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In the [[United States]], a 1791 tax led to the [[Whiskey Rebellion]] in 1794.
In the [[United States]], a 1791 tax led to the [[Whiskey Rebellion]] in 1794.


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==Illegal trade of legal drugs==
Legal [[Psychoactive drug|drug]]s can be the subject of [[smuggling]] and illegal trading if the price difference between the origin and the destination are high enough to make it profitable, due to high taxes or other restrictions in the destination locale. If a large price difference exists without legal restrictions, then legal trade of drugs can take place between the two markets.

===Alcohol and tobacco===
{{Main|Alcohol|Tobacco}}
With [[tax]]es on tobacco much higher in the [[United Kingdom]] than on mainland [[Europe]] there exists a sizable untaxed cigarette market in the UK.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4355145.stm |title=Smuggling worry over tobacco rise |work=BBC News|section=Politics |date=|accessdate=2008-10-17}}</ref> Likewise in other regions where high-tax and low- or no-tax societies exist nearby, such as [[Canada]] and parts of the [[United States]] as well as various [[Indian reservation]]s. It is also illegal to sell or give tobacco or alcohol to minors in some of these areas, which is considered smuggling throughout most [[Developed country|developed countries]]. Alcohol is also produced privately (and sometimes illegally) as [[moonshine]].

===Prescription drugs===
[[Image:CBP with bag of seized counterfeit Viagra.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A [[U.S. Customs and Border Protection]] agent displays a large bag of seized counterfeit [[Viagra]] pharmaceuticals.]]
Some [[prescription drug]]s are also available by legal means, eliminating the need to manufacture and process the drugs. For example, a few prescription [[opioid]]s, such as the group of the [[fentanyl]] analogues, are much stronger than heroin found on the street. They are sourced either from stolen or partly divided prescriptions sold by medical practices and occasionally from Internet sale. [[Benzodiazepine]]s, in particular [[temazepam]] and [[flunitrazepam]], are also frequently diverted to the black market through [[forgery|forged]] prescriptions, pharmacy [[robbery|robberies]] and [[doctor shopping]].<ref>{{cite web |title= Injecting Temazepam—Temazepam Injection and Diversion |url=http://www.health.vic.gov.au/drugservices/pubs/temazepam/facts.htm |date=29 March, 2007 |publisher=Victorian Governmant Health Information |accessdate=2007-11-25}}</ref> In [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]], there occurs similar diversion of [[nimetazepam]]. In the [[United States]], similar diversion of [[alprazolam]] and [[clonazepam]] is also common. However, it is much easier to control traffic in prescription drugs than in banned drugs because the manufacturer is usually an originally legal enterprise and thus the leak can often be readily found and countered. There might also be an advantage in reduced risk of contaminated or poor to outright toxic produce common with illegal [[clandestine laboratory]] production.

===Internet and controlled substances===
"No Prescription Websites" (NPWs) offer to sell controlled substances without a valid prescription. NPWs were first recognized by the [[U.S. Justice Department]] in 1999, indicating that such sites had been operating at least through the late 1990s. NPWs enable dealers and users to complete transactions without direct contact, meanwhile many NPWs accept credit cards, others only accept cash thereby further reducing any paper trail. Many NPWs are hosted in countries in which specific categories of controlled substances are locally legal (e.g. prescription opioids in Mexico), but because of the global nature of the internet, NPWs are able to do (mostly illegal) business with customers around the globe. In addition to prescription opioids, stimulants, and sedatives, steroids are often widely distributed. To date, no websites have been found selling illegal drugs like heroin, or illegal amphetamine derivatives. Some police have uncovered several instances of drug vendors or drug rings using [[Craigslist]] personal ads to solicit drug business using code words and phrases. All other categories of drugs are available online.

2004 saw the conclusion of [[Operation Web Tryp]], focusing on companies selling [[research chemicals]], legal psychedelic [[phenethylamine]]s and [[tryptamine]]s on the Internet.


==Foreign intervention==
==Foreign intervention==

Revision as of 14:00, 14 November 2008

For categorical legal drug trade, see Bar (establishment) and Tobacco industry.
Panamanian motor vessel Gatun during the largest cocaine bust in United States Coast Guard history (20 tons), off the coast of Panama.
A field of opium poppies in Burma.

