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Pyrrhonism is an Ancient Greek school of philosophical skepticism which rejects dogma and advocates the suspension of judgement over the truth of all beliefs. It was founded by Aenesidemus in the first century BCE, and said to have been inspired by the teachings of Pyrrho and Timon of Phlius in the fourth century BCE.^[1] Pyrrhonism is best known today through the surviving works of Sextus Empiricus, writing in the late second century or early third century CE.^[2] The publication of Sextus' works in the Renaissance ignited a revival of interest in Skepticism and played a major role in Reformation thought and the development of early modern philosophy.

History

Pyrrhonism is named after Pyrrho of Elis, a Greek philosopher in the 4th century BCE who was credited by the later Pyrrhonists with forming the first comprehensive school of skeptical thought. However, ancient testimony about the philosophical beliefs of the historical Pyrrho is minimal, and often contradictory:^[1] his teachings were recorded by his student Timon of Phlius, but those works have been lost, and only survive in fragments quoted by later authors, and based on testimonies of later authors such as Cicero. Pyrrho's own philosophy as recorded by Timon may have been much more dogmatic than that of the later school who bore his name.^[1] While Pyrrhonism would become the dominant form of skepticism in the early Roman period, in the Hellenistic period, the Platonic Academy was the primary advocate of skepticism until the mid-first century BCE,^[3] when Pyrrhonism as a philosophical school was founded by Aenesidemus.^[1]^[4]

Philosophy

The goal of Pyrrhonism is ataraxia,^[5] an untroubled and tranquil condition of soul that results from a suspension of judgement, a mental rest owing to which we neither deny nor affirm anything.

Pyrrhonists dispute that the dogmatists – which includes all of Pyrrhonism's rival philosophies – claim to have found truth regarding non-evident matters, and that these opinions about non-evident matters (i.e., dogma) are what prevent one from attaining eudaimonia. For any of these dogmas, a Pyrrhonist makes arguments for and against such that the matter cannot be concluded, thus suspending judgement, and thereby inducing ataraxia.

Pyrrhonists can be subdivided into those who are ephectic (engaged in suspension of judgment), aporetic (engaged in refutation)^[6] or zetetic (engaged in seeking).^[7] An ephectic merely suspends judgment on a matter, "balancing perceptions and thoughts against one another."^[8] It is a less aggressive form of skepticism, in that sometimes "suspension of judgment evidently just happens to the sceptic".^[9] An aporetic skeptic, in contrast, works more actively towards their goal, engaging in the refutation of arguments in favor of various possible beliefs in order to reach aporia, an impasse, or state of perplexity,^[10] which leads to suspension of judgement.^[9] Finally, the zetetic claims to be continually searching for the truth but to have thus far been unable to find it, and thus continues to suspend belief while also searching for reason to cease the suspension of belief.

Modes

Although Pyrrhonism's objective is ataraxia, it is best known for its epistemological arguments. The core practice is through setting argument against argument. To aid in this, the Pyrrhonist philosophers Aenesidemus and Agrippa developed sets of stock arguments known as "modes" or "tropes."

The ten modes of Aenesidemus

Aenesidemus is considered the creator of the ten tropes of Aenesidemus (also known as the ten modes of Aenesidemus)—although whether he invented the tropes or just systematized them from prior Pyrrhonist works is unknown. The tropes represent reasons for suspension of judgment. These are as follows:^[11]

Different animals manifest different modes of perception;
Similar differences are seen among individual men;
For the same man, information perceived with the senses is self-contradictory
Furthermore, it varies from time to time with physical changes
In addition, this data differs according to local relations
Objects are known only indirectly through the medium of air, moisture, etc.
These objects are in a condition of perpetual change in colour, temperature, size and motion
All perceptions are relative and interact one upon another
Our impressions become less critical through repetition and custom
All men are brought up with different beliefs, under different laws and social conditions

According to Sextus, superordinate to these ten modes stand three other modes: that based on the subject who judges (modes 1, 2, 3 & 4), that based on the object judged (modes 7 & 10), that based on both subject who judges and object judged (modes 5, 6, 8 & 9), and superordinate to these three modes is the mode of relation.^[12]

The five modes of Agrippa

These "tropes" or "modes" are given by Sextus Empiricus in his Outlines of Pyrrhonism. According to Sextus, they are attributed only "to the more recent skeptics" and it is by Diogenes Laërtius that we attribute them to Agrippa.^[13] The five tropes of Agrippa are:

Dissent – The uncertainty demonstrated by the differences of opinions among philosophers and people in general.
Infinite regress – All proof rests on matters themselves in need of proof, and so on to infinity.
Relation – All things are changed as their relations become changed, or, as we look upon them from different points of view.
Assumption – The truth asserted is based on an unsupported assumption.
Circularity – The truth asserted involves a circularity of proofs.

According to the mode deriving from dispute, we find that undecidable dissension about the matter proposed has come about both in ordinary life and among philosophers. Because of this we are not able to choose or to rule out anything, and we end up with suspension of judgement. In the mode deriving from infinite regress, we say that what is brought forward as a source of conviction for the matter proposed itself needs another such source, which itself needs another, and so ad infinitum, so that we have no point from which to begin to establish anything, and suspension of judgement follows. In the mode deriving from relativity, as we said above, the existing object appears to be such-and-such relative to the subject judging and to the things observed together with it, but we suspend judgement on what it is like in its nature. We have the mode from hypothesis when the Dogmatists, being thrown back ad infinitum, begin from something which they do not establish but claim to assume simply and without proof in virtue of a concession. The reciprocal mode occurs when what ought to be confirmatory of the object under investigation needs to be made convincing by the object under investigation; then, being unable to take either in order to establish the other, we suspend judgement about both.^[14]

With reference to these five tropes, that the first and third are a short summary of the earlier Ten Modes of Aenesidemus.^[13] The three additional ones show a progress in the Pyrrhonist system, building upon the objections derived from the fallibility of sense and opinion to more abstract and metaphysical grounds. According to Victor Brochard "the five tropes can be regarded as the most radical and most precise formulation of skepticism that has ever been given. In a sense, they are still irresistible today."^[15]

Criteria of action

Pyrrhonist decision making is made according to what the Pyrrhonists describe as the criteria of action holding to the appearances, without beliefs in accord with the ordinary regimen of life based on:

the guidance of nature, by which we are naturally capable of sensation and thought
the compulsion of the passions by which hunger drives us to food and thirst makes us drink
the handing down of customs and laws by which we accept that piety in the conduct of life is good and impiety bad
instruction in techne^[16]

Skeptic sayings

The Pyrrhonists devised several sayings (Greek ΦΩΝΩΝ) to help practitioners bring their minds to suspend judgment.^[17] Among these are:

Not more, nothing more (a saying attributed to Democritus^[18])
Non-assertion (aphasia)
Perhaps, it is possible, maybe
I withhold assent
I determine nothing (Montaigne created a variant of this as his own personal motto, "Que sais-je?" – "what do I know?")
Everything is indeterminate
Everything is non-apprehensible
I do not apprehend
To every argument an equal argument is opposed

Texts

Except for the works of Sextus Empiricus, the texts of ancient Pyrrhonism have been lost. There is a summary of the Pyrrhonian Discourses by Aenesidemus, preserved by Photius, and a brief summary of Pyrrho's teaching by Aristocles, quoting Pyrrho's student Timon preserved by Eusebius:

'The things themselves are equally indifferent, and unstable, and indeterminate, and therefore neither our senses nor our opinions are either true or false. For this reason then we must not trust them, but be without opinions, and without bias, and without wavering, saying of every single thing that it no more is than is not, or both is and is not, or neither is nor is not.^[19]

Influence

In Ancient Greek philosophy

Pyrrhonism is often contrasted with Academic skepticism, a similar but distinct form of Hellenistic philosophical skepticism.^[9]^[20]^[21] While early Academic skepticism was influenced in part by Pyrrho,^[22] it grew more and more dogmatic until Aenesidemus broke with the Academics to revive Pyrrhonism in the first century BCE, denouncing the Academy as "Stoics fighting against Stoics.^[23]" Some later Pyrrhonists, such as Sextus Empiricus, go so far as to claim that Pyrrhonists are the only real skeptics, dividing all philosophy into the dogmatists, the Academics, and the skeptics.^[20] Dogmatists claim to have knowledge, Academic skeptics claim that knowledge is impossible, while Pyrrhonists assent to neither proposition, suspending judgment on both.^[9]^[20]^[24] The second century Roman historian Aulus Gellius describes the distinction as "...the Academics apprehend (in some sense) the very fact that nothing can be apprehended, and they determine (in some sense) that nothing can be determined, whereas the Pyrrhonists assert that not even that seems to be true, since nothing seems to be true.^[25]^[21]"

Sextus Empiricus also said that the Pyrrhonist school influenced and had substantial overlap with the Empiric school of medicine, but that Pyrrhonism had more in common with the Methodic school in that it "follow[s] the appearances and take[s] from these whatever seems expedient."^[26]

Although Julian the Apostate^[27] mentions that Pyrrhonism had died out at the time of his writings, other writers mention the existence of later Pyrrhonists. Pseudo-Clement, writing around the same time (c. 300-320 CE) mentions Pyrrhonists in his Homilies^[28] and Agathias even reports a Pyrrhonist named Uranius as late as the middle of the 6th century CE.^[29]

Similarities between Pyrrhonism and Indian philosophy

According to Diogenes Laërtius, Pyrrho was said to have traveled to India with Alexander the Great's army where Pyrrho was said to have studied with the magi and the gymnosophists,^[30] and where he may have been influenced by Buddhist teachings,^[31] most particularly the three marks of existence.^[32] Scholars who argue for such influence mention the fact that even the ancient author Diogenesis Laërtius states as much, when he wrote that Pyrrho “foregathered with the Indian Gymnosophists and with the Magi. This led him to adopt a most noble philosophy."^[31]

According to Christopher I. Beckwith's analysis of the Aristocles Passage, adiaphora (anatta), astathmēta (dukkha), and anepikrita (anicca) are strikingly similar to the Buddhist three marks of existence,^[32] indicating that Pyrrho's teaching is based on Buddhism. Beckwith contends that the 18 months Pyrrho spent in India were long enough to learn a foreign language, and that the key innovative tenets of Pyrrho's skepticism were only found in Indian philosophy at the time and not in Greece.^[33] Other similarities between Pyrrhonism and Buddhism include a version of the tetralemma among the Pyrrhonist maxims, and more significantly, the idea of suspension of judgement and how that can lead to peace and liberation, ataraxia in Pyrrhonism and nirvana in Buddhism.^[34]^[35]

Furthermore, Buddhist philosopher Jan Westerhoff says "many of Nāgārjuna's arguments concerning causation bear strong similarities to classical sceptical arguments as presented in the third book of Sextus Empiricus's Outlines of Pyrrhonism,"^[36] and Thomas McEvilley suspects that Nagarjuna may have been influenced by Greek Pyrrhonist texts imported into India.^[37] McEvilley argues for mutual iteration in the Buddhist logico-epistemological traditions between Pyrrhonism and Madhyamika:

An extraordinary similarity, that has long been noticed, between Pyrrhonism and Mādhyamika is the formula known in connection with Buddhism as the fourfold negation (Catuṣkoṭi) and which in Pyrrhonic form might be called the fourfold indeterminacy.^[38]

McEvilley also notes a correspondence between the Pyrrhonist and Madhyamaka views about truth, comparing Sextus' account^[39] of two criteria regarding truth, one which judges between reality and unreality, and another which we use as a guide in everyday life. By the first criteria, nothing is either true or false, but by the second, information from the senses may be considered either true or false for practical purposes. As Edward Conze^[40]^{[verification needed]} has noted, this is similar to the Madhyamika Two Truths doctrine, a distinction between "Absolute truth" (paramārthasatya), "the knowledge of the real as it is without any distortion,"^[41] and "Truth so-called" (saṃvṛti satya), "truth as conventionally believed in common parlance.^[41]^[42]

