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Chinese people in India

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Chinese people in India
Sino-Indians
印度華人/印度华人
Total population
85,000 Tibetan community (2018)
150,000 Tibetan community (2011)[1]

2,000 Chinese people in Kolkata (2013)[2] 189,000 including Chinese of Tibetan and Indian ancestry (0.01%, 2005)[3]

5,000–7,000 Chinese expatriates (2015)[4]
Regions with significant populations
Chinese community: Assam, Kolkata, Mumbai
Chinese expatriates: Mumbai, Gurgaon, Bangalore[4]
Languages
English, Assamese,[5][6] Tibetan, Amdo Tibetan, Southwestern Mandarin, Cantonese, Hakka Chinese, Bengali, Hindi, Marathi,[7]
Religion
Buddhism, Taoism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam
Related ethnic groups
Chinese people, Tibetan People, Bhutanese

Chinese people in India are communities of Han Chinese and Tibetan origin and settlement. There are permanent communities descended from immigrants and refugees from China as well as an expatriate community in India on a temporary basis.[4]

The immigrant community of workers started during British Colonial rule and became more prominent in the late 19th century with a small number of arrivals working at the ports in Calcutta and Madras and has gone on to contribute to the social and economic life of Kolkata through manufacturing and trade of leather products and running Chinese restaurants.[8]

The community living in Kolkata numbered around 2,000 in 2013[2][9][10] In Mumbai, the population of Chinese people, many who have multi-generation roots, is around 4,000.[7]

Separate from the multi-generation Han Chinese and Tibetan community, there are an estimated 5,000–7,000 Chinese expatriates working in India as of 2015, who generally work on two to three-year contracts for the growing number of brands and companies doing business in India.[4]

History

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Chinese Buddhist monk Faxian at the ruins of Ashoka palace

The first record of travel from China is Faxian, a monk who temporarily visited Tampralipta, in what is now Tamluk in the 5th century AD. Because of influences from other languages, many words in Bengali language can be attributed to Chinese influences.[8] For example, chini, the Bengali word for "sugar" comes from the word for China, and words like Chinamati for porcelain china hint at Chinese influences.[11]

The first recorded Chinese settler in India is Tong Achew, a trader who landed near Budge Budge in the late 18th century. Achew set up a sugar cane plantation along with a sugar factory. Achew brought in a band of Chinese workers to work in his plantation and factory. This was the first Chinese settlement in India. Achew died shortly after and the Chinese settlers moved to Kolkata. The place came to be named as Achipur, after Tong Achew. Achew's grave and a Chinese temple is still seen in Achipur.[12] After Tong Achew's death the Cantonese community moved to Tiretta Bazaar in Calcutta.[13]

Portuguese India

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In Portuguese India, the Indian Muslim Kunjali Marakkars fought against the Portuguese and raided their shipping. One of the Kunjali Marrakars (Kunjali IV) rescued a Chinese boy, called Chinali, who had been enslaved on a Portuguese ship. The Kunjali was very fond of him, and he became one of his most feared lieutenants, a fanatical Muslim and enemy of the Portuguese, terrorizing them in battle.[14][15] The Portuguese were terrorised by the Kunjali and his Chinese right-hand man, eventually, after the Portuguese allied with Calicut's Samorin, under Andre Furtado de Mendoça they attacked the Kunjali and Chinali's forces, and they were handed over to the Portuguese by the Samorin after he reneged on a promise to let them go.[16] Diogo do Couto, a Portuguese historian, questioned the Kunjali and Chinali when they were captured.[17] He was present when the Kunjali surrendered to the Portuguese, and was described: "One of these was Chinale, a Chinese, who had been a servant at Malacca and said to have been the captive of a Portuguese, taken as a boy from a fusta, and afterwards brought to Kunhali, who conceived such an affection for him that he trusted him with everything. He was the greatest exponent of the Moorish superstition and enemy of the Christians in all Malabar and for those taken captive at sea and brought thither he invented the most exquisite kinds of torture when he martyred them."[18][19][20][21][22]

British India

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Entrance of Nam Soon Church 南顺会馆, Kolkata