The illegal drug trade or drug trafficking is a global black market consisting of the cultivation, manufacture, distribution and sale of illegal drugs. While some drugs are legal to possess and sell, in most jurisdictions laws prohibit the trade of certain types of drugs.

The illegal drug trade operates similarly to other underground markets. Various drug cartels specialize in the separate processes along the supply chain, often localized to maximize production efficiency and minimize damages caused by law enforcement. Depending on the profitability of each layer, cartels usually vary in size, consistency, and organization. The chain ranges from low-level street dealers who may be individual drug users themselves, through street gangs and contractor-like middlemen, up to multinational empires that rival governments in size.

Illegal drugs may be grown in wilderness areas, on farms, produced in indoor or outdoor residential gardens or indoor hydroponic grow-ops, or manufactured in drug labs located anywhere from a residential basement to an abandoned facility. The common characteristic binding these production locations is that they are discreet to avoid detection, and thus they may be located in any ordinary setting without raising notice. Much illegal drug cultivation and manufacture takes place in developing nations, although production also occurs in the developed world.

In locales where the drug trade is illegal, police departments as well as courts and prisons may expend significant resources in pursuing drug-related crime. Additionally, through the influence of a number of black market players, corruption is a problem, especially in poorer societies.

Consumption of illegal drugs is widespread globally. While consumers avoid taxation by buying on the black market, the high costs involved in protecting trade routes from law enforcement lead to inflated prices.

Additionally, various laws criminalize certain kinds of trade of drugs that are otherwise legal (for example, untaxed cigarettes). In these cases, the drugs are often manufactured and partially distributed by the normal legal channels, and diverted at some point into illegal channels.

Finally, many governments restrict the production and sale of large classes of drugs through prescription systems.

Origins

In jurisdictions where legislation restricts or prohibits the possession or sale of drugs, most commonly psychoactive drugs, potential drug buyers and sellers are unable to transact in the open. Only illegal drug trade remains an option, and when such trade occurs a black market is born.

Since the drug transaction itself is illegal, any participants in the trade are by definition criminal. With no significant additional cost to being convicted of drug charges, previous convicts hold a competitive advantage in providing illegal drug products.

History

1921 photograph of Chinese Maritime Officers with 300 lb (140 kg) of smuggled morphine shipped in cylinders of sulphate of soda from Japan.
See also: Opium Wars

The trade of drugs has existed for as long as the drugs themselves have existed. However, the trade of drugs was fully legal until the introduction of drug prohibition. The history of the illegal drug trade is thus closely tied to the history of drug prohibition.

In the First Opium War, the United Kingdom forced China to allow British merchants to trade in opium with the general population of China. Although illegal by imperial decree, smoking opium had become common in the 1800s due to increasing importation via British merchants. Trading in opium was (as it is today in the heroin trade) extremely lucrative. As a result of the trade an estimated two million Chinese people became addicted to the drug. The British Crown (via the treaties of Nanking and Tianjin) extorted vast sums of money from the Chinese government as 'reparations' for the 'wars'.

In the United States, a 1791 tax led to the Whiskey Rebellion in 1794.

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Foreign intervention

Some governments that criminalize drug trade have a policy of interfering heavily with foreign states. In 1989, the United States intervened in Panama with the goal of disrupting the drug trade coming from Panama. The Indian government has several covert operations in the Middle East and Indian subcontinent to keep a track of various drug dealers. Opium production in Afghanistan is a current problem in the development of a licit economy for that country.

Terror organizations and illegal drug trade

There may be a link between drugs and terrorism, though this remains unconfirmed so far. The United Nations (UN) reports that the illegal drug trade is worth $400 billion a year—about the same amount as the U.S. Department of Defense budget. Before drug trafficking was blamed for international terrorism, it was financing the arms race on America's streets[clarification needed]. Similarly, any terrorist group with a militant agenda can tap into the huge resource. Yet it is the drug war itself that creates the drug-terror link, not vice-versa [1] Many[clarification needed] terrorist organisation are active in drug trade.[1] The PKK for instance[2] has allegedly controlled a big part of the European drug market.[2]

Value of the illegal drug trade

Main article: Drug-related crime
A Colombian drug submarine moments before interception by the U.S. Coast Guard in August 2007.