Map of Alexander the Great's empire and the route he and Pyrrho took to India

However, other scholars, such as Stephen Batchelor^[43] and Charles Goodman^[44] question Beckwith's conclusions about the degree of Buddhist influence on Pyrrho. Conversely, while critical of Beckwith's ideas, Kuzminsky sees credibility in the hypothesis that Pyrrho was influenced by Buddhism, even if it cannot be safely ascertained with our current information.^[31]

While discussing Christopher Beckwith's claims in Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia, Jerker Blomqvist states that:

On the other hand, certain elements that are generally regarded as essential features of Buddhism are entirely absent from ancient Pyrrhonism/scepticism. The concepts of good and bad karma must have been an impossibility in the Pyrrhonist universe, if "things" were ἀδιάφορα, 'without a logical self-identity', and, consequently, could not be differentiated from each other by labels such as 'good' and 'bad' or 'just' and 'unjust'. A doctrine of rebirth, reminiscent of the Buddhist one though favored by Plato and Pythagoras, was totally alien to the Pyrrhonists. The ἀταραξία, 'undisturbedness', that the Pyrrhonists promised their followers, may have a superficial resemblance to the Buddhist nirvana, but ἀταραξία, unlike nirvana, did not involve a liberation from a cycle of reincarnation; rather, it was a mode of life in this world, blessed with μετριοπάθεια, 'moderation of feeling' or 'moderate suffering', not with the absence of any variety of pain. Kuzminski, whom Beckwith hails as a precursor of his, had largely ignored the problem with this disparity between Buddhism and Pyrrhonism.^[45]

Ajñana, which upheld radical skepticism, may have been a more powerful influence on Pyrrho than Buddhism. The Buddhists referred to Ajñana's adherents as Amarāvikkhepikas or "eel-wrigglers", due to their refusal to commit to a single doctrine.^[46] Scholars including Barua, Jayatilleke, and Flintoff, contend that Pyrrho was influenced by, or at the very least agreed with, Indian skepticism rather than Buddhism or Jainism, based on the fact that he valued ataraxia, which can be translated as "freedom from worry".^[47]^[48]^[49] Jayatilleke, in particular, contends that Pyrrho may have been influenced by the first three schools of Ajñana, since they too valued freedom from worry.^[50]

Modern

The recovery and publication of the works of Sextus Empiricus, particularly a widely influential translation by Henri Estienne published in 1562,^[51] ignited a revival of interest in Pyrrhonism.^[51] Philosophers of the time used his works to source their arguments on how to deal with the religious issues of their day. Major philosophers such as Michel de Montaigne, Marin Mersenne, and Pierre Gassendi later drew on the model of Pyrrhonism outlined in Sextus Empiricus' works for their own arguments. This resurgence of Pyrrhonism has sometimes been called the beginning of modern philosophy.^[51] Montaigne adopted the image of a balance scale for his motto,^[52] which became a modern symbol of Pyrrhonism.^{[citation needed]} It has also been suggested that Pyrrhonism provided the skeptical underpinnings that René Descartes drew from in developing his influential method of Cartesian doubt and the associated turn of early modern philosophy towards epistemology.^[51] In the 18th century, David Hume was also considerably influenced by Pyrrhonism, using "Pyrrhonism" as a synonym for "skepticism."^[53]^{[better source needed]}.

Friedrich Nietzsche, however, criticized the "ephectics" of the Pyrrhonists as a flaw of early philosophers, who he characterized as "shy little blunderer[s] and milquetoast[s] with crooked legs" prone to overindulging "his doubting drive, his negating drive, his wait-and-see ('ephectic') drive, his analytical drive, his exploring, searching, venturing drive, his comparing, balancing drive, his will to neutrality and objectivity, his will to every sine ira et studio: have we already grasped that for the longest time they all went against the first demands of morality and conscience?"^[54]

Contemporary

The term "neo-Pyrrhonism" is used to refer to modern Pyrrhonists such as Benson Mates and Robert Fogelin.^[55]^[56]

Notes

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Long, A. A. (12 September 1996). Hellenistic Philosophy: Stoics, Epicureans, Sceptics. Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 75–76. ISBN 978-0-7156-1238-5. Retrieved 15 January 2023.
^ Popkin, Richard Henry (2003). The history of scepticism : from Savonarola to Bayle. Popkin, Richard Henry, 1923- (Rev. and expanded ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198026714. OCLC 65192690.
^ Thorsrud, Harald (2009). Ancient scepticism. Stocksfield [U.K.]: Acumen. pp. 120–121. ISBN 978-1-84465-409-3. OCLC 715184861. Pyrrhonism, in whatever form it might have taken after Timon's death in 230 BCE, was utterly neglected until Aenesidemus brought it back to public attention
^ Stéphane Marchand, "Sextus Empiricus' Style Of Writing", in New Essays on Ancient Pyrrhonism, p 113
^ Warren, James (2002). Epicurus and Democritean ethics: An archaeology of ataraxia. Cambridge University Press. p. I. ISBN 0521813697.
^ Pulleyn, William (1830). The Etymological Compendium, Or, Portfolio of Origins and Inventions. T. Tegg. pp. 353.
^ Bett, Richard Arnot Home (28 January 2010). The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Scepticism. Cambridge University Press. p. 212.
^ Bett, Richard Arnot Home (28 January 2010). The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Scepticism. Cambridge University Press. p. 213.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Klein, Peter (2015). "Skepticism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 25 July 2018. Retrieved 19 March 2021.
^ McInerny, Ralph (1969). A History of Western Philosophy, Volume 2. Aeterna Press. pp. Chp III. Skeptics and the New Academy, A. Pyrrho of Elis section, para 3–4.
^ One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Aenesidemus". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 257–258.
^ Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism, Trans. R.G. Bury, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1933, pp. 25–27
^ ^a ^b Diogenes Laërtius, ix.
^ Sextus Empiricus, Pyrrhōneioi hypotypōseis i., from Annas, J., Outlines of Scepticism Cambridge University Press. (2000).
^ Brochard, V., The Greek Skeptics.
^ Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism Book I Chapter 11 Section 23
^ Sextus Empiricus Outlines of Pyrrhonism Book I Chapter 18
^ Sextus Empiricus Outlines of Pyrrhonism Book II Chapter 30
^ Eusebius. "Praeparatio Evangelica Book XIV". Tertullian Project. Retrieved 27 January 2023.
^ ^a ^b ^c Sextus, Empiricus (1990). Outlines of pyrrhonism. Robert Gregg Bury. Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus Books. ISBN 0-87975-597-0. OCLC 23367477.
^ ^a ^b Thorsrud, Harald (2009). Ancient scepticism. Stocksfield [U.K.]: Acumen. ISBN 978-1-84465-409-3. OCLC 715184861.
^ Thorsrud, Harald (2009). Ancient scepticism. Stocksfield [U.K.]: Acumen. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-84465-409-3. OCLC 715184861.
^ Thorsrud, Harald (2009). Ancient scepticism. Stocksfield [U.K.]: Acumen. pp. 102–103. ISBN 978-1-84465-409-3. OCLC 715184861. Aenesidemus criticized his fellow Academics for being dogmatic...Aenesidemus committed his scepticism to writing probably some time in the early-to-mid first century BCE...leading Aenesidemus to dismiss them as "Stoics fighting against Stoics."
^ Popkin, Richard (1995). The Cambridge dictionary of philosophy. Robert Audi. Cambridge. p. 741. ISBN 0-521-40224-7. OCLC 32272442.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ Gellius, Aulus (2008). Noctes Atticae. Josef Feix (3. Dr ed.). Paderborn: Schöningh. ISBN 978-3-14-010714-3. OCLC 635311697.
^ Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism I.237, trans. Etheridge (Scepticism, Man, and God, Wesleyan University Press, 1964, p. 98).
^ Epistles lxxxix 301C
^ Pseudo-Clement, Homilies, 13.7
^ Agathias II 29-32, cited in Jonathan Barnes, Mantissa 2015 p. 652
^ "Diogenes Laërtius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers Book IX - Chapter 11. PYRRHO (c. 360-270 b.c.)". www.perseus.tufts.edu.
^ ^a ^b ^c Kuzminski, Adrian (2021). Pyrrhonian Buddhism: A Philosophical Reconstruction. Routledge. ISBN 9781000350074.
^ ^a ^b Beckwith, Christopher I. (2015). Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia (PDF). Princeton University Press. p. 28. ISBN 9781400866328.
^ Beckwith, Christopher I. (2015). Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia. Princeton University Press. p. 221. ISBN 9781400866328.
^ Sextus Empricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism Book 1, Section 19
^ Hanner, Oren. Buddhism and Scepticism: Historical, Philosophical and Comparative Perspectives. pp. 126–129. ISBN 978-3-89733-518-9.
^ Jan Westerhoff Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka: A Philosophical Introduction ISBN 0195384962 2009 p93
^ Thomas McEvilley, The Shape of Ancient Thought 2002 pp499-505
^ McEvilley, Thomas (2002). The Shape of Ancient Thought. Allworth Communications. ISBN 1-58115-203-5., p.495
^ Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism, II.14–18; Anthologia Palatina (Palatine Anthology), VII. 29–35, and elsewhere
^ Conze 1959, pp. 140–141
^ ^a ^b Conze (1959: p. 244)
^ McEvilley, Thomas (2002). The Shape of Ancient Thought. Allworth Communications. ISBN 1-58115-203-5., p. 474
^ Stephen Batchelor "Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's encounter with early Buddhism in central Asia", Contemporary Buddhism, 2016, pp 195-215
^ Charles Goodman, "Neither Scythian nor Greek: A Response to Beckwith's Greek Buddha and Kuzminski's "Early Buddhism Reconsidered"", Philosophy East and West, University of Hawai'i Press Volume 68, Number 3, July 2018 pp. 984-1006
^ says, Unknown. "Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia – Bryn Mawr Classical Review".
^ Jayatilleke, K.N. Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge. George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London, p. 122.
^ Barua 1921, p. 299.
^ Jayatilleke 1963, pp. 129–130.
^ Flintoff 1980.
^ Jayatilleke 1963, pp. 130.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Popkin, Richard Henry (2003). The History of Scepticism : from Savonarola to Bayle (Revised ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198026716. OCLC 65192690.
^ Sarah Bakewell, How to Live: Or A Life of Montaigne in One Question and Twenty Attempts at an Answer 2011 p 127 ISBN 1590514831
^ Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, page 7, section 23.
^ Friedrich Nietzsche; Maudemarie Clark; Alan J. Swensen (1998). On the Genealogy of Morality. Hackett Publishing. p. 79.
^ Michael Williams, "Fogelin's Neo-Pyrrhonism", International Journal of Philosophical Studies Volume 7, Issue 2, 1999, p141
^ Smith, Plínio Junqueira; Bueno, Otávio (7 May 2016). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Skepticism in Latin America. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University – via Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

References

Barua, Benimadhab (1921). A History of Pre-Buddhistic Indian Philosophy (1st ed.). London: University of Calcutta. p. 468.
Flintoff, Everard (1980). "Pyrrho and India". Phronesis. 25 (1). Brill: 88–108. doi:10.1163/156852880X00052. JSTOR 4182084.
Jayatilleke, K.N. (1963). Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge (PDF) (1st ed.). London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd. p. 524. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 September 2015.
Thorsrud, Harold. "Ancient Greek Skepticism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Vogt, Katja. "Ancient Skepticism". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

External links

Pyrrhonian Skepticism at PhilPapers

[Bloomsbury_Academic-1] Long, A. A. (12 September 1996). Hellenistic Philosophy: Stoics, Epicureans, Sceptics. Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 75–76. ISBN 978-0-7156-1238-5. Retrieved 15 January 2023.

[2] Popkin, Richard Henry (2003). The history of scepticism : from Savonarola to Bayle. Popkin, Richard Henry, 1923- (Rev. and expanded ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198026714. OCLC 65192690.

