other aquaria, including the Oceanographic Museum of Monaco.^[16]

The aquarium strain is morphologically identical to native populations of the species.^[3] However, a 2008 study found that a population of the aquarium strain near Caloundra, Australia exhibited markedly reduced sexual reproduction, with only male plants present during some reproductive episodes.^[13] The aquarium strain can survive out of water for up to 10 days in moist conditions, with 1 cm fragments capable of producing viable plants.^[18]

Status as invasive species

Outside its native range, C. taxifolia is listed as an invasive species.^[19]^[20] It is one of two algae on the list of the world's 100 worst invasive species compiled by the IUCN Invasive Species Specialist Group.^[5] The species is able to thrive in heavily polluted waters,^[21] possibly contributing to its spread in the Mediterranean.^[22]

Presence in the Mediterranean Sea

The presence of C. taxifolia in the Mediterranean was first reported in 1984^[23] in an area adjacent to the Oceanographic Museum of Monaco.^[24] Alexandre Meinesz, a marine biologist, attempted to alert Moroccan and French authorities to the spread of the strain in 1989,^[16] but the governments failed to respond to his concerns.^[25] The occurrence of the strain is generally believed to be due to an accidental release by the museum,^[3]^[26] but Monaco rejected the attribution and instead claimed that the observed algae was a mutant strain of C. mexicana.^[25] By 1999, scientists agreed that it was no longer possible to eliminate the presence of C. taxifolia in the Mediterranean.^[25]

A study published in 2002 found that beds of Posidonia oceanica in the Bay of Menton were not negatively affected eight years after colonization by C. taxifolia.^[27] Other published studies have shown that fish diversity and biomass are equal or greater in Caulerpa meadows than in seagrass beds^[28] and that Caulerpa had no effect on composition or richness of fish species.^[29]

Studies in 1998^[15] and 2001^[23] found that the strain observed in the Mediterranean was genetically identical to aquarium strains, with similarities to an additional population in Australia.

Presence in Australia

A 2007 study found that a native bivalve mollusc species was negatively affected by the presence of C. taxifolia, but that the effect was not necessarily different from that of native seagrass species.^[30] A 2010 study indicated that the effect of detritus from C. taxifolia negatively impacted abundance and species richness.^[31]

Presence in California

C. taxifolia was found in waters near San Diego, California, in 2000,^[32] where chlorine bleach was used in efforts to eradicate the strain.^[33] The strain was declared eradicated from Agua Hedionda Lagoon in 2006.^[34] California passed a law in 2001 forbidding the possession, sale, transport, or release of Caulerpa taxifolia within the state.^[35] The Mediterranean clone of C. taxifolia was listed as a noxious weed in 1999^[36] by the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, prohibiting interstate sale and transport of the strain without a permit under the Noxious Weed Act and Plant Protection Act.^[24]^[37]

Other negative effects

C. taxifolia may become entangled in fishing gear and boat propellers.^[4]

Control methods

C. taxifolia may be controlled via mechanical removal, poisoning with chlorine, or application of salt.^[6] Researchers at the University of Nice investigated possible use of a species of sea slug, Elysia subornata, as a possible natural control method, but found that it was not suitable for use in the Mediterranean due to cold winter water temperatures and insufficient population density.^[38]

Gallery

C. taxifolia on display at the National Museum of Nature and Science in Tokyo, Japan
A field of C. taxifolia amongst seagrass
A Pacific cleaner shrimp (Lysmata amboinensis) on top of a C. taxifolia specimen within a marine aquarium