Some estimates placed the value of the global trade in illegal drugs at around US$400 billion in the year 2000; that, added to the global trade value of legal drugs at the same time, totals to an amount higher than the amount of money spent for food in the same period of time. In the 2005 United Nations World Drug Report, the value of the global illicit drug market for the year 2003 was estimated at US$13 billion at the production level, at US$94 billion at the wholesale level, and US$322–$400[3] billion based on retail prices and taking seizures and other losses into account. A recently published account of the mechanics of the drug trade The Illicit Drug Trade in the United Kingdom[4] sized the UK Market at £8bn and estimated the amount spent on illegal drugs each year was equal to 33% of the tobacco market and 41% of that for alcohol. The report included a detailed analysis of the illicit drug trade based upon over 220 interviews with high level drug traffickers in the UK.

Violent resolutions

In the late 1990s in the United States, the FBI estimates that 5% of murders were drug-related.[5] In addition, drug smuggling can lead to harsh penalties, including the death penalty, in certain countries (for example, Singapore).

Many have argued that the arbitrariness of drug prohibition laws from the medical point of view, especially the theory of harm reduction, worsens the problems around these substances.

Minors and the illegal drug trade

The U.S. government's most recent 2005 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) reported that nationwide over 800,000 adolescents ages 12-17 sold illegal drugs during the 12 months preceding the survey.[6] The 2005 Youth Risk Behavior Survey by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported that nationwide 25.4% of students had been offered, sold, or given an illegal drug by someone on school property. The prevalence of having been offered, sold, or given an illegal drug on school property ranged from 15.5% to 38.7% across state CDC surveys (median: 26.1%) and from 20.3% to 40.0% across local surveys (median: 29.4%).[7]

Despite over $7 billion spent annually towards arresting[8] and prosecuting nearly 800,000 people across the country for marijuana offenses in 2005 (FBI Uniform Crime Reports), the federally-funded Monitoring the Future Survey reports about 85% of high school seniors find marijuana “easy to obtain.” That figure has remained virtually unchanged since 1975, never dropping below 82.7% in three decades of national surveys.[9]

Trade of specific drugs

The price per gram of heroin is typically 8 to 10 times that of cocaine on US streets.[10] Generally in Europe (except the transit countries Portugal and the Netherlands), a purported gram of street Heroin, which is usually between 0.7 and 0.8 grams light to dark brown powder consisting of 5-10%, less commonly up to 20%, heroin base, is between 30 and 70 euros, which makes for an effective price of pure heroin per gram of between 300 and 2000 euros.

The purity of street cocaine in Europe is usually in the same range as it is for heroin, the price being between 50 and 100 euros per between 0.7 and 1.0 grams. This totals to a cocaine price range between 500 and 2000 euros.

Anabolic steroids

Main article: Anabolic steroids

According to the Office of National Drug Control Policy, anabolic steroids are relatively easy to smuggle into the United States. Once there, they are often sold at gyms and competitions as well as through mail operations.

Cannabis

A box of Cannabis
Main article: Cannabis (drug)

In World Drug report 2006 UNODC focused on The New cannabis, distribution of stronger marijuana with more THC and its health effects.[11]

Most of the high grade cannabis sold in the U.S. is grown in hidden grow operations indoors. The number one producer is California with an annual revenue of nearly 14 billion dollars in production, Tennessee is second with nearly 5 billion in production, Kentucky is third with around 4.5 billion, Hawaii is fourth with close to 4 billion, and Washington is fifth with a little over a billion (http://www.drugscience.org/Archive/bcr2/MJCropReport_2006.pdf).


Alcohol

Main article: Alcoholic beverage

In some areas of the world, particularly in and around the Arabian peninsula, the trade of alcohol is strictly prohibited. For example, Pakistan bans the trade because of its large Muslim population. Similarly, Saudi Arabia forbids the importation of alcohol into its kingdom, however, alcohol is smuggled in very high quantities. Fugitive Cassandra Dickerson was a noted criminal smuggler responsible for 90% of the alcohol being smuggled into Saudi Arabia in 2003.[12] In other areas it is considered like any other beverage, and is legal. In still other areas, there is an age limit for consumers, and a license is necessary to sell alcohol.