[3] Thorsrud, Harald (2009). Ancient scepticism. Stocksfield [U.K.]: Acumen. pp. 120–121. ISBN 978-1-84465-409-3. OCLC 715184861. Pyrrhonism, in whatever form it might have taken after Timon's death in 230 BCE, was utterly neglected until Aenesidemus brought it back to public attention

[4] Stéphane Marchand, "Sextus Empiricus' Style Of Writing", in New Essays on Ancient Pyrrhonism, p 113

[5] Warren, James (2002). Epicurus and Democritean ethics: An archaeology of ataraxia. Cambridge University Press. p. I. ISBN 0521813697.

[6] Pulleyn, William (1830). The Etymological Compendium, Or, Portfolio of Origins and Inventions. T. Tegg. pp. 353.

[7] Bett, Richard Arnot Home (28 January 2010). The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Scepticism. Cambridge University Press. p. 212.

[:0a-8] Bett, Richard Arnot Home (28 January 2010). The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Scepticism. Cambridge University Press. p. 213.

[:0-9] Klein, Peter (2015). "Skepticism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 25 July 2018. Retrieved 19 March 2021.

[:1a-10] McInerny, Ralph (1969). A History of Western Philosophy, Volume 2. Aeterna Press. pp. Chp III. Skeptics and the New Academy, A. Pyrrho of Elis section, para 3–4.

[11] One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Aenesidemus". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 257–258.

[12] Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism, Trans. R.G. Bury, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1933, pp. 25–27

[diog1-13] Diogenes Laërtius, ix.

[14] Sextus Empiricus, Pyrrhōneioi hypotypōseis i., from Annas, J., Outlines of Scepticism Cambridge University Press. (2000).

[15] Brochard, V., The Greek Skeptics.

[16] Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism Book I Chapter 11 Section 23

[17] Sextus Empiricus Outlines of Pyrrhonism Book I Chapter 18

[18] Sextus Empiricus Outlines of Pyrrhonism Book II Chapter 30

[19] Eusebius. "Praeparatio Evangelica Book XIV". Tertullian Project. Retrieved 27 January 2023.

[:1-20] Sextus, Empiricus (1990). Outlines of pyrrhonism. Robert Gregg Bury. Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus Books. ISBN 0-87975-597-0. OCLC 23367477.

[Thorsrud_2009-21] Thorsrud, Harald (2009). Ancient scepticism. Stocksfield [U.K.]: Acumen. ISBN 978-1-84465-409-3. OCLC 715184861.

[22] Thorsrud, Harald (2009). Ancient scepticism. Stocksfield [U.K.]: Acumen. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-84465-409-3. OCLC 715184861.

[23] Thorsrud, Harald (2009). Ancient scepticism. Stocksfield [U.K.]: Acumen. pp. 102–103. ISBN 978-1-84465-409-3. OCLC 715184861. Aenesidemus criticized his fellow Academics for being dogmatic...Aenesidemus committed his scepticism to writing probably some time in the early-to-mid first century BCE...leading Aenesidemus to dismiss them as "Stoics fighting against Stoics."

[24] Popkin, Richard (1995). The Cambridge dictionary of philosophy. Robert Audi. Cambridge. p. 741. ISBN 0-521-40224-7. OCLC 32272442.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

[25] Gellius, Aulus (2008). Noctes Atticae. Josef Feix (3. Dr ed.). Paderborn: Schöningh. ISBN 978-3-14-010714-3. OCLC 635311697.

[26] Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism I.237, trans. Etheridge (Scepticism, Man, and God, Wesleyan University Press, 1964, p. 98).

[27] Epistles lxxxix 301C

[28] Pseudo-Clement, Homilies, 13.7

[29] Agathias II 29-32, cited in Jonathan Barnes, Mantissa 2015 p. 652

[30] "Diogenes Laërtius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers Book IX - Chapter 11. PYRRHO (c. 360-270 b.c.)". www.perseus.tufts.edu.

[Adr-31] Kuzminski, Adrian (2021). Pyrrhonian Buddhism: A Philosophical Reconstruction. Routledge. ISBN 9781000350074.

[auto-32] Beckwith, Christopher I. (2015). Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia (PDF). Princeton University Press. p. 28. ISBN 9781400866328.

[33] Beckwith, Christopher I. (2015). Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia. Princeton University Press. p. 221. ISBN 9781400866328.

[34] Sextus Empricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism Book 1, Section 19

[35] Hanner, Oren. Buddhism and Scepticism: Historical, Philosophical and Comparative Perspectives. pp. 126–129. ISBN 978-3-89733-518-9.

[36] Jan Westerhoff Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka: A Philosophical Introduction ISBN 0195384962 2009 p93

[Thomas_McEvilley_pp499-505-37] Thomas McEvilley, The Shape of Ancient Thought 2002 pp499-505

[38] McEvilley, Thomas (2002). The Shape of Ancient Thought. Allworth Communications. ISBN 1-58115-203-5., p.495

[39] Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism, II.14–18; Anthologia Palatina (Palatine Anthology), VII. 29–35, and elsewhere

[40] Conze 1959, pp. 140–141

[Conze_1959:_p._244-41] Conze (1959: p. 244)

[42] McEvilley, Thomas (2002). The Shape of Ancient Thought. Allworth Communications. ISBN 1-58115-203-5., p. 474

[43] Stephen Batchelor "Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's encounter with early Buddhism in central Asia", Contemporary Buddhism, 2016, pp 195-215

[44] Charles Goodman, "Neither Scythian nor Greek: A Response to Beckwith's Greek Buddha and Kuzminski's "Early Buddhism Reconsidered"", Philosophy East and West, University of Hawai'i Press Volume 68, Number 3, July 2018 pp. 984-1006

[45] says, Unknown. "Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia – Bryn Mawr Classical Review".

[46] Jayatilleke, K.N. Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge. George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London, p. 122.

[FOOTNOTEBarua1921299-47] Barua 1921, p. 299.

[FOOTNOTEJayatilleke1963129–130-48] Jayatilleke 1963, pp. 129–130.

[FOOTNOTEFlintoff1980-49] Flintoff 1980.

[FOOTNOTEJayatilleke1963130-50] Jayatilleke 1963, pp. 130.

[Popkin_2003-51] Popkin, Richard Henry (2003). The History of Scepticism : from Savonarola to Bayle (Revised ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198026716. OCLC 65192690.

[52] Sarah Bakewell, How to Live: Or A Life of Montaigne in One Question and Twenty Attempts at an Answer 2011 p 127 ISBN 1590514831

[53] Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, page 7, section 23.

[54] Friedrich Nietzsche; Maudemarie Clark; Alan J. Swensen (1998). On the Genealogy of Morality. Hackett Publishing. p. 79.

[55] Michael Williams, "Fogelin's Neo-Pyrrhonism", International Journal of Philosophical Studies Volume 7, Issue 2, 1999, p141