References

^ Guiry, M.D.; Guiry, G.M. (2007). "Genus: Caulerpa taxonomy browser". AlgaeBase version 4.2 World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway. Retrieved 2007-09-23.
^ "Macroalga Killer Algae; Aquarium-Mediterranean Strain : Caulerpa taxifloria" (PDF). Dnr.wi.gov. Retrieved 2022-03-18.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "GISD". Invasive Species Specialist Group. Retrieved 2021-05-23.
^ ^a ^b "Aquarium Aulerpa". Marine Biosecurity Porthole. Retrieved 2021-05-23.
^ ^a ^b "100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien Species". Global Invasive Species Database (International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)). Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved Jan 24, 2021.
^ ^a ^b "Aquarium Caulerpa". Weeds Australia - Profiles. Retrieved 2021-05-23.
^ Nielsen, Peter G.; Carlé, Jørgen S.; Christophersen, Carsten (January 1982). "Final structure of caulerpicin, a toxin mixture from the green alga Caulerpa racemosa". Phytochemistry. 21 (7): 1643–1645. Bibcode:1982PChem..21.1643N. doi:10.1016/S0031-9422(82)85032-2.
^ Doty, Maxwell S.; Aguilar-Santos, Gertrudes (August 1966). "Caulerpicin, a Toxic Constituent of Caulerpa". Nature. 211 (5052): 990. Bibcode:1966Natur.211..990D. doi:10.1038/211990a0. PMID 5968321. S2CID 4214966.
^ Pesando, Danielle; Lemée, Rodolphe; Ferrua, Corine; Amade, Philippe; Girard, Jean-Pierre (October 1996). "Effects of caulerpenyne, the major toxin from Caulerpa taxifolia on mechanisms related to sea urchin egg cleavage". Aquatic Toxicology. 35 (3–4): 139–155. Bibcode:1996AqTox..35..139P. doi:10.1016/0166-445X(96)00013-6.
^ Mozzachiodi, R; Scuri, R; Roberto, M; Brunelli, M (November 2001). "Caulerpenyne, a toxin from the seaweed Caulerpa taxifolia, depresses afterhyperpolarization in invertebrate neurons". Neuroscience. 107 (3): 519–526. doi:10.1016/s0306-4522(01)00365-7. PMID 11719006. S2CID 40312176.
^ Müller, Werner E.G.; Koziol, Claudia; Wiens, Matthias; Schröder, Heinz C. (2000). "Stress Response in Marine Sponges: Genes and Molecules Involved and Their use as Biomarkers". Environmental Stressors and Gene Responses. Cell and Molecular Response to Stress. Vol. 1. pp. 193–208. doi:10.1016/S1568-1254(00)80016-9. ISBN 978-0-444-50488-3.
^ Ranjan, Aashish; Townsley, Brad T.; Ichihashi, Yasunori; Sinha, Neelima R.; Chitwood, Daniel H. (8 January 2015). "An Intracellular Transcriptomic Atlas of the Giant Coenocyte Caulerpa taxifolia". PLOS Genetics. 11 (1): e1004900. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1004900. PMC 4287348. PMID 25569326.
^ ^a ^b Phillips, Julie A. (February 2009). "Reproductive ecology of Caulerpa taxifolia (Caulerpaceae, Bryopsidales) in subtropical eastern Australia". European Journal of Phycology. 44 (1): 81–88. Bibcode:2009EJPhy..44...81P. doi:10.1080/09670260802343640. S2CID 84880590.
^ "A closer look at Caulerpa - common aquarium species and their care". Conscientious Aquarist Magazine. Retrieved 2021-05-23.
^ ^a ^b Jousson, O.; Pawlowski, J.; Zaninetti, L.; Meinesz, A.; Boudouresque, C. F. (22 October 1998). "Molecular evidence for the aquarium origin of the green alga Caulerpa taxifolia introduced to the Mediterranean Sea". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 172: 275–280. Bibcode:1998MEPS..172..275J. doi:10.3354/meps172275.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Chronology of an Invasion". NOVA. Retrieved 2021-05-23.
^ Pierre Madl; Maricela Yip (2004). "Literature Review of Caulerpa taxifolia". BUFUS-Info. 19 (31). Archived from the original on 2022-10-08. Retrieved 2007-06-10.
^ "Caulerpa Taxifolia or Killer Alga". Center for Invasive Species Research. Retrieved 2021-05-23.
^ "Caulerpa taxifolia". Invasive Species Compendium (CABI International). Archived from the original on 2017-07-23. Retrieved Jan 24, 2021.
^ "Caulerpa taxifolia". Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants (University of Florida). Archived from the original on 2017-08-06. Retrieved Jan 24, 2021.
^ "Introduced Species Summary Project Killer Algae (Caulerpa taxifolia)". columbia.edu. Retrieved 2021-05-23.
^ Houngnandan, Fabrice; Kefi, Sonia; Deter, Julie (October 2021). "The joint influence of environmental and anthropogenic factors on the invasion of two alien caulerpae in northwestern Mediterranean". Biological Invasions. 24 (2): 449–462. doi:10.1007/s10530-021-02654-w.
^ ^a ^b Wiedenmann, J.; Baumstark, A.; Pillen, T. L.; Meinesz, A.; Vogel, W. (19 February 2001). "DNA fingerprints of Caulerpa taxifolia provide evidence for the introduction of an aquarium strain into the Mediterranean Sea and its close relationship to an Australian population". Marine Biology. 138 (2): 229–234. Bibcode:2001MarBi.138..229W. doi:10.1007/s002270000456. S2CID 84150417.
^ ^a ^b "Aquatic Invasive Species on the West Coast". NOAA Fisheries. Retrieved 2021-05-23.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Fifteen years ago it was a small patch of seaweed, now it threatens to ruin the Mediterranean coast". The Guardian. 3 August 1999. Retrieved 2021-05-23.
^ "Caulerpa taxifolia". Invasive Species Compendium. Retrieved 2021-05-23.
^ Jaubert, Jean M.; Chisholm, John R. M.; Ducrot, Danielle; Ripley, Herb T.; Roy, Laura; Passeron-Seitre, Gilles (December 1999). "No deleterious alterations in Posidonia beds in the Bay of Menton (France) eight years after Caulerpa taxifolia colonization". Journal of Phycology. 35 (6): 1113–1119. Bibcode:1999JPcgy..35.1113J. doi:10.1046/j.1529-8817.1999.3561113.x. S2CID 85127610.
^ Relini, G., M Relini, and G. Torchia. (1998) Fish biodiversity in a Caulerpa taxifolia meadow in the Ligurian Sea. Italian Journal of Zoology 65 Supplement:465-470.
^ Francour, P.; Harmelin-Vivien, M.; Harmelin, J. G.; Duclerc, J. (1 March 1995). "Impact of Caulerpa taxifolia colonization on the littoral ichthyofauna of North-Western Mediterranean sea: preliminary results". Hydrobiologia. 300 (1): 345–353. doi:10.1007/BF00024475. S2CID 23445784.
^ Wright, Jeffrey T.; McKenzie, Louise A.; Gribben, Paul E. (2007). "A decline in the abundance and condition of a native bivalve associated with Caulerpa taxifolia invasion". Marine and Freshwater Research. 58 (3): 263. doi:10.1071/MF06150.
^ Taylor, Skye L.; Bishop, Melanie J.; Kelaher, Brendan P.; Glasby, Tim M. (16 December 2010). "Impacts of detritus from the invasive alga Caulerpa taxifolia on a soft sediment community". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 420: 73–81. Bibcode:2010MEPS..420...73T. doi:10.3354/meps08903.
^ "Killer Algae Invades Southern Cal". Wired. Retrieved 2021-05-23.
^ Williams, Sl; Schroeder, Sl (2004). "Eradication of the invasive seaweed Caulerpa taxifolia by chlorine bleach". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 272: 69–76. Bibcode:2004MEPS..272...69W. doi:10.3354/meps272069.
^ "Agua Hedionda Caulerpa Taxifolia Eradication Program". Southern California Wetlands Recovery Project. Retrieved 2021-05-23.
^ "Assembly Bill No. 1334, Chapter 338". California Legislative Information. Retrieved 2021-05-23.
^ "Noxious Weeds; Notice of Availability of Petitions To Regulate Caulerpa". Federal Register. 26 October 2004. Retrieved 2021-05-23.
^ "Noxious Weed Regulations" (PDF). govinfo.gov. Retrieved 2021-05-23.
^ Thibaut, Thierry; Meinesz, Alexandre; Amade, Philippe; Charrier, Stéphane; De Angelis, Kate; Ierardi, Santina; Mangialajo, Luisa; Melnick, Jennifer; Vidal, Valérie (June 2001). "Elysia subornata (Mollusca) a potential control agent of the alga Caulerpa taxifolia (Chlorophyta) in the Mediterranean Sea". Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. 81 (3): 497–504. Bibcode:2001JMBUK..81..497T. doi:10.1017/S0025315401004143. S2CID 85066136.

External links

Attack of the killer algae - Eric Noel Muñoz on YouTube
Killer Algae, 2001 BBC Documentary
In-depth article on invasions of Caulerpa taxifolia, source as escaped aquarium plant, etc.
Caulerpa Taxifolia fact sheet Archived 2022-10-08 at the Wayback Machine
An excerpt from Killer Algae by Alexandre Meinesz
Caulerpa taxifolia at the Center for Invasive Species Research
"Deep Sea Invasion" Nova (TV series) broadcast April 1, 2003
Species Profile- Caulerpa, Mediterranean Clone (Caulerpa taxifolia), National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library. Lists general information and resources for Caulerpa, Mediterranean Clone.

[1] Guiry, M.D.; Guiry, G.M. (2007). "Genus: Caulerpa taxonomy browser". AlgaeBase version 4.2 World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway. Retrieved 2007-09-23.

[2] "Macroalga Killer Algae; Aquarium-Mediterranean Strain : Caulerpa taxifloria" (PDF). Dnr.wi.gov. Retrieved 2022-03-18.

[isg-3] "GISD". Invasive Species Specialist Group. Retrieved 2021-05-23.

[nz-4] "Aquarium Aulerpa". Marine Biosecurity Porthole. Retrieved 2021-05-23.

[:0-5] "100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien Species". Global Invasive Species Database (International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)). Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved Jan 24, 2021.

[weedsau-6] "Aquarium Caulerpa". Weeds Australia - Profiles. Retrieved 2021-05-23.

[7] Nielsen, Peter G.; Carlé, Jørgen S.; Christophersen, Carsten (January 1982). "Final structure of caulerpicin, a toxin mixture from the green alga Caulerpa racemosa". Phytochemistry. 21 (7): 1643–1645. Bibcode:1982PChem..21.1643N. doi:10.1016/S0031-9422(82)85032-2.

[8] Doty, Maxwell S.; Aguilar-Santos, Gertrudes (August 1966). "Caulerpicin, a Toxic Constituent of Caulerpa". Nature. 211 (5052): 990. Bibcode:1966Natur.211..990D. doi:10.1038/211990a0. PMID 5968321. S2CID 4214966.

[9] Pesando, Danielle; Lemée, Rodolphe; Ferrua, Corine; Amade, Philippe; Girard, Jean-Pierre (October 1996). "Effects of caulerpenyne, the major toxin from Caulerpa taxifolia on mechanisms related to sea urchin egg cleavage". Aquatic Toxicology. 35 (3–4): 139–155. Bibcode:1996AqTox..35..139P. doi:10.1016/0166-445X(96)00013-6.