Kolkata, then known as Calcutta, was the capital of British India from 1772 to 1911. Although it was also geographically the easiest accessible metropolitan area from China by land, there were few Chinese people in Calcutta until the late British Raj era; Chinese immigrants choose to go to Burma instead. One of the first persons of Chinese origin to arrive in Calcutta was Yang Tai Chow (a.k.a. Tong Achew and Yang Da Zhao) who arrived in 1778. Governor-General of India Warren Hastings granted land to Achew to set up a sugar cane plantation and sugar factory in a place, currently called Achipur, located near the town of Budge-Budge on the banks of the River Hoogly. According to records of the East India Company from the year 1778, "Achew was granted 650 bighas of land about 6 miles south of Budge – Budge for an annual rent of Rs 45".[13] Many of the earliest Chinese immigrants worked on the Khidderpore docks. A police report in 1788 mentions a sizable Chinese population settled in the vicinity of Bow Bazaar Street.[8] The sugar mill that Atchew had set up in the patch of land near the town of Budge Budge drew other Chinese migrants and soon a small community had formed around it. By 1783, we know Atchew was dead – a letter shows an East India Company attorney trying to extract money from the executor of his estate. An advertisement in the Calcutta Gazette in 1804 announces that the sugar mill was up for sale.[23] A temple and the grave of Tong Achew still remain and are visited by many Chinese who come from the city during the Chinese New Year.[24]

A later British census found that there were only 362 Chinese people in Calcutta in 1837. A common meeting place was the Temple of Guan Yu, the god of war, located in the Chinese quarter near Dharmatolla.[8] They are all men and came to help assist the British carpentry business after the destruction from British colonial famines in India.[24]

In Assam, after the establishment of tea gardens in Assam, the British authorities encouraged the migration of Chinese labourers, artisans, tea growers and tea makers, who were then employed in the burgeoning British owned tea gardens. The migration started in 1838. They soon surmounted the language barrier and started intermingling, many of the Chinese married local women and established a new society in Assam. Instances of intermarriage grew to the point where it became hard to physically differentiate Chinese immigrants in Assam from the locals during the period of their internment during the 1962 Sino-Indian War.[25] A series of voluntary migrations of Chinese from China followed. This broadened the space of the newly established society and made it more multi-cultural and multi-ethnic as the migrants married local girls and settled down. Their physical features changed; the descendants forgot the Chinese language. Through sheer hard work and perseverance, the dislocated Chinese made a new life for themselves and prospered. Many 'China Patty,’ or small China towns, sprang up in different parts of Assam – of which the China Patty of Makum was the biggest.[26]

According to Alabaster, there were lard manufacturers and shoemakers in addition to carpenters. Running tanneries and working with leather was traditionally not considered a respectable profession among upper-caste Hindus, and work was relegated to lower caste muchis and chamars. There was a high demand, however, for high quality leather goods in colonial India, one that the Chinese were able to fulfill. Alabaster also mentions licensed opium dens run by native Chinese and a Cheena Bazaar where contraband was readily available. Opium, however, was not illegal until after Indian independence in 1947. Immigration increased significantly in the 1930s and 1940s because of the Japanese invasion of China and resulting war.[13] In the early 1900s, the Hakka community was relocated to the Tangra area, where they set up leather tanneries and Chinese restaurants.


Sino-Indian War

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Main article: Persecution of Chinese Indians

Chinese in India faced accusations of anti-Indian sentiment by the Indians during the Sino Indian war of 1962.[27] After the war, India passed the Defence of India Act in December 1962,[28] permitting the "apprehension and detention in custody of any person [suspected] of being of hostile origin." The broad language of the act allowed for the arrest of any person simply for having a Chinese surname, a drop of Chinese blood, or a Chinese spouse.[29] Under the draconian law, 10,000 people of Chinese origin were estimated to have been detained at the desert prison camp in Deoli, Rajasthan. All of them were accused of being spies, but not a single charge has ever been proven.[28] In 1964, many internees were forcibly and arbitrarily deported, resulting in the breakup of many families.[28] The rest were released starting in 1965. The last internees were released from Deoli in mid-1967, after four and half years of captivity.[28]

The Chinese population in Calcutta decreased by half, from 20,000 to 10,000. Those who remained were seen as enemies, and most could not hold any job except in the restaurant, tanning, and shoemaking businesses.[27] Moreover, their movements were restricted. They were required to report to designated police stations once a month, and until the mid-1990s, they had to apply for special permits to travel more than a few kilometres from their homes.[28]