[56] Smith, Plínio Junqueira; Bueno, Otávio (7 May 2016). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Skepticism in Latin America. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University – via Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-{{Short description|Philosophical system}}
+{{Short description|Ancient Greek school of philosophical skepticism}}
 {{Pyrrhonism sidebar}}
-'''Pyrrhonism''' is a school of [[philosophical skepticism]] founded by [[Aenesidemus]] in the first century BCE, said to have been inspired by the teachings of [[Pyrrho]] and [[Timon of Phlius]] in the fourth century BCE.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Long |first1=A. A. |title=Hellenistic Philosophy: Stoics, Epicureans, Sceptics |date=12 September 1996 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-0-7156-1238-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5HFFSAAACAAJ |pages=75-76 |access-date=15 January 2023 |language=en}}</ref> [[Pyrrho]] was a Greek [[philosopher]] of [[Classical antiquity]] credited with forming the first comprehensive school of [[skepticism|skeptical thought]]. It is best known through the surviving works of [[Sextus Empiricus]], writing in the late second century or early third century CE.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The history of scepticism : from Savonarola to Bayle|author=Popkin, Richard Henry|date=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|others=Popkin, Richard Henry, 1923-|isbn=0198026714|edition= Rev. and expanded |location=Oxford|oclc=65192690}}</ref>
+'''Pyrrhonism''' is an Ancient Greek school of [[philosophical skepticism]] which rejects dogma and advocates the [[suspension of judgement]] over the [[truth]] of all beliefs. It was founded by [[Aenesidemus]] in the first century BCE, and said to have been inspired by the teachings of [[Pyrrho]] and [[Timon of Phlius]] in the fourth century BCE.<ref name="Bloomsbury Academic">{{cite book |last1=Long |first1=A. A. |title=Hellenistic Philosophy: Stoics, Epicureans, Sceptics |date=12 September 1996 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-0-7156-1238-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5HFFSAAACAAJ |pages=75–76 |access-date=15 January 2023 |language=en}}</ref> Pyrrhonism is best known today  through the surviving works of [[Sextus Empiricus]], writing in the late second century or early third century CE.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The history of scepticism : from Savonarola to Bayle|author=Popkin, Richard Henry|date=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|others=Popkin, Richard Henry, 1923-|isbn=0198026714|edition= Rev. and expanded |location=Oxford|oclc=65192690}}</ref> The publication of Sextus' works in the [[Renaissance]] ignited a [[Philosophical skepticism#Skepticism's revival in the sixteenth century|revival of interest in Skepticism]] and played a major role in [[Reformation]] thought and the development of [[early modern philosophy]].
 ==History==
-Ancient testimony about the philosophical beliefs of the historical [[Pyrrho of Elis]] is minimal, and often contradictory.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Long |first1=A. A. |title=Hellenistic Philosophy: Stoics, Epicureans, Sceptics |date=12 September 1996 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-0-7156-1238-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5HFFSAAACAAJ |pages=75-76 |access-date=15 January 2023 |language=en}}</ref> His teachings were recorded by his student [[Timon of Phlius]], whose works have been lost and only survive in fragments quoted by later authors. Although [[Cicero]], [[Seneca the Younger]],<ref>[[Seneca the Younger]], ''Nat Quaest'' VII xxxii 2</ref> and [[Julian the Apostate]]<ref>''Epistles'' lxxxix 301C</ref> each mention that Pyrrhonism had died out at the time of their writings, other writers mention the existence of Pyrrhonists. [[Diogenes Laertius]] mentions Pyrrhonists who were roughly contemporary with Seneca.<ref>[[Diogenes Laërtius]], "Lives of the Eminent Philosophers", Book 9, Chapter 12, Section 116</ref> Pseudo-Clement (c. 300-320 CE) mentions Pyrrhonists in his ''Homilies.''<ref>Pseudo-Clement, ''Homilies'', 13.7</ref> [[Agathias]] reports a Pyrrhonist named Uranius in the middle of the 6th century CE.<ref>[[Agathias]] II 29-32, cited in Jonathan Barnes, ''Mantissa'' 2015 p. 652</ref> Pyrrhonism as a philosophical school was founded by Aenesidemus,  a later contemporary of Cicero.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Long |first1=A. A. |title=Hellenistic Philosophy: Stoics, Epicureans, Sceptics |date=12 September 1996 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-0-7156-1238-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5HFFSAAACAAJ |pages=75-76 |access-date=15 January 2023 |language=en}}</ref><ref>Stéphane Marchand, "Sextus Empiricus’ Style Of Writing", in ''New Essays on Ancient Pyrrhonism'', p 113</ref>
+Pyrrhonism is named after [[Pyrrho of Elis]], a Greek [[philosopher]] in the 4th century BCE who was credited by the later Pyrrhonists with forming the first comprehensive school of [[skepticism|skeptical thought]]. However, ancient testimony about the philosophical beliefs of the historical Pyrrho is minimal, and often contradictory:<ref name="Bloomsbury Academic"/>  his teachings were recorded by his student [[Timon of Phlius]], but those works have been lost, and only survive in fragments quoted by later authors, and based on testimonies of later authors such as [[Cicero]]. Pyrrho's own philosophy as recorded by Timon may have been much more dogmatic than that of the later school who bore his name.<ref name="Bloomsbury Academic"/> While Pyrrhonism would become the dominant form of skepticism in the early Roman period, in the [[Hellenistic period]], the [[Platonic Academy]] was the primary advocate of skepticism until the mid-first century BCE,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Thorsrud|first=Harald|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/715184861|title=Ancient scepticism|date=2009|publisher=Acumen|isbn=978-1-84465-409-3|location=Stocksfield [U.K.]|pages=120–121|oclc=715184861|quote=Pyrrhonism, in whatever form it might have taken after Timon's death in 230 BCE, was utterly neglected until Aenesidemus brought it back to public attention}}</ref> when Pyrrhonism as a philosophical school was founded by Aenesidemus.<ref name="Bloomsbury Academic"/><ref>Stéphane Marchand, "Sextus Empiricus' Style Of Writing", in ''New Essays on Ancient Pyrrhonism'', p 113</ref>
 ==Philosophy==
+The goal of Pyrrhonism is [[ataraxia]],<ref>
-As with other [[Hellenistic philosophy|Hellenistic philosophies]] such as [[Stoicism]], [[Peripatetic school|Peripateticism]] and [[Epicureanism]], [[eudaimonia]] is the Pyrrhonist goal of life. According to the Pyrrhonists, it is one's opinions about non-evident matters (i.e., [[dogma]]) that prevent one from attaining eudaimonia. As with Epicureanism, Pyrrhonism places the attainment of [[ataraxia]] (a state of [[equanimity]]) as the way to achieve eudaimonia. To bring the mind to ataraxia Pyrrhonism uses [[epoché]] ([[suspension of judgment]]) regarding all non-evident propositions. Pyrrhonists dispute that the dogmatists – which includes all of Pyrrhonism's rival philosophies – have found [[truth]] regarding non-evident matters. For any non-evident matter, a Pyrrhonist makes arguments for and against such that the matter cannot be concluded, thus suspending belief and thereby inducing ataraxia.
+{{cite book |last=Warren |first=James |date=2002 |title=Epicurus and Democritean ethics: An archaeology of ataraxia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=I |isbn=0521813697}}
+</ref> an untroubled and tranquil condition of soul that results from a suspension of judgement, a mental rest owing to which we neither deny nor affirm anything.
+Pyrrhonists dispute that the dogmatists – which includes all of Pyrrhonism's rival philosophies – claim to have found [[truth]] regarding non-evident matters, and that these opinions about non-evident matters (i.e., [[dogma]]) are what prevent one from attaining [[eudaimonia]]. For any of these dogmas, a Pyrrhonist makes arguments for and against such that the matter cannot be concluded, thus [[suspension of judgment|suspending judgement]], and thereby inducing ataraxia.
-Although Pyrrhonism's objective is ataraxia, it is best known for its [[Epistemology|epistemological]] arguments. Pyrrhonists  can be subdivided into those who are [[ephectics|ephectic]] (engaged in suspension of judgment), zetetic (engaged in seeking), or [[aporia|aporetic]] (engaged in refutation).<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Etymological Compendium, Or, Portfolio of Origins and Inventions |url=https://archive.org/details/etymologicalcom00pullgoog |last=Pulleyn |first=William |publisher=T. Tegg |year=1830 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/etymologicalcom00pullgoog/page/n411 353]}}</ref> Pyrrhonist practice is for the purpose of achieving [[epoché]], i.e., [[suspension of judgment]].
+Pyrrhonists can be subdivided into those who are '''ephectic''' (engaged in suspension of judgment), '''aporetic''' (engaged in refutation)<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Etymological Compendium, Or, Portfolio of Origins and Inventions |url=https://archive.org/details/etymologicalcom00pullgoog |last=Pulleyn |first=William |publisher=T. Tegg |year=1830 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/etymologicalcom00pullgoog/page/n411 353]}}</ref> or '''zetetic''' (engaged in seeking).<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Scepticism|last = Bett|first = Richard Arnot Home|publisher = Cambridge University Press|date = Jan 28, 2010|pages = 212}}</ref> An ephectic merely suspends judgment on a matter, "balancing perceptions and thoughts against one another."<ref name=":0a">{{Cite book|title = The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Scepticism|last = Bett|first = Richard Arnot Home|publisher = Cambridge University Press|date = 2010-01-28|pages = 213}}</ref> It is a less aggressive form of skepticism, in that sometimes "suspension of judgment evidently just happens to the sceptic".<ref name=":0" /> An aporetic skeptic, in contrast, works more actively towards their goal, engaging in the refutation of arguments in favor of various possible beliefs in order to reach [[aporia]], an impasse, or state of perplexity,<ref name=":1a">{{Cite book|title = A History of Western Philosophy, Volume 2|last = McInerny|first = Ralph|publisher = Aeterna Press|year = 1969|pages = Chp III. Skeptics and the New Academy, A. Pyrrho of Elis section, para 3–4}}</ref> which leads to suspension of judgement.<ref name=":0" /> Finally, the zetetic claims to be continually searching for the truth but to have thus far been unable to find it, and thus continues to suspend belief while also searching for reason to cease the suspension of belief.
-===Divisions===
-The school of thought can be further divided into ephectic Pyrrhonism, aporetic Pyrrhonism or zetetic Pyrrhonism.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Etymological Compendium, Or, Portfolio of Origins and Inventions|url = https://archive.org/details/etymologicalcom00pullgoog|last = Pulleyn|first = William|publisher = T. Tegg|year = 1830|pages = [https://archive.org/details/etymologicalcom00pullgoog/page/n411 353]}}</ref> Prior to Pyrrho, others had given the same rationale for which he is famed.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers|url = https://archive.org/details/livesandopinion02laergoog|last = Laertius|first = Diogenes|publisher = H. G. Bohn|year = 1853|pages = [https://archive.org/details/livesandopinion02laergoog/page/n417 405]–409}}</ref>
+=== Modes ===
-*''Ephectic Pyrrhonism'' can describe either a state, attitude, or practice, with the state sometimes experienced after "balanc[ing] perceptions and thoughts against one another".<ref name=":0a">{{Cite book|title = The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Scepticism|last = Bett|first = Richard Arnot Home|publisher = Cambridge University Press|date = 2010-01-28|pages = 213}}</ref> It is a less aggressive form of skepticism which may occur in that sometimes "[s]uspension of judgment evidently just happens to the sceptic".<ref name=":0" />
+Although Pyrrhonism's objective is ataraxia, it is best known for its [[Epistemology|epistemological]] arguments. The core practice is through setting argument against argument. To aid in this, the Pyrrhonist philosophers [[Aenesidemus]] and [[Agrippa the Skeptic|Agrippa]] developed sets of stock arguments known as "modes" or "[[trope (philosophy)|tropes]]."
-*''Aporetic Pyrrhonism'', in contrast, describes a "more argumentative form of scepticism, one that works more actively towards its goal". Aporetic skepticism may also be described as a state of perplexity.<ref name=":1a">{{Cite book|title = A History of Western Philosophy, Volume 2|last = McInerny|first = Ralph|publisher = Aeterna Press|year = 1969|pages = Chp III. Skeptics and the New Academy, A. Pyrrho of Elis section, para 3–4}}</ref>  They are actively "engaged in refutation".
-*''Zetetic Pyrrhonism'', differing from the two, is "engaged in seeking".<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Scepticism|last = Bett|first = Richard Arnot Home|publisher = Cambridge University Press|date = Jan 28, 2010|pages = 212}}</ref>
-While an ephectic merely suspends judgment on a matter however arriving at that point,{{Clarify|date=December 2022}} an aporetic skeptic engages in the refutation of arguments in favor of various possible beliefs before reaching a state of [[aporia]], an impasse which leads to ''[[epoché]]'', suspension of judgement.<ref name=":0" /> The zetetic claims to be continually searching for the truth but to have thus far been unable to find it, and thus continues to suspend belief while also searching for reason to cease the suspension of belief.
-===Modes===
-The core practice is through setting argument against argument. To aid in this, the Pyrrhonist philosophers [[Aenesidemus]] and [[Agrippa the Skeptic|Agrippa]] developed sets of stock arguments known as "modes" or "[[trope (philosophy)|tropes]]."
 ====The ten modes of Aenesidemus====
-[[Aenesidemus]] is considered the creator of ''the ten tropes of Aenesidemus'' (also known as ''the ten modes of Aenesidemus'')—although whether he invented the [[Trope (philosophy)|tropes]] or just systematized them from prior Pyrrhonist works is unknown. Sextus Empiricus attributed them simply to the earlier Pyrrhonists. Diogenes Laeritius attributed them to Aenesidemus. The title of a lost work of [[Plutarch]]'s (''On [[Pyrrho]]'s Ten Modes'') appears to attribute the modes to Pyrrho.<ref>Mauro Bonazzi, "Plutarch on the Differences Between the Pyrrhonists and Academics", Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy, 2012 [https://www.academia.edu/2362682/Plutarch_on_the_Difference_between_Academics_and_Pyrrhonists_in_Oxford_Studies_in_Ancient_Philosophy_43_2012_pp._271-298]</ref> The tropes represent reasons for [[epoché]] ([[suspension of judgment]]). These are as follows:
+[[Aenesidemus]] is considered the creator of ''the ten tropes of Aenesidemus'' (also known as ''the ten modes of Aenesidemus'')—although whether he invented the [[Trope (philosophy)|tropes]] or just systematized them from prior Pyrrhonist works is unknown. The tropes represent reasons for suspension of judgment. These are as follows:<ref>{{EB1911|inline=1|wstitle=Aenesidemus|volume=1|pages=257-258}}</ref>
+# Different animals manifest different modes of perception;
+# Similar differences are seen among individual men;
-# "The same impressions are not produced by the same objects owing to the differences in animals."<ref>Sextus Empiricus, ''Outlines of Pyrrhonism'', Trans. [[Robert Gregg Bury|R.G. Bury]], Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1933, p. 27</ref>
+# For the same man, information perceived with the senses is self-contradictory
-# The same impressions are not produced by the same objects owing to the differences among human beings.<ref>Sextus Empiricus, ''Outlines of Pyrrhonism'', Trans. R.G. Bury, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1933, p. 47</ref>
+# Furthermore, it varies from time to time with physical changes
-# The same impressions are not produced by the same objects owing to the differences among the senses.<ref>Sextus Empiricus, ''Outlines of Pyrrhonism'', Trans. R.G. Bury, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1933, p. 55</ref>