[10] Mozzachiodi, R; Scuri, R; Roberto, M; Brunelli, M (November 2001). "Caulerpenyne, a toxin from the seaweed Caulerpa taxifolia, depresses afterhyperpolarization in invertebrate neurons". Neuroscience. 107 (3): 519–526. doi:10.1016/s0306-4522(01)00365-7. PMID 11719006. S2CID 40312176.

[11] Müller, Werner E.G.; Koziol, Claudia; Wiens, Matthias; Schröder, Heinz C. (2000). "Stress Response in Marine Sponges: Genes and Molecules Involved and Their use as Biomarkers". Environmental Stressors and Gene Responses. Cell and Molecular Response to Stress. Vol. 1. pp. 193–208. doi:10.1016/S1568-1254(00)80016-9. ISBN 978-0-444-50488-3.

[12] Ranjan, Aashish; Townsley, Brad T.; Ichihashi, Yasunori; Sinha, Neelima R.; Chitwood, Daniel H. (8 January 2015). "An Intracellular Transcriptomic Atlas of the Giant Coenocyte Caulerpa taxifolia". PLOS Genetics. 11 (1): e1004900. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1004900. PMC 4287348. PMID 25569326.

[reproduction-13] Phillips, Julie A. (February 2009). "Reproductive ecology of Caulerpa taxifolia (Caulerpaceae, Bryopsidales) in subtropical eastern Australia". European Journal of Phycology. 44 (1): 81–88. Bibcode:2009EJPhy..44...81P. doi:10.1080/09670260802343640. S2CID 84880590.

[14] "A closer look at Caulerpa - common aquarium species and their care". Conscientious Aquarist Magazine. Retrieved 2021-05-23.

[researchgate-15] Jousson, O.; Pawlowski, J.; Zaninetti, L.; Meinesz, A.; Boudouresque, C. F. (22 October 1998). "Molecular evidence for the aquarium origin of the green alga Caulerpa taxifolia introduced to the Mediterranean Sea". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 172: 275–280. Bibcode:1998MEPS..172..275J. doi:10.3354/meps172275.

[nova-16] "Chronology of an Invasion". NOVA. Retrieved 2021-05-23.

[factsheet-17] Pierre Madl; Maricela Yip (2004). "Literature Review of Caulerpa taxifolia". BUFUS-Info. 19 (31). Archived from the original on 2022-10-08. Retrieved 2007-06-10.

[18] "Caulerpa Taxifolia or Killer Alga". Center for Invasive Species Research. Retrieved 2021-05-23.

[19] "Caulerpa taxifolia". Invasive Species Compendium (CABI International). Archived from the original on 2017-07-23. Retrieved Jan 24, 2021.

[20] "Caulerpa taxifolia". Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants (University of Florida). Archived from the original on 2017-08-06. Retrieved Jan 24, 2021.

[21] "Introduced Species Summary Project Killer Algae (Caulerpa taxifolia)". columbia.edu. Retrieved 2021-05-23.

[22] Houngnandan, Fabrice; Kefi, Sonia; Deter, Julie (October 2021). "The joint influence of environmental and anthropogenic factors on the invasion of two alien caulerpae in northwestern Mediterranean". Biological Invasions. 24 (2): 449–462. doi:10.1007/s10530-021-02654-w.

[springer-23] Wiedenmann, J.; Baumstark, A.; Pillen, T. L.; Meinesz, A.; Vogel, W. (19 February 2001). "DNA fingerprints of Caulerpa taxifolia provide evidence for the introduction of an aquarium strain into the Mediterranean Sea and its close relationship to an Australian population". Marine Biology. 138 (2): 229–234. Bibcode:2001MarBi.138..229W. doi:10.1007/s002270000456. S2CID 84150417.

[noaafisheries-24] "Aquatic Invasive Species on the West Coast". NOAA Fisheries. Retrieved 2021-05-23.

[guardian-25] "Fifteen years ago it was a small patch of seaweed, now it threatens to ruin the Mediterranean coast". The Guardian. 3 August 1999. Retrieved 2021-05-23.

[26] "Caulerpa taxifolia". Invasive Species Compendium. Retrieved 2021-05-23.

[27] Jaubert, Jean M.; Chisholm, John R. M.; Ducrot, Danielle; Ripley, Herb T.; Roy, Laura; Passeron-Seitre, Gilles (December 1999). "No deleterious alterations in Posidonia beds in the Bay of Menton (France) eight years after Caulerpa taxifolia colonization". Journal of Phycology. 35 (6): 1113–1119. Bibcode:1999JPcgy..35.1113J. doi:10.1046/j.1529-8817.1999.3561113.x. S2CID 85127610.

[28] Relini, G., M Relini, and G. Torchia. (1998) Fish biodiversity in a Caulerpa taxifolia meadow in the Ligurian Sea. Italian Journal of Zoology 65 Supplement:465-470.

[29] Francour, P.; Harmelin-Vivien, M.; Harmelin, J. G.; Duclerc, J. (1 March 1995). "Impact of Caulerpa taxifolia colonization on the littoral ichthyofauna of North-Western Mediterranean sea: preliminary results". Hydrobiologia. 300 (1): 345–353. doi:10.1007/BF00024475. S2CID 23445784.

[30] Wright, Jeffrey T.; McKenzie, Louise A.; Gribben, Paul E. (2007). "A decline in the abundance and condition of a native bivalve associated with Caulerpa taxifolia invasion". Marine and Freshwater Research. 58 (3): 263. doi:10.1071/MF06150.

[31] Taylor, Skye L.; Bishop, Melanie J.; Kelaher, Brendan P.; Glasby, Tim M. (16 December 2010). "Impacts of detritus from the invasive alga Caulerpa taxifolia on a soft sediment community". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 420: 73–81. Bibcode:2010MEPS..420...73T. doi:10.3354/meps08903.

[32] "Killer Algae Invades Southern Cal". Wired. Retrieved 2021-05-23.

[33] Williams, Sl; Schroeder, Sl (2004). "Eradication of the invasive seaweed Caulerpa taxifolia by chlorine bleach". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 272: 69–76. Bibcode:2004MEPS..272...69W. doi:10.3354/meps272069.

[34] "Agua Hedionda Caulerpa Taxifolia Eradication Program". Southern California Wetlands Recovery Project. Retrieved 2021-05-23.

[bill1334-35] "Assembly Bill No. 1334, Chapter 338". California Legislative Information. Retrieved 2021-05-23.

[36] "Noxious Weeds; Notice of Availability of Petitions To Regulate Caulerpa". Federal Register. 26 October 2004. Retrieved 2021-05-23.

[weedregs-37] "Noxious Weed Regulations" (PDF). govinfo.gov. Retrieved 2021-05-23.

[38] Thibaut, Thierry; Meinesz, Alexandre; Amade, Philippe; Charrier, Stéphane; De Angelis, Kate; Ierardi, Santina; Mangialajo, Luisa; Melnick, Jennifer; Vidal, Valérie (June 2001). "Elysia subornata (Mollusca) a potential control agent of the alga Caulerpa taxifolia (Chlorophyta) in the Mediterranean Sea". Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. 81 (3): 497–504. Bibcode:2001JMBUK..81..497T. doi:10.1017/S0025315401004143. S2CID 85066136.