Pure alcohol or liquids with high alcohol content over a certain percentage or proof, calculated by volume or weight, are also banned in many countries. In Russia, for example, rubbing alcohol is a scheduled drug on par with heroin, and theoretically has the same legal penalties. [citation needed] hey

Tobacco

Main article: Tobacco

The illegal trade of tobacco is motivated primarily by increasingly heavy taxation. When tobacco products such as name-brand cigarettes are traded illegally, the cost is as little as one third that of retail price due to the lack of taxes being applied as the product is sold from manufacturer to buyer to retailer. It has been reported that smuggling one truckload of cigarettes within the United States leads to a profit of 2 million U.S. dollars.[13]

The source of the illegally-traded tobacco is often the proceeds from other crimes, such as store and transportation robberies.

Sometimes, the illegal trade of tobacco is motivated by differences in taxes in two jurisdictions, including smuggling across international borders. Smuggling of tobacco from the US into Canada has been problematic, and sometimes political where trans-national native communities are involved in the illegal trade.

The kingdom of Bhutan made the sale of tobacco illegal in December 2004,[14] and since this time a flourishing black market in tobacco products has sprung up. In 2006, tobacco and betel nut were the most commonly seized illicit drugs in Bhutan.[15]

Temazepam

Main article: Temazepam

Temazepam, which is a strong hypnotic benzodiazepine, is being illicitly manufactured in clandestine laboratories (called jellie labs) to supply the increasingly high demand for the hypnotic drug internationally.[16] Most clandestine temazepam labs are in Eastern Europe. The way in which they manufacture the temazepam is through chemical alteration of diazepam, oxazepam or lorazepam.[17] Clandestine "jellie labs" have been identified and shutdown in Russia, Ukraine, Czech Republic, Latvia and Belarus.[18]

In the United Kingdom, temazepam is the most widely-abused legal, prescription drug. About one in five people abuse temazepam in the country. It's also the most commonly abused benzodiazepine in Finland, Ireland, the Netherlands, Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary, India, Russia, China, New Zealand, Australia and some parts of Southeast Asia. In Sweden it has been banned due to a problem with drug abuse issues and a high rate of death caused by temazepam alone relative to other drugs of its group. Surveys in many countries showed that temazepam, heroin, cocaine, MDMA, cannabis, nimetazepam, and amphetamines rank among the top drugs most frequently abused.[19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29]

Opium

Main article: Opium

International illicit trade in opium is relatively rare. Major smuggling organizations prefer to further refine opium into heroin before shipping to the consumer countries, since a given quantity of heroin is worth much more than an equivalent amount of opium. As such, heroin is more profitable, and much stronger, because heroin metabolizes directly into the main naturally occurring psychoactive substance in opium—morphine.

Heroin/Morphine

Main articles: Heroin and Morphine

Heroin is smuggled into the United States and Europe from areas such as the Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia); with Afghanistan currently being "the world's largest exporter of heroin".[30] Allegedly, during the Vietnam war, drug lords such as Ike Atkinson used to smuggle hundreds of kilos of heroin to the U.S. in coffins of dead American soldiers (see Cadaver Connection). Since that time it has become more difficult for drugs to be imported into the United States than it had been in previous decades, but that does not stop the drug industry from getting their drugs onto U.S. soil. Purity levels vary greatly by region with, for the most part, Northeastern cities having the most pure heroin in the United States (according to a recently released report by the DEA, Elizabeth and Newark, New Jersey, have the purest street grade A heroin in the country). Heroin is a very easily smuggled drug because a small, quarter-sized vial can contain hundreds of doses[citation needed]. Heroin is also widely (and usually illegally) used as a powerful and addictive drug that produces intense euphoria, which often gradually disappears with increasing tolerance. This 'rush' comes from its high lipid solubility provided by the two acetyl groups, resulting in a very rapid penetration of the blood-brain barrier after use. Once in the blood stream, heroin is rapidly converted to morphine. The morphine then binds to the opioid receptors in the brain and spinal cord, causing the subjective effects. Heroin and morphine can be taken or administered in a number of ways, including snorting and injection. They may also be smoked by inhaling the vapors produced when heated from below, usually on aluminum foil (known as "chasing the dragon"). Penalties for smuggling heroin and/or morphine are often harsh in most countries. Some countries will readily hand down a death sentence or a few days in prison for the illegal smuggling of heroin or morphine, which are both, internationally, Schedule I drugs under the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs.

Methamphetamine

Main article: Methamphetamine

In some areas of the United States, the trade of methamphetamine is rampant. Because of the ease of production and its addiction rate, methamphetamine is a favorite amongst many drug distributors.