+# In addition, this data differs according to local relations
-# Owing to the "circumstances, conditions or dispositions," the same objects appear different. The same temperature, as established by instrument, feels very different after an extended period of cold winter weather (it feels warm) than after mild weather in the autumn (it feels cold). Time appears slow when young and fast as aging proceeds. Honey tastes sweet to most but bitter to someone with jaundice. A person with influenza will feel cold and shiver even though she is hot with a fever.<ref>Sextus Empiricus, ''Outlines of Pyrrhonism'', Trans. R.G. Bury, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1933, p.61</ref>
+# Objects are known only indirectly through the medium of air, moisture, etc.
-# Based on positions, distances, and locations; for owing to each of these the same objects appear different; for example, the same porch when viewed from one of its corners appears curtailed, but viewed from the middle symmetrical on all sides; and the same ship seems at a distance to be small and stationary, but from close at hand large and in motion ; and the same tower from a distance appears round but from a near point quadrangular.<ref>Sextus Empiricus, ''Outlines of Pyrrhonism'', Book I Section 118 Trans. R.G. Bury, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1933, p.69-71</ref>
+# These objects are in a condition of perpetual change in colour, temperature, size and motion
-# “We deduce that since no object strikes us entirely by itself, but along with something else, it may perhaps be possible to say what the mixture compounded out of the external object and the thing perceived with it is like, but we would not be able to say what the external object is like by itself."<ref>Sextus Empiricus, ''Outlines of Pyrrhonism'', Trans. R.G. Bury, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1933, p.73</ref>
+# All perceptions are relative and interact one upon another
-# "Based, as we said, on the quantity and constitution of the underlying objects, meaning generally by "constitution" the manner of composition." So, for example, goat horn appears black when intact and appears white when ground up. Snow appears white when frozen and translucent as a liquid.<ref>Sextus Empiricus, ''Outlines of Pyrrhonism'', Trans. R.G. Bury, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1933, p.77</ref>
+# Our impressions become less critical through repetition and custom
-# "Since all things appear relative, we will suspend judgement about what things exist absolutely and really existent.<ref>Sextus Empiricus, ''Outlines of Pyrrhonism'', Trans. R.G. Bury, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1933, p. 79</ref> Do things which exist "differentially" as opposed to those things that have a distinct existence of their own, differ from relative things or not?  If they do not differ, then they too are relative; but if they differ, then, since everything which differs is relative to something..., things which exist absolutely  are relative."<ref>Sextus Empiricus, ''Outlines of Pyrrhonism'', Trans. R.G. Bury, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1933, p. 81</ref>
+# All men are brought up with different beliefs, under different laws and social conditions
-# "Based on constancy or rarity of occurrence." The sun is more amazing than a comet, but because we see and feel the warmth of the sun daily and the comet rarely, the latter commands our attention.<ref>Sextus Empiricus, ''Outlines of Pyrrhonism'', Trans. R.G. Bury, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1933, p. 83</ref>
-# "There is a Tenth Mode, which is mainly concerned with Ethics, being based on rules of conduct, habits, laws, legendary beliefs, and dogmatic conceptions."<ref>Sextus Empiricus, ''Outlines of Pyrrhonism'', Trans. R.G. Bury, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1933, p. 85</ref>
+According to Sextus, superordinate to these ten modes stand three other modes: that based on the subject who judges (modes 1, 2, 3 & 4), that based on the object judged (modes 7 & 10), that based on both subject who judges and object judged (modes 5, 6, 8 & 9), and superordinate to these three modes is the mode of relation.<ref>Sextus Empiricus, ''Outlines of Pyrrhonism'', Trans. R.G. Bury, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1933, pp. 25–27</ref>
-Superordinate to these ten modes stand three other modes:
-# that based on the subject who judges (modes 1, 2, 3 & 4).
-# that based on the object judged (modes 7 & 10).
-# that based on both subject who judges and object judged (modes 5, 6, 8 & 9)
-Superordinate to these three modes is the mode of relation.<ref>Sextus Empiricus, ''Outlines of Pyrrhonism'', Trans. R.G. Bury, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1933, pp. 25–27</ref>
-====The five modes of Agrippa====
+===The five modes of Agrippa===
 These "tropes" or "modes" are given by [[Sextus Empiricus]] in his ''Outlines of Pyrrhonism''.  According to Sextus, they are attributed only "to the more recent skeptics" and it is by [[Diogenes Laërtius]] that we attribute them to [[Agrippa the Skeptic|Agrippa]].<ref name="diog1">Diogenes Laërtius, ix.</ref> The ''five tropes of Agrippa'' are:
@@ Line 55: / Line 43: @@
 <blockquote> According to the mode deriving from dispute, we find that undecidable dissension about the matter proposed has come about both in ordinary life and among philosophers.  Because of this we are not able to choose or to rule out anything, and we end up with [[Epoché|suspension of judgement]]. In the mode deriving from infinite regress, we say that what is brought forward as a source of conviction for the matter proposed itself needs another such source, which itself needs another, and so ''ad infinitum'', so that we have no point from which to begin to establish anything, and suspension of judgement follows. In the mode deriving from relativity, as we said above, the existing object appears to be such-and-such relative to the subject judging and to the things observed together with it, but we suspend judgement on what it is like in its nature. We have the mode from hypothesis when the Dogmatists, being thrown back ''ad infinitum'', begin from something which they do not establish but claim to assume simply and without proof in virtue of a concession. The reciprocal mode occurs when what ought to be confirmatory of the object under investigation needs to be made convincing by the object under investigation; then, being unable to take either in order to establish the other, we suspend judgement about both.<ref>Sextus Empiricus, ''Pyrrhōneioi hypotypōseis'' i., from Annas, J., ''Outlines of Scepticism'' [[Cambridge University Press]]. (2000).</ref></blockquote>
-With reference to these five tropes, that the first and third are a short summary of the earlier Ten Modes of [[Aenesidemus]].<ref name="diog1"/> The three additional ones show a progress in the Pyrrhonist system, building upon the objections derived from the fallibility of sense and opinion to more abstract and metaphysical grounds.
+With reference to these five tropes, that the first and third are a short summary of the earlier Ten Modes of [[Aenesidemus]].<ref name="diog1"/> The three additional ones show a progress in the Pyrrhonist system, building upon the objections derived from the fallibility of sense and opinion to more abstract and metaphysical grounds. According to [[Victor Brochard]] "the five tropes can be regarded as the most radical and most precise formulation of skepticism that has ever been given.  In a sense, they are still irresistible today."<ref>Brochard, V., ''The Greek Skeptics''.</ref>
-According to [[Victor Brochard]] “the five tropes can be regarded as the most radical and most precise formulation of skepticism that has ever been given.  In a sense, they are still irresistible today.”<ref>Brochard, V., ''The Greek Skeptics''.</ref>
 ===Criteria of action===
-Pyrrhonist decision making is made according to what the Pyrrhonists describe as the ''criteria of action'' holding to the [[phantasiai|appearances]], without [[dogma|beliefs]] in accord with the ordinary regimen of life based on:
+Pyrrhonist decision making is made according to what the Pyrrhonists describe as the ''criteria of action'' holding to the [[phantasiai|appearances]], without beliefs in accord with the ordinary regimen of life based on:
 # the guidance of nature, by which we are naturally capable of sensation and thought
 # the compulsion of the [[Pathos|passions]] by which hunger drives us to food and thirst makes us drink
@@ Line 67: / Line 53: @@
 ===Skeptic sayings===
-The Pyrrhonists devised several sayings (Greek ΦΩΝΩΝ) to help practitioners bring their minds to [[epoche]].<ref>Sextus Empiricus ''Outlines of Pyrrhonism'' Book I Chapter 18</ref> Among these are:
+The Pyrrhonists devised several sayings (Greek ΦΩΝΩΝ) to help practitioners bring their minds to suspend judgment.<ref>Sextus Empiricus ''Outlines of Pyrrhonism'' Book I Chapter 18</ref> Among these are:
 * Not more, nothing more (a saying attributed to [[Democritus]]<ref>Sextus Empiricus ''Outlines of Pyrrhonism'' Book II Chapter 30</ref>)
-* Non-assertion
+* Non-assertion (''aphasia'')
 * Perhaps, it is possible, maybe
 * I withhold assent
-* I determine nothing ([[Montaigne]] created a variant of this as his own personal motto, "Que sçay-je?" – "what do I know?")
+* I determine nothing ([[Montaigne]] created a variant of this as his own personal motto, "Que sais-je?" – "what do I know?")
 * Everything is indeterminate
 * Everything is [[acatalepsy|non-apprehensible]]
@@ Line 80: / Line 66: @@
 ==Texts==
-Except for the works of [[Sextus Empiricus]] and [[Diogenes Laërtius]], the texts about ancient Pyrrhonism have been lost, except for a summary of ''Pyrrhonian Discourses'' by  [[Aenesidemus]], preserved by [[Photios I of Constantinople|Photius]], and a summary of Pyrrho's teaching preserved by [[Eusebius]], quoting [[Aristocles of Messene|Aristocles]], quoting Pyrrho's student [[Timon of Phlius|Timon]], in what is known as the "Aristocles passage." This text is:
+Except for the works of [[Sextus Empiricus]], the texts of ancient Pyrrhonism have been lost. There is a summary of the ''Pyrrhonian Discourses'' by  [[Aenesidemus]], preserved by [[Photios I of Constantinople|Photius]], and a brief summary of Pyrrho's teaching by [[Aristocles of Messene|Aristocles]], quoting Pyrrho's student [[Timon of Phlius|Timon]] preserved by [[Eusebius]]:
 <blockquote>'The things themselves are equally indifferent, and unstable, and indeterminate, and therefore neither our senses nor our opinions are either true or false. For this reason then we must not trust them, but be without opinions, and without bias, and without wavering, saying of every single thing that it no more is than is not, or both is and is not, or neither is nor is not.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Eusebius |title=Praeparatio Evangelica Book XIV |url=https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_pe_14_book14.htm |website=Tertullian Project |access-date=27 January 2023}}</ref></blockquote>
 ==Influence==
+===In Ancient Greek philosophy===
-[[File:School of Athens Skeptics.jpg|thumb|Skeptics in Raphael's School of Athens painting. Pyrrho is #4 and Timon #5]]
+[[File:School of Athens Skeptics.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Skeptics in Raphael's School of Athens painting. Pyrrho is #4 and Timon #5]]
-Pyrrhonism so influenced [[Arcesilaus]], the sixth [[scholarch]] of the [[Platonic Academy]] that Arcesilaus reformed the teaching of the Academy to be nearly identical to Pyrrhonism<ref>Sextus Empiricus, ''Outlines of Pyrrhonism'' Book I Chapter 33</ref> thus initiating the [[Academic skepticism]] of the [[Middle Academy]]. The Pyrrhonist school influenced and had substantial overlap with the [[Empiric school]] of medicine. Many of the well-known Pyrrhonist teachers were also Empirics, including: [[Sextus Empiricus]], [[Herodotus (physician)|Herodotus of Tarsus]], [[Heraclides of Tarentum|Heraclides]], [[Theodas of Laodicea|Theodas]], and [[Menodotus of Nicomedia|Menodotus]]. However,  Sextus Empiricus said that Pyrrhonism had more in  common with the [[Methodic school]] in that it “follow[s] the appearances and take[s] from these whatever seems expedient.”<ref>Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism I.237, trans. Etheridge (Scepticism, Man, and God, Wesleyan University Press, 1964, p. 98).</ref> Because of the high degree of similarity between the Buddhist philosopher [[Nagarjuna]]'s [[Madhyamaka]] philosophy and Pyrrhonism, particularly as detailed in the surviving works of [[Sextus Empiricus]],<ref name="ReferenceA">Adrian Kuzminski, ''Pyrrhonism: How the Ancient Greeks Reinvented Buddhism'' 2008</ref> [[Thomas McEvilley]] suspects that Nagarjuna was influenced by Greek Pyrrhonist texts imported into India.<ref name="Thomas McEvilley pp499-505">Thomas McEvilley, ''The Shape of Ancient Thought'' 2002 pp499-505</ref>
+Pyrrhonism is often contrasted with [[Academic skepticism]], a similar but distinct form of Hellenistic philosophical skepticism.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Klein|first=Peter|date=2015|title=Skepticism|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/skepticism/#TwoBasForPhiSke|url-status=live|access-date=19 March 2021|website=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725160127/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/skepticism/#TwoBasForPhiSke|archive-date=25 July 2018}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Sextus|first=Empiricus|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/23367477|title=Outlines of pyrrhonism|date=1990|publisher=Prometheus Books|others=Robert Gregg Bury|isbn=0-87975-597-0|location=Buffalo, N.Y.|oclc=23367477}}</ref><ref name="Thorsrud 2009">{{Cite book|last=Thorsrud|first=Harald|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/715184861|title=Ancient scepticism|date=2009|publisher=Acumen|isbn=978-1-84465-409-3|location=Stocksfield [U.K.]|oclc=715184861}}</ref> While early Academic skepticism was influenced in part by Pyrrho,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Thorsrud|first=Harald|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/715184861|title=Ancient scepticism|date=2009|publisher=Acumen|isbn=978-1-84465-409-3|location=Stocksfield [U.K.]|pages=45|oclc=715184861}}</ref> it grew more and more dogmatic until [[Aenesidemus]] broke with the Academics to revive Pyrrhonism in the first century BCE, denouncing the Academy as "Stoics fighting against Stoics.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Thorsrud|first=Harald|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/715184861|title=Ancient scepticism|date=2009|publisher=Acumen|isbn=978-1-84465-409-3|location=Stocksfield [U.K.]|pages=102–103|oclc=715184861|quote=Aenesidemus criticized his fellow Academics for being dogmatic...Aenesidemus committed his scepticism to writing probably some time in the early-to-mid first century BCE...leading Aenesidemus to dismiss them as "Stoics fighting against Stoics."}}</ref>" Some later Pyrrhonists, such as [[Sextus Empiricus]], go so far as to claim that Pyrrhonists are the only real skeptics, dividing all philosophy into the dogmatists, the Academics, and the skeptics.<ref name=":1" /> Dogmatists claim to have knowledge, Academic skeptics claim that [[acatalepsy|knowledge is impossible]], while Pyrrhonists assent to neither proposition, suspending judgment on both.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Popkin|first=Richard|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32272442|title=The Cambridge dictionary of philosophy|date=1995|others=Robert Audi|isbn=0-521-40224-7|location=Cambridge|pages=741|oclc=32272442}}</ref>  The second century Roman historian [[Aulus Gellius]] describes the distinction as "...the Academics apprehend (in some sense) the very fact that nothing can be apprehended, and they determine (in some sense) that nothing can be determined, whereas the Pyrrhonists assert that not even that seems to be true, since nothing seems to be true.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gellius|first=Aulus|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/635311697|title=Noctes Atticae|date=2008|publisher=Schöningh|others=Josef Feix|isbn=978-3-14-010714-3|edition=3. Dr|location=Paderborn|oclc=635311697}}</ref><ref name="Thorsrud 2009"/>"