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@@ Line 4: / Line 4: @@
 | genus = Caulerpa
 | species = taxifolia
-| authority = (M.Vahl) C.Agardh, 1817<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.algaebase.org/browse/taxonomy/?id=8295 | publisher = AlgaeBase version 4.2 World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway | accessdate = 2007-09-23 | title = Genus: ''Caulerpa'' taxonomy browser |author1=Guiry, M.D.  |author2=Guiry, G.M. | year = 2007 }}</ref>
+| authority = (M.Vahl) C.Agardh, 1817<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.algaebase.org/browse/taxonomy/?id=8295 | publisher = AlgaeBase version 4.2 World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway | access-date = 2007-09-23 | title = Genus: ''Caulerpa'' taxonomy browser |author1=Guiry, M.D.  |author2=Guiry, G.M. | year = 2007 }}</ref>
 }}
-'''''Caulerpa taxifolia''''' is a species of green [[seaweed]], an [[alga]] of the [[genus]] ''[[Caulerpa]]'' native to tropical waters of the [[Pacific Ocean]], [[Indian Ocean]], and [[Caribbean Sea]].<ref>https://dnr.wi.gov/topic/Invasives/documents/classification/LR_Caulerpa_taxifolia.pdf</ref> The species name ''taxifolia'' arises from the resemblance of its leaf-like fronds<ref name="isg">{{cite web|url=http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/species.php?sc=115|website=Invasive Species Specialist Group|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref> to those of the [[Taxus|yew]] (''Taxus''). {{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
-A strain of the species bred for use in aquariums has established non-native populations in waters of the [[Mediterranean Sea]], the [[United States]], and [[Australia]].<ref name="nz">{{cite web|title=Aquarium Aulerpa|url=https://marinebiosecurity.org.nz/caulerpa-taxifolia/|website=Marine Biosecurity Porthole|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref> It is one of two species of algae listed in [[100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien Species]] compiled by the [[IUCN]] Invasive Species Specialist Group.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien Species|url=http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/100_worst.php|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=Jan 24, 2021|website=Global Invasive Species Database (International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN))}}</ref>
+'''''Caulerpa taxifolia''''' is a species of green [[seaweed]], an [[alga]] of the [[genus]] ''[[Caulerpa]]'', native to tropical waters of the [[Pacific Ocean]], [[Indian Ocean]], and [[Caribbean Sea]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dnr.wi.gov/topic/Invasives/documents/classification/LR_Caulerpa_taxifolia.pdf |title=Macroalga Killer Algae; Aquarium-Mediterranean Strain : Caulerpa taxifloria|website=Dnr.wi.gov|access-date=2022-03-18}}</ref> The species name ''taxifolia'' arises from the resemblance of its leaf-like fronds<ref name="isg">{{cite web|url=http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/species.php?sc=115|website=Invasive Species Specialist Group|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en|title=GISD}}</ref> to those of the [[Taxus|yew]] (''Taxus''). {{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
+A strain of the species bred for use in aquariums has established non-native populations in waters of the [[Mediterranean Sea]], the [[United States]], and [[Australia]].<ref name="nz">{{cite web|title=Aquarium Aulerpa|url=https://marinebiosecurity.org.nz/caulerpa-taxifolia/|website=Marine Biosecurity Porthole|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref> It is one of two species of algae listed in [[100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien Species]] compiled by the [[IUCN]] Invasive Species Specialist Group.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien Species|url=http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/100_worst.php|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304230622/http://www.iucngisd.org:80/gisd/100_worst.php |archive-date=2016-03-04 |access-date=Jan 24, 2021|website=Global Invasive Species Database (International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN))}}</ref>
-==Description==
+==Description==
 [[Image:Icones of Japanese algae (Pl. CX) (8006303168).jpg|thumb|left|Two illustrations (Fig 1 . 4-5) of ''C. taxifolia'' displaying its "leaf" and [[rhizome]] structures (Fig 1 . 1-3 are illustrations of [[Caulerpa sertularioides|''C. sertularioides'']])]]
-''C. taxifolia'' is light green<ref name="isg" /> with [[stolon|stolons]] (stems) on the sea floor, from which sparsely-branched upright fronds of approximately 20-60cm in height arise.<ref name="weedsau">{{cite web|title=Aquarium Caulerpa|url=https://profiles.ala.org.au/opus/weeds-australia/profile/Caulerpa%20taxifolia|website=Weeds Australia - Profiles|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref> Algae in the genus ''Caulerpa'' synthesize a mixture of toxins<ref>{{cite web|title=Final structure of caulerpicin (abstract)|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031942282850322|website=sciencedirect.com|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref> termed [[caulerpicin]], believed to impart a peppery taste to the plants.<ref>{{cite web|title=Caulerpicin, a Toxic Constituent of Caulerpa (abstract)|url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1966Natur.211..990D/abstract|website=|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref> The effects of the specific toxin synthesized by ''C. taxifolia'', [[caulerpenyne]], have been studied,<ref>{{cite web|title=Effects of caulerpenyne, the major toxin from Caulerpa taxifolia on mechanisms related to sea urchin egg cleavage (abstract)|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0166445X96000136|website=sciencedirect.com|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web|title=Caulerpenyne, a toxin from the seaweed Caulerpa taxifolia, depresses afterhyperpolarization in invertebrate neurons|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11719006/|website=National Library of Medicine|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref> with extracts from ''C. taxifolia'' being found to negatively affect [[P-glycoprotein]]-ATPase in the [[sea sponge]] ''G. cydonium''.<ref>{{cite web|title=Environmental Stressors and Gene Responses|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/caulerpa-taxifolia|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref>
+''C. taxifolia'' is light green<ref name="isg" /> with [[stolon]]s (stems) on the sea floor, from which sparsely-branched upright fronds of approximately 20–60&nbsp;cm (8–24&nbsp;in) in height arise.<ref name="weedsau">{{cite web|title=Aquarium Caulerpa|url=https://profiles.ala.org.au/opus/weeds-australia/profile/Caulerpa%20taxifolia|website=Weeds Australia - Profiles|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref> Algae in the genus ''Caulerpa'' synthesize a mixture of toxins<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nielsen |first1=Peter G. |last2=Carlé |first2=Jørgen S. |last3=Christophersen |first3=Carsten |title=Final structure of caulerpicin, a toxin mixture from the green alga Caulerpa racemosa |journal=Phytochemistry |date=January 1982 |volume=21 |issue=7 |pages=1643–1645 |doi=10.1016/S0031-9422(82)85032-2 |bibcode=1982PChem..21.1643N }}</ref> termed [[caulerpicin]], believed to impart a peppery taste to the plants.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Doty |first1=Maxwell S. |last2=Aguilar-Santos |first2=Gertrudes |title=Caulerpicin, a Toxic Constituent of Caulerpa |journal=Nature |date=August 1966 |volume=211 |issue=5052 |pages=990 |doi=10.1038/211990a0 |pmid=5968321 |bibcode=1966Natur.211..990D |s2cid=4214966 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The effects of the specific toxin synthesized by ''C.