The situation was alleviated when India and China resumed diplomatic relations in 1976. However, it was not until 1998 that ethnic Chinese were allowed naturalized Indian citizenship.[27] In 2005, the first road sign in Chinese characters was put up in Chinatown, Tangra.[30]

In Assam, Chinese people living in different places were rounded up by the armed forces and compelled to leave their houses. The administration told them they would be shifted to a safer place for two or three days. They were not allowed to take anything with them except papers. In the Makum area, they were picked up and packed into a cowshed, from where they were taken to the Dibrugarh jail. In other parts they were arrested and brought to the police station and put in jails. They were then asked to board a closed train, which took them to the Deoli internment camp in Rajasthan. It was a long, seven-day journey of utter suffering. Infants, pregnant women, the old and the sick were also arrested and sent to the camp, violating all human rights. After some time the Government of India decided to deport the interned back to China in a few batches. In this process, the already divided families were divided again as the government selected the names randomly. The majority of them were deported to China. Many Indian (Assamese) wives also accompanied their husbands to China with their children. The interned people who were allowed to return to their places after a couple of years again faced a difficult situation. The property of most of the people had been auctioned as enemy property. There was no society and no government to support them. They were compelled to live in sheer misery and isolation. Most of them did not get to meet their deported family members ever again.[26]

Indian Chinese cuisine

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Chinese Indians also contributed to the development of fusion Indian Chinese cuisine (Indo-Chinese cuisine),[31] which is now an integral part of the Indian culinary scene.[32] In particular Chinese influences on Bengali cuisine are pronounced.

Communities

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Chinese Breakfast at the Bazar.

Long term

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Today they are located in ethnic neighbourhoods in Kolkata and Mumbai. In Mumbai, the population of Chinese origin stood at 4,000 in 2015.[7] In 2013, there were 2,000 Chinese-origin people at Kolkata while 200 Chinese of Indian ancestry[2]

The most visible Chinese community in India is found in Kolkata where there are two Chinatowns. One exists in Tangra and an earlier Chinatown was established at Tiretta Bazaar, sometimes referred to as the old Chinatown. The Chinese presence at Tiretti Bazaar and Tangra has dwindled. The older generation of this community works as tannery-owners, sauce manufacturers, shoeshop owners, restaurateurs and beauty parlours owners. The new generation have gone in large numbers to dentistry.[30] Many of the shoe shops lining Bentick Street, near Dharmatolla, are owned and operated by Chinese. The restaurants have given rise to fusions of Chinese and Indian culinary traditions in the widely available form of Indian Chinese cuisine. There is one Chinese newspaper published in Kolkata, The Overseas Chinese Commerce in India or Seong Pow 商报, but figures from 2005 show that sales have dwindled from 500 to 300 copies sold.[33] At one time, 90% of the students of the Grace Ling Liang English School were ethnic Chinese. But in 2003 they comprised only about 15% of the 1500 students.[34] Many of the Chinese of Kolkata are Christians due to the influence of missionary schools they studied in. Architecturally, a feature of the Chinese imprint on Kolkata are the Chinese temples. The Chinese New Year / Lunar New Year 农历新年remains widely observed as well as Zhong Yuan Festival 中元节 and Mid-Autumn Festival 中秋节.[30][35] The Chinese of Kolkata celebrate Chinese New Year with lion dance 舞狮 and dragon dance 舞龙. It is celebrated either in the end of January or early February each year in accordance to the rotating lunar calendar (农历) of the particular year.[36]

An exhaustive study of the Kolkata Chinese by Zhang Xing has recently been published.[9]

Expatriates

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Expatriate Chinese workers in India are concentrated in the cities of Mumbai, Delhi, Chennai and Bangalore.[4] The Mumbai neighbourhood of Powai is described by the Economic Times as an "upcoming hub" for Chinese expats, who according to the newspaper "form close communities within themselves."[4] Better integration of Chinese expats in their host communities is hampered by short time frames of stays, often durations only last for 2–3 years as part of a work contract.[4] Also many in order to comply with visa regulations must routinely exit and leave India.[4]

Notable people

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Notable Chinese origin persons include Chindian people who are of mixed Indian and Chinese ancestry.[37]