+Sextus Empiricus also said that the Pyrrhonist school influenced and had substantial overlap with the [[Empiric school]] of medicine, but that Pyrrhonism had more in common with the [[Methodic school]] in that it "follow[s] the appearances and take[s] from these whatever seems expedient."<ref>Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism I.237, trans. Etheridge (Scepticism, Man, and God, Wesleyan University Press, 1964, p. 98).</ref>
-=== Academic skepticism ===
-Pyrrhonism is often contrasted with [[Academic skepticism]], a similar but distinct form of Hellenistic philosophical skepticism.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Klein|first=Peter|date=2015|title=Skepticism|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/skepticism/#TwoBasForPhiSke|url-status=live|access-date=19 March 2021|website=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725160127/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/skepticism/#TwoBasForPhiSke|archive-date=25 July 2018|quote=The Pyrrhonians withheld assent to every non-evident proposition. That is, they withheld assent to all propositions about which genuine dispute was possible, and they took that class of propositions to include both the (meta) proposition that we can have knowledge of EI-type propositions and the (meta) proposition that we cannot have knowledge. Indeed, they sometimes classified the Epistemists and the Academic skeptics together as dogmatists because the Epistemists assented to the proposition that we can have knowledge, while the Academic skeptics assented to the denial of that claim.}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Sextus|first=Empiricus|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/23367477|title=Outlines of pyrrhonism|date=1990|publisher=Prometheus Books|others=Robert Gregg Bury|isbn=0-87975-597-0|location=Buffalo, N.Y.|oclc=23367477|quote=Those who believe they have discovered it are the "dogmatists," specially so called - Aristotle, for example, and Epicurus and the Stoics and certain others; Cleitomachus and Carneades and other Academics treat it as inapprehensible:the skeptics keep on searching.  Hence it seems reasonable to hold the main types of philosophy are three- the dogmatic, the Academic, and the skeptic.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Thorsrud|first=Harald|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/715184861|title=Ancient scepticism|date=2009|publisher=Acumen|isbn=978-1-84465-409-3|location=Stocksfield [U.K.]|oclc=715184861|quote=Both Academic and Pyrrhonian Scepticism develop in complicated ways in response to each other and in response to their common dogmatic opponents.}}</ref>  Dogmatists claim to have knowledge, Academic skeptics claim that [[acatalepsy|knowledge is impossible]], while Pyrrhonists assent to neither proposition, suspending judgment on both.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Popkin|first=Richard|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32272442|title=The Cambridge dictionary of philosophy|date=1995|others=Robert Audi|isbn=0-521-40224-7|location=Cambridge|pages=741|oclc=32272442|quote=Skepticism: Those Academic thinkers who developed sets of arguments to show either that no knowledge is possible (Academic skepticism) or that there is not sufficient or adequate evidence to tell if any knowledge is possible.  If the latter is the case then these thinkers advocated suspending judgment on all questions concerning knowledge (Pyrrhonian Skepticism).}}</ref>  The second century Roman historian [[Aulus Gellius]] describes the distinction as follows:
+Although [[Julian the Apostate]]<ref>''Epistles'' lxxxix 301C</ref> mentions that Pyrrhonism had died out at the time of his writings, other writers mention the existence of later Pyrrhonists. Pseudo-Clement, writing around the same time ({{Circa|300}}-320 CE) mentions Pyrrhonists in his ''Homilies''<ref>Pseudo-Clement, ''Homilies'', 13.7</ref> and [[Agathias]] even reports a Pyrrhonist named Uranius as late as the middle of the 6th century CE.<ref>[[Agathias]] II 29-32, cited in Jonathan Barnes, ''Mantissa'' 2015 p. 652</ref>
-<blockquote>"...the Academics apprehend (in some sense) the very fact that nothing can be apprehended, and they determine (in some sense) that nothing can be determined, whereas the Pyrrhonists assert that not even that seems to be true, since nothing seems to be true.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gellius|first=Aulus|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/635311697|title=Noctes Atticae|date=2008|publisher=Schöningh|others=Josef Feix|isbn=978-3-14-010714-3|edition=3. Dr|location=Paderborn|oclc=635311697}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Thorsrud|first=Harald|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/715184861|title=Ancient scepticism|date=2009|publisher=Acumen|isbn=978-1-84465-409-3|location=Stocksfield [U.K.]|oclc=715184861}}</ref>"</blockquote>
+===Similarities between Pyrrhonism and Indian philosophy===
-Following the death of Timon, the [[Platonic Academy]] became the primary advocate of skepticism until the mid-first century BCE.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Thorsrud|first=Harald|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/715184861|title=Ancient scepticism|date=2009|publisher=Acumen|isbn=978-1-84465-409-3|location=Stocksfield [U.K.]|pages=120–121|oclc=715184861|quote=Pyrrhonism, in whatever form it might have taken after Timon's death in 230 BCE, was utterly neglected until Aenesidemus brought it back to public attention}}</ref>  While early Academic skepticism was influenced in part by Pyrrho,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Thorsrud|first=Harald|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/715184861|title=Ancient scepticism|date=2009|publisher=Acumen|isbn=978-1-84465-409-3|location=Stocksfield [U.K.]|pages=45|oclc=715184861|quote=So while Pyrrho's influence is significant, it does not shape the contours of Arcesilaus' scepticism nearly as much as the influence of Plato and Socrates.}}</ref> it grew more and more dogmatic until [[Aenesidemus]] broke with the Academics to revive Pyrrhonism in the first century BCE, denouncing the Academy as "Stoics fighting against Stoics.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Thorsrud|first=Harald|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/715184861|title=Ancient scepticism|date=2009|publisher=Acumen|isbn=978-1-84465-409-3|location=Stocksfield [U.K.]|pages=102–103|oclc=715184861|quote=Aenesidemus criticized his fellow Academics for being dogmatic...Aenesidemus committed his scepticism to writing probably some time in the early-to-mid first century BCE...leading Aenesidemus to dismiss them as "Stoics fighting against Stoics."}}</ref>" Some later Pyrrhonists, such as [[Sextus Empiricus]], go so far as to claim that Pyrrhonists are the only real skeptics, dividing all philosophy into the dogmatists, the Academics, and the skeptics.<ref name=":1" />
+[[File:Nagarjuna_with_84_mahasiddha_cropped.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Nagarjuna, a Madhyamaka Buddhist philosopher whose skeptical arguments are similar to those preserved in the work of Sextus Empiricus]]
+According to Diogenes Laërtius, Pyrrho was said to have [[Indian campaign of Alexander the Great|traveled to India]] with [[Alexander the Great]]'s army where Pyrrho was said to have studied with the [[magi]] and the [[gymnosophist]]s,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Abook%3D9%3Achapter%3D11|title=Diogenes Laërtius, ''Lives of Eminent Philosophers'' Book IX - Chapter 11. PYRRHO (c. 360-270 b.c.)|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> and where he may have been influenced by [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] teachings,<ref name="Adr" /> most particularly the [[three marks of existence]].<ref name="auto">{{cite book |last=Beckwith |first=Christopher I. |title=Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2015 |page=28 |url=http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s10500.pdf |isbn=9781400866328}}</ref> Scholars who argue for such influence mention the fact that even the ancient author Diogenesis Laërtius states as much, when he wrote that Pyrrho “foregathered with the Indian Gymnosophists and with the Magi. This led him to adopt a most noble philosophy."<ref name="Adr" />
-=== Similarities between Pyrrhonism and Indian philosophy===
-According to [[Edward Conze]], Greek Skepticism can be compared to [[Indian philosophy]], especially the [[Buddhist]] [[Madhyamaka ]] school.<ref name=Conze>Conze, Edward. [http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/conze2.htm Buddhist Philosophy and Its European Parallels]. Philosophy East and West 13, p.9-23, no.1, January 1963. University press of Hawaii.</ref> Pyrrho spent about 18 months in [[Taxila]] as part of [[Alexander the Great]]'s court during Alexander's conquest of the east, and the high degree of similarity between Madhyamaka and Pyrrhonism, particularly the surviving works of [[Sextus Empiricus]],<ref>Adrian Kuzminski, ''Pyrrhonism: How the Ancient Greeks Reinvented Buddhism'' 2008</ref> [[Thomas McEvilley]]<ref>Thomas McEvilley, ''The Shape of Ancient Thought'' 2002 pp499-505</ref> have leds scholars to suspect that Nāgārjuna was influenced by Greek Pyrrhonist texts imported into India.
+According to [[Christopher I. Beckwith]]'s analysis of the Aristocles Passage, adiaphora ([[anatta]]), astathmēta ([[dukkha]]), and anepikrita ([[anicca]]) are strikingly similar to the Buddhist [[three marks of existence]],<ref name="auto" /> indicating that Pyrrho's teaching is based on Buddhism. Beckwith contends that the 18 months Pyrrho spent in India were long enough to learn a foreign language, and that the key innovative tenets of Pyrrho's skepticism were only found in Indian philosophy at the time and not in Greece.<ref>{{cite book |last=Beckwith |first=Christopher I. |title=Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2015 |page=221 |isbn=9781400866328}}</ref> Other similarities between Pyrrhonism and Buddhism include a version of the [[tetralemma]] among the Pyrrhonist maxims, and more significantly, the idea of [[Suspension of judgment|suspension of judgement]] and how that can lead to peace and liberation, ataraxia in Pyrrhonism and nirvana in Buddhism.<ref>Sextus Empricus, ''Outlines of Pyrrhonism'' Book 1, Section 19</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hanner |first=Oren |title=Buddhism and Scepticism: Historical, Philosophical and Comparative Perspectives |isbn=978-3-89733-518-9 |pages=126-129}}</ref>
-==== Catuṣkoṭi ====
-[[Catuṣkoṭi]] is a logical argument that is important in the [[Buddhist logic|Buddhist logico-epistemological traditions]], particularly those of the [[Madhyamaka]] school, and in the skeptical Greek philosophy of Pyrrhonism. [[Thomas McEvilley|McEvilley]] argues for mutual iteration and pervasion between Pyrrhonism and [[Madhyamika]]:
+Furthermore, Buddhist philosopher [[Jan Westerhoff]] says "many of Nāgārjuna's arguments concerning causation bear strong similarities to classical sceptical arguments as presented in the third book of Sextus Empiricus's ''Outlines of Pyrrhonism'',"<ref>[[Jan Westerhoff]] ''Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka: A Philosophical Introduction'' {{ISBN|0195384962}} 2009 p93</ref> and [[Thomas McEvilley]] suspects that Nagarjuna may have been influenced by Greek Pyrrhonist texts imported into India.<ref name="Thomas McEvilley pp499-505">Thomas McEvilley, ''The Shape of Ancient Thought'' 2002 pp499-505</ref> McEvilley argues for mutual iteration in the [[Buddhist logic|Buddhist logico-epistemological traditions]] between Pyrrhonism and [[Madhyamika]]:
 <blockquote>
-An extraordinary similarity, that has long been noticed, between Pyrrhonism and Mādhyamika is the formula known in connection with Buddhism as the fourfold negation (''catuṣkoṭi'') and which in Pyrrhonic form might be called the fourfold indeterminacy.<ref>{{cite book | first=Thomas | last=McEvilley | title=The Shape of Ancient Thought | publisher=Allworth Communications | year=2002 | isbn=1-58115-203-5 }}, p.495</ref>
+An extraordinary similarity, that has long been noticed, between Pyrrhonism and Mādhyamika is the formula known in connection with Buddhism as the fourfold negation (''[[Catuṣkoṭi]]'') and which in Pyrrhonic form might be called the fourfold indeterminacy.<ref>{{cite book | first=Thomas | last=McEvilley | title=The Shape of Ancient Thought | publisher=Allworth Communications | year=2002 | isbn=1-58115-203-5 }}, p.495</ref>
 </blockquote>
+McEvilley also notes a correspondence between the Pyrrhonist and Madhyamaka views about truth, comparing Sextus' account<ref>Sextus Empiricus, ''Outlines of Pyrrhonism'', II.14–18; ''Anthologia Palatina'' (Palatine Anthology), VII. 29–35, and elsewhere</ref> of two criteria regarding truth, one which judges between reality and unreality, and another which we use as a guide in everyday life. By the first criteria, nothing is either true or false, but by the second, information from the senses may be considered either true or false for practical purposes. As Edward Conze<ref>Conze 1959, pp. 140–141</ref>{{Verify source|date=February 2024|reason=Is Conze 1959 _Buddhist Scriptures_? Where are these references to be found?}} has noted, this is similar to the Madhyamika [[Two Truths doctrine]], a distinction between "Absolute truth" (''paramārthasatya''), "the knowledge of the real as it is without any distortion,"<ref name="Conze 1959: p. 244">Conze (1959: p. 244)</ref> and "Truth so-called" (''saṃvṛti satya''), "truth as conventionally believed in common parlance.<ref name="Conze 1959: p. 244"/><ref>{{cite book |first=Thomas |last=McEvilley |title=The Shape of Ancient Thought |publisher=Allworth Communications |year=2002 |isbn=1-58115-203-5}}, p. 474</ref>
+[[File:MacedonEmpire.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.8|Map of [[Alexander the Great]]'s empire and the route he and Pyrrho took to India]]
-==== Two truths doctrine ====
-[[Thomas McEvilley|McEvilley]] notes a correspondence between the Pyrrhonist and Madhyamaka views about truth: {{blockquote|Sextus says <ref>Sextus Empericus, ''Outlines of Pyrrhonism'', II.14–18; ''Anthologia Palatina'' (Palatine Anthology), VII. 29–35, and elsewhere</ref> that Pyrrhonism has two criteria regarding truth:
+However, other scholars, such as [[Stephen Batchelor (author)|Stephen Batchelor]]<ref>[[Stephen Batchelor (author)|Stephen Batchelor]] "Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's encounter with early Buddhism in central Asia", ''Contemporary Buddhism'', 2016, pp 195-215</ref> and Charles Goodman<ref>Charles Goodman, "Neither Scythian nor Greek: A Response to Beckwith's Greek Buddha and Kuzminski's "Early Buddhism Reconsidered"", ''Philosophy East and West'', University of Hawai'i Press Volume 68, Number 3, July 2018 pp. 984-1006</ref> question Beckwith's conclusions about the degree of Buddhist influence on Pyrrho. Conversely, while critical of Beckwith's ideas, Kuzminsky sees credibility in the hypothesis that Pyrrho was influenced by Buddhism, even if it cannot be safely ascertained with our current information.<ref name=Adr>{{cite book|last=Kuzminski|first=Adrian|title=Pyrrhonian Buddhism: A Philosophical Reconstruction|date=2021|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=9781000350074}}</ref>
-# [T]hat by which we judge reality and unreality, and
-# [T]hat which we use as a guide in everyday life.
+While discussing Christopher Beckwith's claims in ''Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia'', Jerker Blomqvist states that:
-According to the first criterion, nothing is either true or false[.] [I]nductive statements based on direct observation of phenomena may be treated as either true or false for the purpose of making everyday practical decisions.<br /> The distinction, as Conze<ref>Conze 1959, pp. 140–141</ref> has noted, is equivalent to the Madhyamika distinction between "Absolute truth" (''paramārthasatya''), "the knowledge of the real as it is without any distortion,"<ref name="Conze 1959: p. 244">Conze (1959: p. 244)</ref> and "Truth so-called" (''saṃvṛti satya''), "truth as conventionally believed in common parlance.<ref name="Conze 1959: p. 244"/><ref>{{cite book |first=Thomas |last=McEvilley |title=The Shape of Ancient Thought |publisher=Allworth Communications |year=2002 |isbn=1-58115-203-5}}, p. 474</ref>}}