According to the Community Epidemiology Work Group, the numbers of clandestine methamphetamine laboratory incidents reported to the National Clandestine Laboratory Database decreased from 1999 to 2004. During this same period, methamphetamine lab incidents increased in midwestern States (Illinois, Michigan, and Ohio), and in Pennsylvania. In 2004, more lab incidents were reported in Illinois (926) than in California (673). In 2003, methamphetamine lab incidents reached new highs in Georgia (250), Minnesota (309), and Texas (677). There were only seven methamphetamine lab incidents reported in Hawaii in 2004, though nearly 59 percent of substance abuse treatment admissions (excluding alcohol) were for primary methamphetamine abuse during the first six months of 2004.

Methamphetamine is sometimes used in an injectable form, placing users and their partners at risk for transmission of HIV and hepatitis C.[31] "Meth" can also be inhaled, most commonly on aluminum foil or through a Pyrex test tube or light bulb fashioned into a pipe. This method is reported to give "an unnatural high" and a "brief intense rush"[32] to its users.

In South Africa the abuse of methamphetamine has reached epidemic proportions in especially the Cape Flats area of Cape Town where it is called "tik" or "tik-tik". Youngsters as young as eight are abusing the substance where it is smoked in crude glass vials constructed from light bulbs. Since methamphetamine is easy to produce the substance is manufactured in staggering quantities in "backyard" factories. After the new South African government came into power, the South African Narcotics Bureau (SANAB) was disbanded, allowing dealers an unprecedented freedom of operation and causing a simultaneous drop in prices and rise in availability.[33]

U.S. Government involvement

Main article: War on Drugs

The U.S. federal government is a vocal opponent of the drug industry, however state laws vary greatly and in some cases defy federal laws. Despite the US government's official position against the drug trade, US government agents and assets have been implicated in the drug trade.[34][clarification needed]

Oliver North and Barry Seal were caught and investigated during the Iran-Contra scandal, implicated in the use of the drug trade as a secret source of funding for the USA's support of the Contras. Page 41 of the December 1988 Kerry report to the US Senate[35] states that "indeed senior US policy makers were not immune to the idea that drug money was a perfect solution to the Contra's funding problem".

Highly decorated US military Special Forces veteran Colonel Bo Gritz (retired) has accused the USA of collaborating with and supporting Manuel Noriega in his drug trafficking operations. In his book Called To Serve, Gritz details his role as a key US Government employee tasked with protecting the USA's relationship with Noriega.[citation needed]

Contrary to its official goals, the US has suppressed research on drug usage. For example, in 1995 the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute (UNICRI) announced in a press release the publication of the results of the largest global study on cocaine use ever undertaken. However, a decision in the World Health Assembly banned the publication of the study. In the sixth meeting of the B committee the US representative threatened that "If WHO activities relating to drugs failed to reinforce proven drug control approaches, funds for the relevant programmes should be curtailed". This led to the decision to discontinue publication. A part of the study has been released.[36]

In the media

Drug smuggling was the topic of:

See also

References

  1. ^ von Bülow, Andreas (2000). Im Namen des Staates. CIA, BND und die kriminellen Machenschaften der Geheimdienste (in German). Pieper. ISBN 3-492-23050-4.
  2. ^ Laciner, Sedat (2008-02-11). "Drug Smuggling As Main Source of [[PKK]] Terrorism". Opinion. Turkish Weekly. Retrieved 2008-03-07. {{cite web}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help)
  3. ^ "Drugs: A global business". BBC. Retrieved 2007-08-21. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  4. ^ "Matrix Knowledge Group » The illicit drug trade in the United Kingdom". Matrixknowledge.co.uk. Retrieved 2008-10-17.
  5. ^ "Drug-Related Crime - Factsheet - Drug Facts". Whitehousedrugpolicy.gov. Retrieved 2008-10-19.
  6. ^ http://oas.samhsa.gov/nsduh/2k5nsduh/2k5Results.htm
  7. ^ "Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance - United States, 2005". Cdc.gov. Retrieved 2008-10-17.
  8. ^ "Costs of Marijuana Prohibition: Economic Analysis". Prohibitioncosts.org. Retrieved 2008-10-17.
  9. ^ http://www.monitoringthefuture.org/data/05data/pr05t13.pdf
  10. ^ "News from DEA, Congressional Testimony, 11/09/05". Dea.gov. Retrieved 2008-10-17.
  11. ^ UNODC World drug report 2006
  12. ^ http://www.vheadline.com/printer_news.asp?id=55262
  13. ^ "Cigarette Smuggling Linked to Terrorism". Washington Post. Retrieved 2008-10-17.
  14. ^ "Bhutan forbids all tobacco sales". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-10-17. {{cite web}}: |section= ignored (help)
  15. ^ "Articles:Listing Bhutan". Tobacco.org. Retrieved 2008-10-17.
  16. ^ Alex Robertson (2003/10/10). "Deadly 'jellies' flood city from Eastern Europe; Police chiefs fear drug-fuelled crime surge as home-made tablets hit streets again". Evening Times. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
  17. ^ European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA), 2006. Annual Report 2006: The State of the Drugs Problem in Europe, EMCDDA, Luxembourg.
  18. ^ UNODC Regional Office for Russia and Belarus, Illicit drug trends in the Russian Federation 2005. Moscow: UNODC, 2006
  19. ^ Niaz, K (1998). Drug Abuse Monitoring System in Rawalpindiislamabad. Report of the Asian Multicity Epidemiology Workgroup. Eds. Navaratnam V and Bakar A.A., 151-l 60.
  20. ^ Morrisos V. (1989). Psychoactive substance use and related behaviors of 135 regular illicit drug users in Scotland. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 23: 95-101.
  21. ^ Sakol, M.S., Stark, C. & Sykes, R (1989). Buprenorphine and temazepam abuse by drug takers in GIasgow- an increase. Br. J. Addiction. 84: 439-4 1.
  22. ^ LavelIe, T., Hamrnersley, R., Forsyth, A. & Bain, D. (1991). The use of buprenorphine and temazepam by drug injectors. J Addictive Diseases, 10: 5-l 4.
  23. ^ Harnmerseley, R., Lavelle, T. & Forsyth, A. (1990). Temazepam-abuse. British J Addiction 85: 301-303.
  24. ^ Hammersley R, Cassidy MT, Oliver J.( 19953. Drugs associated with drug-related deaths in Edinburgh and Glasgow, November 1990 to October 1992. Addiction. 90(7):959-65.
  25. ^ Forsyth, A. J. M., Farquhar, D., Germnell, M., Shewq D., and Davies, J. B. (1993). ‘The &al use of opioids and temazepam by drug injectors in Glasgow (ScotIand),” Drug & Alcohol Dependence, 3’2: 277-80.
  26. ^ Chowclhury, S. & R&ma& A. (1998). Pattern and trends of drug abuse in Dh&a, Bangladesh. Report of the Asian Multicity Epidemiology Workgroup. Eds. Navamtnam V. and B&a-, A. A.. 144-50.
  27. ^ BaumevieiUe M., Hararnburu, F., Begaud, B. (1997). “Abuse of prescription medicines in southwestern France, Ann. Pharmacother., 3 1: 847850.
  28. ^ Chapleo, C-B., Reisinger, M. and Rindom, H. (1997). European update. Research & Clinical Forums, 19: 33-38.
  29. ^ Chattejee, A. (1996). Drug abuse in Nepal: a rapid assessment study. Bulletin on Narcotics, 47:l l-33.
  30. ^ "AFGHANISTAN CLAIMS TITLE OF WORLD'S LARGEST HEROIN PRODUCER". 24-7 Press Release. 2008-04-06. Retrieved 2008-06-29.
  31. ^ NIDA (2008). "NIDA InfoFacts: Methamphetamine".
  32. ^ Sommerfeld, Julia (February 2001). "Beating an addiction to meth". Meth's Deadly Buzz. MSNBC. Retrieved 2008-06-29.
  33. ^ "Tik, memory loss and stroke". Scienceinafrica.co.za. Retrieved 2008-10-19.
  34. ^ "DC 9 CARRYING 5.5 TONS OF COCAINE WAS CIA PLANE". Madcowprod.com. Retrieved 2008-10-17.
  35. ^ http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB113/north06.pdf
  36. ^ WHO/UNICRI (1995). "WHO Cocaine Project".

Further reading

  • Murillo, Luis E. (1995). The Noriega Mess: The Drugs, the Canal, and Why America Invaded. 1096 pages, illustrated. Berkeley: Video Books. ISBN 0-923444-02-5.
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