See also

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Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ "Latest India-China border clash turns spotlight on Tibetan refugees in Special Frontier Force". South China Morning Post. 4 September 2020.
  2. ^ a b c Krishnan, Murali (17 October 2013). "India's dwindling Chinatown". Deutsche Welle.
  3. ^ "僑委會全球資訊網". Archived from the original on 4 January 2011.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h "Why India remains a difficult terrain for 7,000 Chinese expatriates living in the country". The Economic Times. 28 August 2015.
  5. ^ Chowdhury, Rita (18 November 2012). "The Assamese Chinese story". The Hindu. Retrieved 29 January 2020.
  6. ^ "Assamese of Chinese origin facing severe identity crisis". The Economic Times.
  7. ^ a b c "Mumbai's 3rd generation Chinese eye global jobs, learn Mandarin". TOI. 3 November 2015.
  8. ^ a b c d Haraprasad, Ray (2012). "Chinese, The". In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. (eds.). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
  9. ^ a b Zhang, Xing (2015). The Chinese Community in Calcutta: Preservation and Change. Universitätsverlag Halle-Wittenberg. ISBN 9783869771045. Retrieved 8 June 2020.
  10. ^ "Xing – The Chinese Community in Calcutta: Preservation … - Miscellaneen - Universitätsverlag Halle-Wittenberg". uvhw.de.
  11. ^ Suniti Chatterji. The Origin and Development of Bengali Language, University of Calcutta Press, 1926.
  12. ^ Datta, Rangan (19 March 2006). "Next weekend you can be at ... Achipur". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 5 January 2013. Retrieved 1 February 2014.
  13. ^ a b c Neogi, Tathagata. "Glimpses from Calcutta's Old Chinatown: The Oldest Chinatown outside Southeast Asia". Immersive Trails. Retrieved 16 August 2024.
  14. ^ Charles Ralph Boxer (1948). Fidalgos in the Far East, 1550-1770: fact and fancy in the history of Macao. M. Nijhoff. p. 225. Retrieved 2 March 2012. we meet with a surprisingly frequent number of references to Chinese wayfarers or sojourners in India Portuguesa. One Chinese slave who was taken by Malabar pirates in his youth, subsequently became a terrible scourge to his late masters, as the right hand man of the famous Moplah pirate Kunhali. His eventual conqueror in 1600, the great Captain
  15. ^ Yat-Sen institute for the advancement of culture and education (1939). T'ien Hsia monthly, Volume 9. Original from the University of California Digitized 9 January 2007. p. 456. Retrieved 2 March 2012. and said to have been slave to a Portuguese, before he was captured in his youth and brought before Kunhala, who took such a fancy to him that he entrusted him with everything. He was he most fanatical Moslem and enemy of the Christian faith along the whole Malabar coast. For when prisoners were taken at sea and brought to him, he invented the most fiendish tortures ever seen, with which he martyred them."
  16. ^ Yat-Sen institute for the advancement of culture and education (1939). T'ien Hsia monthly, Volume 9. Original from the University of California Digitized 9 January 2007. p. 456. Retrieved 2 March 2012. Kunhali and Chinale were for years the greatest scourge of the Portuguese in the India seas. They made such effective depredations against Lusitanian shipping that the former assumed the high
  17. ^ Yat-Sen institute for the advancement of culture and education (1939). T'ien Hsia monthly, Volume 9. Original from the University of California Digitized 9 January 2007. p. 456. Retrieved 2 March 2012. command of Andre Furtado de Mendoça, and in alliance with the Samorin of Calicut, was more successful. Kottakkal was taken by storm and both Kunhali and his Chinese lieutenant carried off as prisoners to Goa. They remained for some time in the Goa prison, where they were interviewed by the historian Diogo do Couto.