+<blockquote>On the other hand, certain elements that are generally regarded as essential features of Buddhism are entirely absent from ancient Pyrrhonism/scepticism. The concepts of good and bad karma must have been an impossibility in the Pyrrhonist universe, if "things" were ἀδιάφορα, 'without a logical self-identity', and, consequently, could not be differentiated from each other by labels such as 'good' and 'bad' or 'just' and 'unjust'. A doctrine of rebirth, reminiscent of the Buddhist one though favored by Plato and Pythagoras, was totally alien to the Pyrrhonists. The ἀταραξία, 'undisturbedness', that the Pyrrhonists promised their followers, may have a superficial resemblance to the Buddhist nirvana, but ἀταραξία, unlike nirvana, did not involve a liberation from a cycle of reincarnation; rather, it was a mode of life in this world, blessed with μετριοπάθεια, 'moderation of feeling' or 'moderate suffering', not with the absence of any variety of pain. Kuzminski, whom Beckwith hails as a precursor of his, had largely ignored the problem with this disparity between Buddhism and Pyrrhonism.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2016/2016.02.32/|title=Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia – Bryn Mawr Classical Review|first=Unknown|last=says}}</ref></blockquote>
-==== Causation ====
-Buddhist philosopher [[Jan Westerhoff]] says "many of Nāgārjuna’s arguments concerning causation bear strong similarities to classical sceptical arguments as presented in the third book of Sextus Empiricus’s ''Outlines of Pyrrhonism''."<ref>[[Jan Westerhoff]] ''Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka: A Philosophical Introduction'' {{ISBN|0195384962}} 2009 p93</ref>
-==== Buddhist influences on Pyrrhonism ====
-[[File:MacedonEmpire.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Map of [[Alexander the Great]]'s empire and the route he and Pyrrho took to India]]
-[[Diogenes Laërtius]]' biography of Pyrrho reports that Pyrrho traveled with [[Alexander the Great]]'s army to India and incorporated what he learned from the [[Gymnosophists]] and the [[Magi]] that he met in his travels into his philosophical system.<ref>{{cite LotEP|chapter=Pyrrho}}</ref> [[Christopher I. Beckwith]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Beckwith |first=Christopher I. |title=Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2015 |page=28 |url=http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s10500.pdf |isbn=9781400866328}}</ref> draws comparisons between the Buddhist [[three marks of existence]] and  "Aristocles Passage".<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2014/entries/pyrrho|title=Pyrrho|last1=Bett|first1=Richard|last2=Zalta|first2=Edward|date=Winter 2014|website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=February 19, 2018}}</ref> Other scholars, such as [[Stephen Batchelor (author)|Stephen Batchelor]]<ref>[[Stephen Batchelor (author)|Stephen Batchelor]] "Greek Buddha: Pyrrho’s encounter with early Buddhism in central Asia", ''Contemporary Buddhism'', 2016, pp 195-215</ref> and Charles Goodman<ref>Charles Goodman, "Neither Scythian nor Greek: A Response to Beckwith's Greek Buddha and Kuzminski's "Early Buddhism Reconsidered"", ''Philosophy East and West'', University of Hawai'i Press Volume 68, Number 3, July 2018 pp. 984-1006</ref> question Beckwith's conclusions about the degree of Buddhist influence on Pyrrho. Conversely, while critical of Beckwith's ideas, Kuzminsky sees credibility in the hypothesis that Pyrrho was influenced by Buddhism, even if it cannot be safely ascertained with our current information.<ref name=Adr>{{cite book|last=Kuzminski|first=Adrian|title=Pyrrhonian Buddhism: A Philosophical Reconstruction|date=2021|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=9781000350074}}</ref> While discussing Christopher Beckwith's claims in ''Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia'', Jerker Blomqvist states that:
-<blockquote>
-On the other hand, certain elements that are generally regarded as essential features of Buddhism are entirely absent from ancient Pyrrhonism/scepticism. The concepts of good and bad karma must have been an impossibility in the Pyrrhonist universe, if “things” were ἀδιάφορα, ‘without a logical self-identity’, and, consequently, could not be differentiated from each other by labels such as ‘good’ and ‘bad’ or ‘just’ and ‘unjust’. A doctrine of rebirth, reminiscent of the Buddhist one, though favored by Plato and Pythagoras, was totally alien to the Pyrrhonists. The ἀταραξία, ‘undisturbedness’, that the Pyrrhonists promised their followers, may have a superficial resemblance to the Buddhist nirvana, but ἀταραξία, unlike nirvana, did not involve a liberation from a cycle of reincarnation; rather, it was a mode of life in this world, blessed with μετριοπάθεια, ’moderation of feeling’ or ‘moderate suffering’, not with the absence of any variety of pain. Kuzminski, whom Beckwith (p. 20) hails as a precursor of his, had largely ignored the problem with this disparity between Buddhism and Pyrrhonism.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2016/2016.02.32/|title=Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia – Bryn Mawr Classical Review|first=Unknown|last=says}}</ref>
-</blockquote>
-==== Ajñana ====
 [[Ajñana]], which upheld [[radical skepticism]], may have been a more powerful influence on Pyrrho than Buddhism. The Buddhists referred to Ajñana's adherents as ''Amarāvikkhepikas'' or "eel-wrigglers", due to their refusal to commit to a single doctrine.<ref>{{cite book | first=K.N. | last=Jayatilleke | title=Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge | publisher=George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London, p. 122 }}</ref>  Scholars including  [[Benimadhab Barua|Barua]], Jayatilleke, and Flintoff, contend that Pyrrho was influenced by, or at the very least agreed with, Indian skepticism rather than Buddhism or Jainism, based on the fact that he valued [[ataraxia]], which can be translated as "freedom from worry".{{sfn|Barua|1921|p=299}}{{sfn|Jayatilleke|1963|pp=129-130}}{{sfn|Flintoff|1980}} Jayatilleke, in particular, contends that Pyrrho may have been influenced by the first three schools of Ajñana, since they too valued freedom from worry.{{sfn|Jayatilleke|1963|pp=130}}
 ===Modern===
 [[File:Balance scales symbol.svg|thumb|[[Balance scales]] in equal balance are a modern symbol of Pyrrhonism]]
-The recovery and publishing of the works of Sextus Empiricus in the sixteenth century ignited a [[Philosophical skepticism#Skepticism's revival in the sixteenth century|revival of interest in Pyrrhonism]].<ref name="Popkin 2003">{{Cite book|title=The History of Scepticism : from Savonarola to Bayle|last=Popkin|first=Richard Henry|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|isbn=9780198026716|edition=Revised|location=Oxford|oclc=65192690}}</ref>  The publication of the works of Sextus Empiricus, particularly a widely influential translation by [[Henri Estienne]] published in 1562,<ref name="Popkin 2003"/> played a major role in [[Renaissance]] and [[Reformation]] thought. Philosophers of the time used his works to source their arguments on how to deal with the religious issues of their day. Major philosophers such as [[Michel de Montaigne]], [[Marin Mersenne]], and [[Pierre Gassendi]] later drew on the model of Pyrrhonism outlined in Sextus Empiricus’ works for their own arguments. This resurgence of Pyrrhonism has sometimes been called the beginning of modern philosophy.<ref name="Popkin 2003"/>
+The recovery and publication of the works of Sextus Empiricus, particularly a widely influential translation by [[Henri Estienne]] published in 1562,<ref name="Popkin 2003"/> ignited a [[Philosophical skepticism#Skepticism's revival in the sixteenth century|revival of interest in Pyrrhonism]].<ref name="Popkin 2003">{{Cite book|title=The History of Scepticism : from Savonarola to Bayle| last=Popkin |first=Richard Henry |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=9780198026716 |edition=Revised| location=Oxford |oclc=65192690}}</ref>  Philosophers of the time used his works to source their arguments on how to deal with the religious issues of their day. Major philosophers such as [[Michel de Montaigne]], [[Marin Mersenne]], and [[Pierre Gassendi]] later drew on the model of Pyrrhonism outlined in Sextus Empiricus' works for their own arguments. This resurgence of Pyrrhonism has sometimes been called the beginning of modern philosophy.<ref name="Popkin 2003"/> [[Montaigne]] adopted the image of a balance scale for his motto,<ref>Sarah Bakewell, ''How to Live: Or A Life of Montaigne in One Question and Twenty Attempts at an Answer'' 2011 p 127 {{ISBN|1590514831}}</ref> which became a modern symbol of Pyrrhonism.{{cn|date=February 2023}} It has also been suggested that Pyrrhonism provided the skeptical underpinnings that [[René Descartes]] drew from in developing his influential method of [[Cartesian doubt]] and the associated turn of [[early modern philosophy]] towards [[epistemology]].<ref name="Popkin 2003"/> In the 18th century, [[David Hume]] was also considerably influenced by Pyrrhonism, using "Pyrrhonism" as a synonym for "skepticism."<ref>[[Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion]], page 7, section 23.</ref>{{bsn|date=January 2023}}.
+[[File:Friedrich Nietzsche-1872.jpg|thumb|left|220x220px|Nietzsche was critical of Pyrrhonian ephectics.]]
+[[Friedrich Nietzsche]], however, criticized the "ephectics" of the Pyrrhonists as a flaw of early philosophers, who he characterized as "shy little blunderer[s] and milquetoast[s] with crooked legs" prone to overindulging "his doubting drive, his negating drive, his wait-and-see ('ephectic') drive, his analytical drive, his exploring, searching, venturing drive, his comparing, balancing drive, his will to [[Neutrality (philosophy)|neutrality]] and [[Objectivity (philosophy)|objectivity]], his will to every ''[[sine ira et studio]]'': have we already grasped that for the longest time they all went against the first demands of [[morality]] and [[conscience]]?"<ref>{{Cite book|title = On the Genealogy of Morality|author1=Friedrich Nietzsche |author2=Maudemarie Clark |author3=Alan J. Swensen |publisher = Hackett Publishing|year = 1998|pages = 79}}</ref>
+===Contemporary===
-The balance scale, in perfect balance, is the traditional symbol of Pyrrhonism. The Pyrrhonist philosopher [[Montaigne]] adopted the image of a balance scale for his motto.<ref>Sarah Bakewell, ''How to Live: Or A Life of Montaigne in One Question and Twenty Attempts at an Answer'' 2011 p 127 {{ISBN|1590514831}}</ref>It has also been suggested that Pyrrhonism provided the skeptical underpinnings that [[René Descartes]] drew from in developing his influential method of [[Cartesian doubt]] and the associated turn of [[early modern philosophy]] towards [[epistemology]].<ref name="Popkin 2003"/> The Pyrrhonian formulation of skepticism would also go on to have a considerable influence on [[David Hume]], who uses "Pyrrhonism" as a synonym for "skepticism" occurred during the eighteenth century.<ref>[[Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion]], page 7, section 23.</ref>{{bsn|date=January 2023}}. Historical Pyrrhonism emerged during the early modern period and played a significant role in shaping modern [[historiography]], by questioning the possibility of any absolute knowledge from the past and transforming later historians' selection of and standard for reliable sources.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The specter of skepticism in the age of Enlightenment|author=Matytsin, Anton M.|isbn=9781421420530|location=Baltimore|oclc=960048885|date = 2016-11-06}}</ref>
+The term "neo-Pyrrhonism"  is used to refer to modern Pyrrhonists such as [[Benson Mates]] and [[Robert Fogelin]].<ref>Michael Williams, "Fogelin's Neo-Pyrrhonism", ''International Journal of Philosophical Studies'' Volume 7, Issue 2, 1999, p141</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/skepticism-latin-america/|title=Skepticism in Latin America |first1=Plínio Junqueira|last1=Smith|first2=Otávio|last2=Bueno|editor-first=Edward N.|editor-last=Zalta|date=7 May 2016|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|via=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref>
-[[File:Friedrich Nietzsche-1872.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Nietzsche was critical of Pyrrhonian ephectics.]]
-[[Friedrich Nietzsche]] criticized the "ephetics" as a flaw of early philosophers, who he characterized as "shy little blunderer[s] and milquetoast[s] with crooked legs" prone to overindulging "his doubting drive, his negating drive, his wait-and-see ('ephectic') drive, his analytical drive, his exploring, searching, venturing drive, his comparing, balancing drive, his will to [[Neutrality (philosophy)|neutrality]] and [[Objectivity (philosophy)|objectivity]], his will to every ''[[sine ira et studio]]'': have we already grasped that for the longest time they all went against the first demands of [[morality]] and [[conscience]]?"<ref>{{Cite book|title = On the Genealogy of Morality|author1=Friedrich Nietzsche |author2=Maudemarie Clark |author3=Alan J. Swensen |publisher = Hackett Publishing|year = 1998|pages = 79}}</ref>
-[[Fallibilism]] is a modern, fundamental perspective of the [[scientific method]], as put forth by [[Karl Popper]] and [[Charles Sanders Peirce]], that all knowledge is, at best, an approximation, and that any [[scientist]] always must stipulate this in her or his research and findings. It is, in effect, a modernized extension of Pyrrhonism.<ref>Powell, Thomas C. [http://www.thomaspowell.co.uk/article_pdfs/Fallibilism_web_version.pdf "Fallibilism and Organizational Research: The Third Epistemology"], ''[[Journal of Management Research]]'' 4, 2001, pp. 201–219.</ref> Indeed, historic Pyrrhonists sometimes are described by modern authors as fallibilists and modern fallibilists sometimes are described as Pyrrhonists.<ref>[http://www.iep.utm.edu/skepanci/ "Ancient Greek Skepticism"] at the ''[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]''.</ref> The term "neo-Pyrrhonism"  is used to refer to modern Pyrrhonists such as [[Benson Mates]] and [[Robert Fogelin]].<ref>Michael Williams, "Fogelin's Neo-Pyrrhonism", ''International Journal of Philosophical Studies'' Volume 7, Issue 2, 1999, p141</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/skepticism-latin-america/|title=Skepticism in Latin America |first1=Plínio Junqueira|last1=Smith|first2=Otávio|last2=Bueno|editor-first=Edward N.|editor-last=Zalta|date=7 May 2016|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|via=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref>
 ==See also==
@@ Line 159: / Line 135: @@
 *{{cite book|last=Barua | first=Benimadhab | title=A History of Pre-Buddhistic Indian Philosophy | year=1921 | edition=1st | publisher=University of Calcutta | place=London | pages=468 | url= https://archive.org/details/A.History.of.Pre-Buddhistic.Indian.Philosophy}}
 *{{cite journal|last=Flintoff | first=Everard | title=Pyrrho and India | journal=Phronesis | year=1980 | volume=25 | issue=1 | publisher=Brill | pages=88–108 | doi=10.1163/156852880X00052 | jstor=  4182084}}
-*{{cite book|last=Jayatilleke | first=K.N. | title=Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge | year=1963 | edition=1st | publisher=George Allen & Unwin Ltd. | place=London | pages=524 | url=http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Early%20Buddhist%20Theory%20of%20Knowledge_Jayatilleke.pdf }}
+*{{cite book|last=Jayatilleke | first=K.N. | title=Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge | year=1963 | edition=1st | publisher=George Allen & Unwin Ltd. | place=London | pages=524 | url=http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Early%20Buddhist%20Theory%20of%20Knowledge_Jayatilleke.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150911084454/http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Early%20Buddhist%20Theory%20of%20Knowledge_Jayatilleke.pdf | url-status=dead | archive-date=11 September 2015 }}
+*{{cite IEP |url-id=skepanci |title=Ancient Greek Skepticism |last=Thorsrud |first=Harold}}
+*{{cite SEP |url-id=skepticism-ancient |title=Ancient Skepticism |last=Vogt |first=Katja}}
 ==External links==
 {{Commons category}}
-*[https://www.pyrrhonism.org/ Website for the Modern Pyrrhonism Movement]
 *{{PhilPapers|category|pyrrhonian-skepticism|Pyrrhonian Skepticism}}
-*{{cite SEP |url-id=skepticism-ancient |title=Ancient Skepticism |last=Vogt |first=Katja}}
-*{{cite IEP |url-id=skepanci |title=Ancient Greek Skepticism |last=Thorsrud |first=Harold}}
 {{skepticism}}
@@ Line 174: / Line 149: @@
 [[Category:Pyrrhonism]]
-[[Category:4th-century BC establishments]]
 [[Category:Skepticism]]
+[[Category:1st-century BC establishments]]