&nbsp;taxifolia'', [[caulerpenyne]], have been studied,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pesando |first1=Danielle |last2=Lemée |first2=Rodolphe |last3=Ferrua |first3=Corine |last4=Amade |first4=Philippe |last5=Girard |first5=Jean-Pierre |title=Effects of caulerpenyne, the major toxin from Caulerpa taxifolia on mechanisms related to sea urchin egg cleavage |journal=Aquatic Toxicology |date=October 1996 |volume=35 |issue=3–4 |pages=139–155 |doi=10.1016/0166-445X(96)00013-6 |bibcode=1996AqTox..35..139P }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mozzachiodi |first1=R |last2=Scuri |first2=R |last3=Roberto |first3=M |last4=Brunelli |first4=M |title=Caulerpenyne, a toxin from the seaweed Caulerpa taxifolia, depresses afterhyperpolarization in invertebrate neurons |journal=Neuroscience |date=November 2001 |volume=107 |issue=3 |pages=519–526 |doi=10.1016/s0306-4522(01)00365-7 |pmid=11719006 |s2cid=40312176 }}</ref> with extracts from ''C.&nbsp;taxifolia'' being found to negatively affect [[P-glycoprotein]]-ATPase in the [[sea sponge]] ''G.&nbsp;cydonium''.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/S1568-1254(00)80016-9 |chapter=Stress Response in Marine Sponges: Genes and Molecules Involved and Their use as Biomarkers |title=Environmental Stressors and Gene Responses |series=Cell and Molecular Response to Stress |year=2000 |last1=Müller |first1=Werner E.G. |last2=Koziol |first2=Claudia |last3=Wiens |first3=Matthias |last4=Schröder |first4=Heinz C. |volume=1 |pages=193–208 |isbn=978-0-444-50488-3 }}</ref>
-The alga has been identified as the largest known single-celled organism.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Structure of world's largest single cell is reflected at the molecular level|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/01/150129160728.htm|access-date=2021-02-21|website=ScienceDaily|language=en}}</ref> Wild-type ''C. taxifolia'' is [[monoecious]].<ref name="reproduction">{{cite web|title=Reproductive ecology of Caulerpa taxifolia (Caulerpaceae, Bryopsidales) in subtropical eastern Australia|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/09670260802343640|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref>
+Like all members of the genus ''Caulerpa,'' ''C.&nbsp;taxifolia'' consists of a single [[Cell (biology)|cell]] with many [[Cell nucleus|nuclei]]. The algae has been identified as the largest known [[Unicellular organism|single-celled organism]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ranjan |first1=Aashish |last2=Townsley |first2=Brad T. |last3=Ichihashi |first3=Yasunori |last4=Sinha |first4=Neelima R. |last5=Chitwood |first5=Daniel H. |title=An Intracellular Transcriptomic Atlas of the Giant Coenocyte Caulerpa taxifolia |journal=PLOS Genetics |date=8 January 2015 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=e1004900 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1004900 |pmid=25569326 |pmc=4287348 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Wild-type ''C.&nbsp;taxifolia'' is [[monoecious]].<ref name="reproduction">{{cite journal |last1=Phillips |first1=Julie A. |title=Reproductive ecology of Caulerpa taxifolia (Caulerpaceae, Bryopsidales) in subtropical eastern Australia |journal=European Journal of Phycology |date=February 2009 |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=81–88 |doi=10.1080/09670260802343640 |bibcode=2009EJPhy..44...81P |s2cid=84880590 }}</ref>
 ==Use in aquaria==
+''Caulerpa'' species are commonly used in aquaria for their aesthetic qualities and ability to control the growth of undesired species.<ref>{{cite web|title=A closer look at Caulerpa - common aquarium species and their care|url=http://www.wetwebmedia.com/ca/volume_6/volume_6_4/caulerpa.html|website=Conscientious Aquarist Magazine|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref> ''C.&nbsp;taxifolia'' has been cultivated for use in aquaria in western [[Europe]] since the early 1970s.<ref name="researchgate">{{cite journal |last1=Jousson |first1=O. |last2=Pawlowski |first2=J. |last3=Zaninetti |first3=L. |last4=Meinesz |first4=A. |last5=Boudouresque |first5=C. F. |title=Molecular evidence for the aquarium origin of the green alga Caulerpa taxifolia introduced to the Mediterranean Sea |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |date=22 October 1998 |volume=172 |pages=275–280 |doi=10.3354/meps172275 |bibcode=1998MEPS..172..275J |doi-access=free }}</ref> A clone of the alga that was resistant to cold was observed in the tropical aquarium at the [[Wilhelma]] Zoo in [[Stuttgart]]<ref name="nova">{{cite web|title=Chronology of an Invasion|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/algae/chronology.html|website=NOVA|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref> and further bred by exposure to chemicals and [[ultraviolet light]].<ref name="factsheet">{{cite journal
+ | author1 = Pierre Madl
-''Caulerpa'' species are commonly used in aquaria for their aesthetic qualities and ability to control the growth of undesired species.<ref>{{cite web|title=A closer look at Caulerpa - common aquarium species and their care|url=http://www.wetwebmedia.com/ca/volume_6/volume_6_4/caulerpa.html|website=Conscientious Aquarist Magazine|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref>
+ | author2 = Maricela Yip
-''C. taxifolia'' has been cultivated for use in aquaria in western [[Europe]] since the early 1970's.<ref name="researchgate">{{cite web|title=Molecular evidence for the aquarium origin of the green alga Caulerpa taxifolia introduced to the Mediterranean Sea|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/250216723_Molecular_evidence_for_the_aquarium_origin_of_the_green_alga_Caulerpa_taxifolia_introduced_to_the_Mediterranean_Sea|website=researchgate.net|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref> A clone of the alga that was resistant to cold was observed in the tropical aquarium at the Wilhelmina Zoo in [[Stuttgart]]<ref name="nova">{{cite web|title=Chronology of an Invasion|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/algae/chronology.html|website=NOVA|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref> and further bred by exposure to chemicals and [[ultraviolet light]]. <ref name="factsheet">{{cite journal
- |author1=Pierre Madl |author2=Maricela Yip | title = Literature Review of Caulerpa taxifolia
+ | title = Literature Review of Caulerpa taxifolia.
  | journal = BUFUS-Info
  | volume = 19
  | issue = 31
- | year = 2004 | url = http://biophysics.sbg.ac.at/ct/caulerpa.htm
+ | year = 2004
+ | url = http://biophysics.sbg.ac.at/ct/caulerpa.htm
  | doi =
  | id =
+ | access-date = 2007-06-10
- | accessdate = 2007-06-10 }}</ref> The zoo distributed the strain to other aquaria, including the [[Oceanographic Museum of Monaco]].<ref name="nova" />
+ | archive-date = 2022-10-08
+ | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221008200554/http://biophysics.sbg.ac.at/ct/caulerpa.htm
+ | url-status = dead
+ }}</ref> The zoo distributed the strain to other aquaria, including the [[Oceanographic Museum of Monaco]].<ref name="nova" />
-The aquarium strain is morphologically identical to native populations of the species.<ref name="isg" /> However, a 2008 study found that a population of the aquarium strain near [[Caloundra]], Australia exhibited markedly reduced sexual reproduction, with only male plants present during some reproductive episodes.<ref name="reproduction" /> The aquarium strain can survive out of water for up to 10 days in moist conditions, with 1cm fragments capable of producing viable plants.<ref>{{cite web|title=Caulerpa Taxifolia or Killer Alga|url=https://cisr.ucr.edu/invasive-species/caulerpa-taxifolia-or-killer-alga|website=Center for Invasive Species Research|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref>