  18. ^ Pyrard, François; Pierre de Bergeron; Bignon, Jérôme (1890). The voyage of François Pyrard of Laval to the East Indies, the Maldives, the Moluccas and Brazil, Issue 80, Volume 2, Part 2. Vol. II, PART II. LONDON : WHITING AND CO., SARDINIA STREET. LINCOLN'S INN FIELDS: Printed for the Hakluyt society. p. 523. Retrieved 2 March 2012. allied forces the remnants of the garrison marched forth. "First came 400 Moors, many of them wounded, with their children and wives, in such an impoverished condition that they seemed as dead. These the Samorin bade go where they pleased. Last of all came Kunhali with a black kerchief on his head, and a sword in his hand with the point lowered. He was at that time a man of fifty, of middle height, muscular and broad-shouldered. He walked between three of his chief Moors. One of these was Chinale, a Chinese, who had been a servant at Malacca, and said to have been the captive of a Portuguese, taken as a boy from a fusta, and afterwards brought to Kunhali, who conceived such an affection for him that he trusted him with everything. He was the greatest exponent of the Moorish superstition and enemy of the Christians in all Malabar, and for those taken captive at sea and brought thither he invented the most exquisite kinds of torture when he martyred them. "Kunhali walked straight to the Samorin and delivered to him his sword in token of submission, throwing himself at his feet with much humility. Some say that the Samorin, inasmuch as he had promised him life, had secretly advised the Chief Captain, when Kunhali should deliver himself up, to lay hands upon him, as though he were taking him by force; and so the Chief Captain did. For, as the Samoriu was standing by him, Andre Furtado advanced, and, seizing him by the arm, pulled him aside; while the other gave a great lurch so as to get free. As he was then at the brink of a hole, the Chief Captain was in risk of falling therein, had not his arm been seized by Padre Fr. Diogo Horaen, a Religious of the Order of the Glorious Father S. Francisco, who stood on one side; Diogo Moniz Barreto, who was on the other, fell into the hole and skinned all his leg." A tumult now arose among the Nairs, which the Samorin with difficulty suppressed. In the midst of it, Chinale and Cotiale, the pirate-chief's nephew, and the other captains, attempted to escape, but were seized and manacled by the Portuguese soldiery. Kunhali himself was led off under a strong guard to the Portuguese lines. Furtado, after entering the fort hand-iu-hand with the Samorin, prudently gave up the place to be sacked by the
  19. ^ T. Madhava Menon, International School of Dravidian Linguistics (2000). A handbook of Kerala, Volume 1. International School of Dravidian Linguistics. p. 161. ISBN 81-85692-27-0. Retrieved 2 March 2012. Kunjali was led to the scaffold. He was fifty years of age, fair, thick set and broadbreasted. He was 'of a low stature, well-shaped and strong'. With him was Chinali, a Chinese youth whom Kunjali had rescued from a Portuguese ship.
  20. ^ Odayamadath Kunjappa Nambiar (1963). The Kunjalis, admirals of Calicut (2 ed.). Asia Pub. House. p. 133. Retrieved 2 March 2012. Last of all came Kunjali with a black kerchief on his head, and a sword in his hand with the point lowered. He was at that time a man of fifty, of middle height, muscular and broad-shouldered. He walked between three of his chief Moors. One of these was Chinali a Chinese who had been servant at Malacca, and said to have been the captive of a Portuguese, taken as a boy from a fusta and afterwards brought to Kunjali, who conceived such an affection for him that he
  21. ^ Indian Pirates. Concept Publishing Company. 1978. p. 138. Retrieved 2 March 2012. He walked between three of his chief Muslims: one of them was Chinali "A Chinese who had been a servant at Malacca and said to have been a captive of the Portuguese taken as a boy from a fusta and afterwards brought to Kunhali." He had conceived such an affection for him that "he treated him with everything." He was "the greatest exponent of the Moorish superstition and an enemy of the Christians in all Malabar." It is said of him that for those captured at sea and brought to Kunhali's little kingdom, he "invented the most exquisite kinds of torture when he martyred them."