v t e Skepticism
Types of skepticism	Philosophical Radical Local Moral Scientific Religious
Skeptical philosophies	Academic Skepticism Ajñana Cartesian Charvaka Humeanism Pyrrhonism Solipsism
Skeptical philosophers	Pyrrho Timon Arcesilaus Lacydes Carneades Clitomachus Philo of Larissa Cicero Aenesidemus Agrippa Sextus Empiricus Montaigne René Descartes David Hume
Skeptical scenarios	Acatalepsy Brain in a vat Dream argument Evil genius Five-minute hypothesis Münchhausen trilemma Problem of the criterion Problem of induction Simulation hypothesis Wax argument
Responses	Here is one hand Semantic externalism Process reliabilism Epistemic closure Contextualism Relativism
Lists	List of books about skepticism List of scientific skeptics List of skeptical conferences List of skeptical magazines List of skeptical organizations List of skeptical podcasts

v t e Philosophy of language
Index of language articles
Philosophers	Confucius Gorgias Cratylus Plato Aristotle Eubulides Diodorus Chrysippus Zhuangzi Xunzi Averroes Ibn Khaldun Hobbes Wilkins Arnauld Lancelot Leibniz Berkeley Herder von Humboldt Mauthner Ricœur de Saussure Frege Boas Tillich Sapir Bloomfield Bergson Vygotsky Wittgenstein Russell Carnap Derrida Whorf Austin Chomsky Gadamer Kripke Ayer Anscombe Hintikka Dummett Davidson Grice Ryle Strawson Quine Putnam Lewis Searle Watzlawick
Theories	Causal theory of reference Contrast theory of meaning Contrastivism Conventionalism Cratylism Deconstruction Descriptivism Direct reference theory Dramatism Dynamic semantics Expressivism Inquisitive semantics Linguistic determinism Mediated reference theory Nominalism Non-cognitivism Phallogocentrism Relevance theory Semantic externalism Semantic holism Situation semantics Structuralism Supposition theory Symbiosism Theological noncognitivism Theory of descriptions (Definite description) Theory of language Unilalianism Verification theory
Concepts	Ambiguity Cant Linguistic relativity Language Truth-bearer Proposition Use–mention distinction Concept Categories Set Class Family resemblance Intension Logical form Metalanguage Mental representation Modality (natural language) Presupposition Principle of compositionality Property Sign Sense and reference Speech act Symbol Sentence Statement more...
Works	Cratylus (n.d.) Port-Royal Grammar (1660) De Arte Combinatoria (1666) An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language (1668) Alciphron (1732) "On Denoting" (1905) Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921) Language, Truth, and Logic (1936) Two Dogmas of Empiricism (1951) Philosophical Investigations (1953) Of Grammatology (1967) Naming and Necessity (1980) Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language (1982) Limited Inc (1988)
Related articles	Analytic philosophy Philosophy of information Philosophical logic Linguistics Pragmatics Rhetoric Scholasticism School of Names Semantics Formal semantics Semiotics
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