+The aquarium strain is morphologically identical to native populations of the species.<ref name="isg" /> However, a 2008 study found that a population of the aquarium strain near [[Caloundra]], Australia exhibited markedly reduced sexual reproduction, with only male plants present during some reproductive episodes.<ref name="reproduction" /> The aquarium strain can survive out of water for up to 10 days in moist conditions, with 1&nbsp;cm fragments capable of producing viable plants.<ref>{{cite web|title=Caulerpa Taxifolia or Killer Alga|url=https://cisr.ucr.edu/invasive-species/caulerpa-taxifolia-or-killer-alga|website=Center for Invasive Species Research|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref>
 ==Status as invasive species==
-Outside its native range, ''C. taxifolia'' is listed as an invasive species.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Caulerpa taxifolia|url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/29292|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=Jan 24, 2021|website=Invasive Species Compendium (CABI International)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Caulerpa taxifolia|url=https://plants.ifas.ufl.edu/plant-directory/caulerpa-taxifolia/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=Jan 24, 2021|website=Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants (University of Florida)}}</ref> It is one of two algae on the [[list of the world's 100 worst invasive species]] compiled by the [[IUCN]] Invasive Species Specialist Group.<ref name=":0" /> The species is able to thrive in heavily polluted waters<ref>{{cite web|title=Introduced Species Summary Project Killer Algae (Caulerpa taxifolia)|url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/cerc/danoff-burg/invasion_bio/inv_spp_summ/Caulerpa_taxifolia.htm|website=columbia.edu|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref>, possibly contributing to its spread in the Mediterranean.{{Citation needed|date=May 2021}}
+Outside its native range, ''C.&nbsp;taxifolia'' is listed as an invasive species.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Caulerpa taxifolia|url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/29292|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170723172529/http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/29292 |archive-date=2017-07-23 |access-date=Jan 24, 2021|website=Invasive Species Compendium (CABI International)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Caulerpa taxifolia|url=https://plants.ifas.ufl.edu/plant-directory/caulerpa-taxifolia/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806020119/http://plants.ifas.ufl.edu:80/plant-directory/caulerpa-taxifolia/ |archive-date=2017-08-06 |access-date=Jan 24, 2021|website=Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants (University of Florida)}}</ref> It is one of two algae on the [[list of the world's 100 worst invasive species]] compiled by the [[IUCN]] Invasive Species Specialist Group.<ref name=":0" /> The species is able to thrive in heavily polluted waters,<ref>{{cite web|title=Introduced Species Summary Project Killer Algae (Caulerpa taxifolia)|url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/cerc/danoff-burg/invasion_bio/inv_spp_summ/Caulerpa_taxifolia.htm|website=columbia.edu|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref> possibly contributing to its spread in the Mediterranean.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Houngnandan |first1=Fabrice |last2=Kefi |first2=Sonia |last3=Deter |first3=Julie |title=The joint influence of environmental and anthropogenic factors on the invasion of two alien caulerpae in northwestern Mediterranean |journal=Biological Invasions |date=October 2021 |volume=24  |issue=2 |pages=449–462 |doi=10.1007/s10530-021-02654-w  }}</ref>
 ===Presence in the Mediterranean Sea===
-The presence of ''C. taxifolia'' in the Mediterranean was first reported in 1984<ref name="springer">{{cite web|title=DNA fingerprints of Caulerpa taxifolia provide evidence for the introduction of an aquarium strain into the Mediterranean Sea and its close relationship to an Australian population (abstract)|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s002270000456|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref> in an area adjacent to the Oceanographic Museum of Monaco.<ref name="noaafisheries">{{Cite web|title=Aquatic Invasive Species on the West Coast|url=https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/west-coast/habitat-conservation/aquatic-invasive-species-west-coast|access-date=2021-05-23|website=NOAA Fisheries|language=en}}</ref> Alexandre Meinesz, a [[Marine biology|marine biologist]], attempted to alert Moroccan and French authorities to the spread of the strain in 1989<ref name="nova" />, but the governments failed to respond to his concerns.<ref name="guardian">{{cite web|title=
+The presence of ''C.&nbsp;taxifolia'' in the Mediterranean was first reported in 1984<ref name="springer">{{cite journal |last1=Wiedenmann |first1=J. |last2=Baumstark |first2=A. |last3=Pillen |first3=T. L. |last4=Meinesz |first4=A. |last5=Vogel |first5=W. |title=DNA fingerprints of Caulerpa taxifolia provide evidence for the introduction of an aquarium strain into the Mediterranean Sea and its close relationship to an Australian population |journal=Marine Biology |date=19 February 2001 |volume=138 |issue=2 |pages=229–234 |doi=10.1007/s002270000456 |bibcode=2001MarBi.138..229W |s2cid=84150417 }}</ref> in an area adjacent to the Oceanographic Museum of Monaco.<ref name="noaafisheries">{{Cite web|title=Aquatic Invasive Species on the West Coast|url=https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/west-coast/habitat-conservation/aquatic-invasive-species-west-coast|access-date=2021-05-23|website=NOAA Fisheries|language=en}}</ref> Alexandre Meinesz, a [[Marine biology|marine biologist]], attempted to alert Moroccan and French authorities to the spread of the strain in 1989,<ref name="nova" /> but the governments failed to respond to his concerns.<ref name="guardian">{{cite web|title=Fifteen years ago it was a small patch of seaweed, now it threatens to ruin the Mediterranean coast|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/1999/aug/03/jonhenley|website=The Guardian|date=3 August 1999|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref> The occurrence of the strain is generally believed to be due to an accidental release by the museum,<ref name="isg" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Caulerpa taxifolia|url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/29292|website=Invasive Species Compendium|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref> but [[Monaco]] rejected the attribution and instead claimed that the observed algae was a mutant strain of ''C.&nbsp;mexicana''.<ref name="guardian" /> By 1999, scientists agreed that it was no longer possible to eliminate the presence of ''C.&nbsp;taxifolia'' in the Mediterranean.<ref name="guardian" />
-Fifteen years ago it was a small patch of seaweed, now it threatens to ruin the Mediterranean coast|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/1999/aug/03/jonhenley|website=The Guardian|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref> The occurrence of the strain is generally believed to be due to an accidental release by the museum<ref name="isg" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Caulerpa taxifolia|url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/29292|website=Invasive Species Compendium|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref>, but [[Monaco]] rejected the attribution and instead claimed that the observed algae was a mutant strain of ''C. mexicana''.<ref name="guardian" /> By 1999, scientists agreed that it was no longer possible to eliminate the presence of ''C. taxifolia'' in the Mediterranean.<ref name="guardian" />