  22. ^ Pyrard, François; Pierre de Bergeron; Bignon, Jérôme (1890). The voyage of François Pyrard of Laval to the East Indies, the Maldives, the Moluccas and Brazil, Issue 80, Volume 2, Part 2. Vol. II, PART II. LONDON : WHITING AND CO., SARDINIA STREET. LINCOLN'S INN FIELDS: Printed for the Hakluyt society. p. 516. Retrieved 2 March 2012. withdrew to his camp. All this time the obstructions in the river, and the deficiency of boats, had kept Luiz da Gama a mere spectator of the scene, unable either to direct or to succour. We have, from de Couto, a picture of him standing knee-deep in the mud of the river bar, endeavouring to embark succours in the boats, while ever and anon his attempts thus to rally his forces were frustrated by the sight of the fugitives, some in boats, some swimming down the river, and all shouting, "Treason! Treason!" The body of the brave Luiz da Sylva had been got into a boat, wrapped in his flag, which a captain had torn from its standard, in order to conceal the fact of his fall. This manoeuvre, however, only added to the disorder of the soldiery, who found themselves of a sudden, and at the critical moment of the attack, without a competent leader and without colours. Thus ended the gravest disaster which had as yet befallen the Portuguese arms in India. De Couto gives a long list of noble fidalgos who fell that day, sacrificed by the incapacity of their leaders; and though he confidently asserts that the total loss was 230 men and no more, his own story of the events of the fight gives colour to the statement of Pyrard that the loss amounted to no less than 500 lives. It is further stated by de Couto, who talked the matter over with Kunhali and his lieutenant, Chinale, when they were in the Goa prison, that the loss of the besieged exceeded 500 men. The sorrow and vexation of Luiz da Gama at the death of his brave captain and the miscarriage of the whole enterprise were unbounded. His next measures, however, were dictated by good sense and humanity. Leaving a small force to blockade the fort under Francisco de Sousa, and dispatching the body of da Sylva to Cannanor, where it was temporarily interred with all available pomp, 1 he withdrew his shattered forces to Cochin, where the wounded received attention at the hospital and in the houses of the citizens. The blockading force was insufficient, and Kunhali, who had thirteen galeots ready for action in his port, might easily have forced a way to sea, had not de Sousa, by a skillful ruse, led him 1 It was afterwards conveyed to Portugal.
  23. ^ Chakravarty, Ipsita. "The legend of Tong Atchew, the 'first ancestor of the Chinese in India'". Scroll.in. Retrieved 18 November 2018.
  24. ^ a b Datta, Rangan (19 March 2006). "Next weekend you can be at ... Achipur". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 5 January 2013. Retrieved 26 September 2006.
  25. ^ CHOWDHURY, RITA (18 November 2012). "The Assamese Chinese story". The Hindu. Retrieved 17 May 2014.
  26. ^ a b Chowdhury, Rita (18 November 2012). "The Assamese Chinese story". The Hindu – via www.thehindu.com.
  27. ^ a b c Sen, Tansen (13 April 2005). "Go for a slight change of route". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 3 February 2013. Retrieved 26 September 2006.
  28. ^ a b c d e Mazumdar, Jaideep (20 November 2010). "The 1962 jailing of Chinese Indians". OPEN. Retrieved 17 November 2014.
  29. ^ Schiavenza, Matt (9 August 2013). "India's Forgotten Chinese Internment Camp". The Atlantic. Retrieved 17 November 2014.
  30. ^ a b c Biswas, Ranjita (2005). "Little China Stays Alive in Eastern India". IPS News. Inter Press Service News Agency. Archived from the original on 18 February 2006. Retrieved 26 September 2006. Though most of the local Chinese are Christians, they celebrate the traditional Chinese New Year with gusto and many who emigrated from Kolkata make it a point to return at this time.
  31. ^ Sankar, Amal (December 2017). "Creation of Indian–Chinese cuisine: Chinese food in an Indian city". Journal of Ethnic Foods. 4 (4): 268–273. doi:10.1016/j.jef.2017.10.002.
  32. ^ Sanjeev Kapoor (2007). Chinese Cooking ( Non-Veg). Popular Prakashan. p. 7. ISBN 978-81-7991-310-9.
  33. ^ Sardar, Aninda (3 April 2005). "Kolkata's only Chinese daily on shaky ground". The Indian Express. Archived from the original on 3 April 2005. Retrieved 26 September 2006.
  34. ^ "Loss for law, gain for school". The Telegraph. 18 September 2003. Archived from the original on 4 January 2013. Retrieved 26 September 2006.
  35. ^ Ramduari, Charukesi (1 September 2013). "City Scope: Dancing to a new tune". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 4 February 2014.
  36. ^ "Chinese New Year Celebration". The New Indian Express. 31 January 2014. Archived from the original on 7 February 2014. Retrieved 1 February 2014.
  37. ^ Sheela Narayanan (17 October 2008). "Go ahead, call me Chindian". AsiaOne. Archived from the original on 21 August 2009. Retrieved 8 October 2009.
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