-A study published in 2002 found that beds of [[Posidonia oceanica|P. oceanica]] in the Bay of [[Menton]] were not negatively affected eight years after colonization by ''C. taxifolia''.<ref>{{cite web|title=NO DELETERIOUS ALTERATIONS IN POSIDONIA BEDS IN THE BAY OF MENTON (FRANCE) EIGHT YEARS AFTER CAULERPA TAXIFOLIA COLONIZATION|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1529-8817.1999.3561113.x|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref> Other published studies have shown that fish diversity and biomass are equal or greater in Caulerpa meadows than in seagrass beds<ref>Relini, G., M Relini, and G. Torchia. (1998) Fish biodiversity in a Caulerpa taxifolia meadow in the Ligurian Sea. ''Italian Journal of Zoology'' 65 Supplement:465-470.</ref> and that Caulerpa had no effect on composition or richness of fish species.<ref>Francour, P., M. Harmelin-Vivien, J. G. Harmelin, and J. Duclerc. 1995. Impact of Caulerpa taxifolia colonization on the littoral ichthyofauna of north-western Mediterranean sea. Hydrobiologia 300-301:345-353.</ref>
+A study published in 2002 found that beds of ''[[Posidonia oceanica]]'' in the Bay of [[Menton]] were not negatively affected eight years after colonization by ''C.&nbsp;taxifolia''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jaubert |first1=Jean M. |last2=Chisholm |first2=John R. M. |last3=Ducrot |first3=Danielle |last4=Ripley |first4=Herb T. |last5=Roy |first5=Laura |last6=Passeron-Seitre |first6=Gilles |title=No deleterious alterations in Posidonia beds in the Bay of Menton (France) eight years after Caulerpa taxifolia colonization |journal=Journal of Phycology |date=December 1999 |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=1113–1119 |doi=10.1046/j.1529-8817.1999.3561113.x |bibcode=1999JPcgy..35.1113J |s2cid=85127610 }}</ref> Other published studies have shown that fish diversity and biomass are equal or greater in Caulerpa meadows than in seagrass beds<ref>Relini, G., M Relini, and G. Torchia. (1998) Fish biodiversity in a Caulerpa taxifolia meadow in the Ligurian Sea. ''Italian Journal of Zoology'' 65 Supplement:465-470.</ref> and that Caulerpa had no effect on composition or richness of fish species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Francour |first1=P. |last2=Harmelin-Vivien |first2=M. |last3=Harmelin |first3=J. G. |last4=Duclerc |first4=J. |title=Impact of Caulerpa taxifolia colonization on the littoral ichthyofauna of North-Western Mediterranean sea: preliminary results |journal=Hydrobiologia |date=1 March 1995 |volume=300 |issue=1 |pages=345–353 |doi=10.1007/BF00024475 |s2cid=23445784 }}</ref>
 Studies in 1998<ref name="researchgate" /> and 2001<ref name="springer" /> found that the strain observed in the Mediterranean was genetically identical to aquarium strains, with similarities to an additional population in Australia.
@@ Line 47: / Line 51: @@
 ===Presence in Australia===
-A 2007 study found that a native [[bivalve]] [[mollusc]] species was negatively affected by the presence of ''C. taxifolia'', but that the effect was not necessarily different from that of native seagrass species.<ref>{{cite web|title=A decline in the abundance and condition of a native bivalve associated with Caulerpa taxifolia invasion (abstract)|url=https://www.publish.csiro.au/mf/MF06150|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref> A 2010 study indicated that the effect of detritus from ''C. taxifolia'' negatively impacted abundance and species richness.<ref>{{cite web|title=Impacts of detritus from the invasive alga Caulerpa taxifolia on a soft sediment community|url=https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v420/p73-81/|website=Inter-Research Science Publisher|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref>
+A 2007 study found that a native [[bivalve]] [[mollusc]] species was negatively affected by the presence of ''C.&nbsp;taxifolia'', but that the effect was not necessarily different from that of native seagrass species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wright |first1=Jeffrey T. |last2=McKenzie |first2=Louise A. |last3=Gribben |first3=Paul E. |title=A decline in the abundance and condition of a native bivalve associated with Caulerpa taxifolia invasion |journal=Marine and Freshwater Research |date=2007 |volume=58 |issue=3 |pages=263 |doi=10.1071/MF06150 }}</ref> A 2010 study indicated that the effect of detritus from ''C.&nbsp;taxifolia'' negatively impacted abundance and species richness.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Taylor |first1=Skye L. |last2=Bishop |first2=Melanie J. |last3=Kelaher |first3=Brendan P. |last4=Glasby |first4=Tim M. |title=Impacts of detritus from the invasive alga Caulerpa taxifolia on a soft sediment community |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |date=16 December 2010 |volume=420 |pages=73–81 |doi=10.3354/meps08903 |bibcode=2010MEPS..420...73T |doi-access=free }}</ref>
 ===Presence in California===
-''C. taxifolia'' was found in waters near [[San Diego]], [[California]] in 2000,<ref>{{cite web|title=Killer Algae Invades Southern Cal|url=https://www.wired.com/2000/07/killer-algae-invades-southern-cal/|website=Wired|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref> where chlorine bleach was used in efforts to eradicate the strain.<ref>{{cite web|title=Eradication of the invasive seaweed Caulerpa taxifolia by chlorine bleach|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/250218150_Eradication_of_the_invasive_seaweed_Caulerpa_taxifolia_by_chlorine_bleach|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref> The strain was declared eradicated from [[Agua Hedionda Lagoon]] in 2006.<ref>{{cite web|title=Agua Hedionda Caulerpa Taxifolia Eradication Program|url=https://scwrp.org/projects/caulerpa-taxifolia-erdaication-program/|website=Southern California Wetlands Recovery Project|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref> California passed a law in 2001 forbidding the possession, sale, transport, or release of ''Caulerpa taxifolia'' within the state.<ref name="bill1334">{{Cite web|title=Assembly Bill No. 1334, Chapter 338|url=https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient.xhtml?bill_id=200120020AB1334|access-date=2021-05-23|website=California Legislative Information|language=en}}</ref>
+''C. taxifolia'' was found in waters near [[San Diego]], [[California]], in 2000,<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Killer Algae Invades Southern Cal|url=https://www.wired.com/2000/07/killer-algae-invades-southern-cal/|magazine=Wired|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref> where chlorine bleach was used in efforts to eradicate the strain.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Sl |last2=Schroeder |first2=Sl |title=Eradication of the invasive seaweed Caulerpa taxifolia by chlorine bleach |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |date=2004 |volume=272 |pages=69–76 |doi=10.3354/meps272069 |bibcode=2004MEPS..272...69W |doi-access=free }}</ref> The strain was declared eradicated from [[Agua Hedionda Lagoon]] in 2006.<ref>{{cite web|title=Agua Hedionda Caulerpa Taxifolia Eradication Program|url=https://scwrp.org/projects/caulerpa-taxifolia-erdaication-program/|website=Southern California Wetlands Recovery Project|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref> California passed a law in 2001 forbidding the possession, sale, transport, or release of ''Caulerpa taxifolia'' within the state.<ref name="bill1334">{{Cite web|title=Assembly Bill No. 1334, Chapter 338|url=https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient.xhtml?bill_id=200120020AB1334|access-date=2021-05-23|website=California Legislative Information|language=en}}</ref>
-The Mediterranean clone of ''C. taxifolia'' was listed as a [[noxious weeds|noxious weed]] in 1999<ref>{{Cite web|title=Noxious Weeds; Notice of Availability of Petitions To Regulate Caulerpa|url=https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2004/10/26/04-23921/noxious-weeds-notice-of-availability-of-petitions-to-regulate-caulerpa|access-date=2021-05-23|website=Federal Register|language=en}}</ref> by the [[Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service]], prohibiting interstate sale and transport of the strain without a permit under the [[Federal Noxious Weed Act of 1974|Noxious Weed Act]] and [[Plant Protection Act]].<ref name="noaafisheries" /><ref name="weedregs">{{Cite web|title=Noxious Weed Regulations|url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-2010-title7-vol5/pdf/CFR-2010-title7-vol5-sec360-200.pdf|access-date=2021-05-23|website=govinfo.gov|language=en}}</ref>
+The Mediterranean clone of ''C.&nbsp;taxifolia'' was listed as a [[noxious weeds|noxious weed]] in 1999<ref>{{Cite web|title=Noxious Weeds; Notice of Availability of Petitions To Regulate Caulerpa|url=https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2004/10/26/04-23921/noxious-weeds-notice-of-availability-of-petitions-to-regulate-caulerpa|access-date=2021-05-23|website=Federal Register|date=26 October 2004|language=en}}</ref> by the [[Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service]], prohibiting interstate sale and transport of the strain without a permit under the [[Federal Noxious Weed Act of 1974|Noxious Weed Act]] and [[Plant Protection Act]].<ref name="noaafisheries" /><ref name="weedregs">{{Cite web|title=Noxious Weed Regulations|url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-2010-title7-vol5/pdf/CFR-2010-title7-vol5-sec360-200.pdf|access-date=2021-05-23|website=govinfo.gov|language=en}}</ref>
 ===Other negative effects===
@@ Line 60: / Line 64: @@
 ===Control methods===
+''C. taxifolia'' may be controlled via mechanical removal, poisoning with [[chlorine]], or application of [[sodium chloride|salt]].<ref name="weedsau" /> Researchers at the [[University of Nice]] investigated possible use of a species of [[sea slug]], ''[[Elysia subornata]]'', as a possible natural control method, but found that it was not suitable for use in the Mediterranean due to cold winter water temperatures and insufficient population density.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thibaut |first1=Thierry |last2=Meinesz |first2=Alexandre |last3=Amade |first3=Philippe |last4=Charrier |first4=Stéphane |last5=De Angelis |first5=Kate |last6=Ierardi |first6=Santina |last7=Mangialajo |first7=Luisa |last8=Melnick |first8=Jennifer |last9=Vidal |first9=Valérie |title=Elysia subornata (Mollusca) a potential control agent of the alga Caulerpa taxifolia (Chlorophyta) in the Mediterranean Sea |journal=Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom |date=June 2001 |volume=81 |issue=3 |pages=497–504 |doi=10.1017/S0025315401004143 |bibcode=2001JMBUK..81..497T |s2cid=85066136 }}</ref>
-''C. taxifolia'' may be controlled via mechanical removal, poisoning with [[chlorine]]
-, or application of [[sodium chloride|salt]].<ref name="weedsau" /> Researchers at the [[University of Nice]] investigated possible use of a species of [[sea slug]], ''[[Elysia subornata|E. subornata]]'', as a possible natural control method, but found that it was not suitable for use in the Mediterranean due to cold winter water temperatures and insufficient population density.<ref>{{cite web|title=Elysia subornata (Mollusca) a potential control agent of the alga Caulerpa taxifolia (Chlorophyta) in the Mediterranean Sea|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230725246_Elysia_subornata_Mollusca_a_potential_control_agent_of_the_alga_Caulerpa_taxifolia_Chlorophyta_in_the_Mediterranean_Sea|access-date=2021-05-23|language=en}}</ref>
 ==Gallery==
 <gallery>
-File:Caulerpa taxifolia - National Museum of Nature and Science, Tokyo - DSC07620.JPG|''C. taxifolia'' on display at the [[National Museum of Nature and Science]] in [[Tokyo]], Japan.
+File:Caulerpa taxifolia - National Museum of Nature and Science, Tokyo - DSC07620.JPG|''C. taxifolia'' on display at the [[National Museum of Nature and Science]] in [[Tokyo]], Japan
-File:CaulerpaTaxifolia.jpg|A field of ''C. taxifolia'' amongst [[seagrass]].
+File:CaulerpaTaxifolia.jpg|A field of ''C. taxifolia'' amongst [[seagrass]]
-File:Lysmata amboinensis on Caulerpa taxifolia.jpg|A [[Pacific cleaner shrimp]] (''Lysmata amboinensis'') on top of a ''C. taxifolia'' specimen within a [[marine aquarium]].
+File:Lysmata amboinensis on Caulerpa taxifolia.jpg|A [[Pacific cleaner shrimp]] (''Lysmata amboinensis'') on top of a ''C.&nbsp;taxifolia'' specimen within a [[marine aquarium]]
 </gallery>
+==See also==
+* [[Largest organisms]]
 ==References==
 {{Reflist|2}}
-* Peplow, M. 2005. [http://www.nature.com/news/2005/050321/full/050321-11.html "Algae create glue to repair cell damage"], ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]''
+==Further reading==
-* [http://news.cnet.com/Start-up-drills-for-oil-in-algae/2100-1008_3-5714269.html "Start-up drills for oil in algae"] by Martin LaMonica, ''[[CNET]] News.com'', May 20, 2005, retrieved July 13, 2006
+* {{cite journal |last1=Peplow |first1=Mark |title=Algae create glue to repair cell damage |journal=Nature |date=23 March 2005 |pages=news050321–11 |doi=10.1038/news050321-11 }}
+* {{cite news |last1=LaMonica |first1=Martin |title=Start-up drills for oil in algae |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/start-up-drills-for-oil-in-algae/ |work=CNET |date=20 May 2005 }}
 * Theodoropoulos, David. 2003. Invasion Biology: Critique of a Pseudoscience. pages 42,159. Avvar Books, Blythe, CA. 237 p. {{ISBN|0-9708504-1-7}}
 ==External links==
-{{Wikispecies|Caulerpa taxifolia}}
 {{Commons category|Caulerpa taxifolia}}
+{{Wikispecies|Caulerpa taxifolia}}
-* {{youtube |id=Vd4rgN6MYtg |title=Attack of the killer algae - Eric Noel Muñoz}}
+{{wikiquote}}
+* {{YouTube |id=Vd4rgN6MYtg |title=Attack of the killer algae - Eric Noel Muñoz}}
 * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2000/killeralgae_transcript.shtml Killer Algae], 2001 BBC Documentary
 * [https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2000/07/37444 In-depth article on invasions of Caulerpa taxifolia, source as escaped aquarium plant, etc.]
-* [http://biophysics.sbg.ac.at/ct/caulerpa.htm Caulerpa Taxifolia fact sheet]
+* [http://biophysics.sbg.ac.at/ct/caulerpa.htm Caulerpa Taxifolia fact sheet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008200554/http://biophysics.sbg.ac.at/ct/caulerpa.htm |date=2022-10-08 }}
-* [http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/519228.html An excerpt] from ''Killer Algae'' by Alexandre Meinesz
+* [https://press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/519228.html An excerpt] from ''Killer Algae'' by Alexandre Meinesz
-* [http://cisr.ucr.edu/caulerpa_taxifolia.html ''Caulerpa taxifolia''] at the Center for Invasive Species Research
+* ''[https://cisr.ucr.edu/invasive-species/caulerpa-taxifolia-or-killer-alga Caulerpa taxifolia]'' at the Center for Invasive Species Research
 * [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/algae/ "Deep Sea Invasion"] ''[[Nova (American TV series)|Nova (TV series)]]'' broadcast April 1, 2003
-* [https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/profile/caulerpa-mediterranean-clone Species Profile- Caulerpa, Mediterranean Clone (''Caulerpa taxifolia'')], National Invasive Species Information Center, [[United States National Agricultural Library]]. Lists general information and resources for Caulerpa, Mediterranean Clone.
+* [https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/aquatic/plants/caulerpa-mediterranean-clone Species Profile- Caulerpa, Mediterranean Clone (''Caulerpa taxifolia'')], National Invasive Species Information Center, [[United States National Agricultural Library]]. Lists general information and resources for Caulerpa, Mediterranean Clone.
 {{Taxonbar|from=Q310961}}
+{{Authority control}}
 [[Category:Caulerpa|taxifolia]]
-[[Category:Species described in 1817]]
+[[Category:Protists described in 1817]]
 [[Category:Algae of India]]
-[[Category:Environment of the Mediterranean]]
+[[Category:Biota of the Mediterranean Sea]]
 [[Category:Flora of the Indian subcontinent]]
+[[Category:Invasive species]]
+[[Category:Invasive species in the Mediterranean Sea]]
+[[Category:Chlorophyta species]]