Amenemhat III

Contemporaneous sources

There are a variety of contemporary sources attesting to the reign of Amenemhat III. Chief among these are the collection of inscriptions left at mining sites throughout Egypt, Nubia, and the Sinai peninsula.^[13] His activities in the Sinai are particularly well attested to, spanning regnal years 2 to 45.^[14][15] It is notable though, that the overwhelming majority of these inscriptions originate outside Egypt.^[16] He is also well attested to through his statuary with approximately 80 works attributed to him,^[17][16] his building program, particularly concentrated around Faiyum, and the two pyramids that he had built.^[14][15] The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus – one of a limited set of evidence attesting to Egyptian knowledge of mathematics^[18] – is also thought to have been originally composed during Amenemhat III's time.^[19]

Historical sources

The Karnak king list from the Festival Hall of Thutmose III (c. 1479–1425 BC)^[10] has a lacuna of two entries between Amenemhat II and Amenemhat IV, though three kings are known to have reigned during this period – Senusret II, Senusret III, and Amenemhat III.^[20] In the Abydos king list from the temple of Seti I (c. 1290–1279 BC)^[21] in Abydos, Amenemhat III is attested by his praenomen Ni-maat-re in the sixty-fourth entry.^[22] His praenomen also occupies the sixty-fourth entry in the king list at the temple of Ramesses II (c. 1279–1213 BC)^[21] in Abydos.^[23] In the Saqqara Tablet from the tomb of the chief lector priest and chief of works Tjuneroy, Amenemhat III's praenomen occupies the twentieth entry.^[24][25] The Turin Canon has a lacuna in the mid-Twelfth Dynasty preserving no names and only partial reign lengths. The twenty-fifth entry of the fifth column corresponding to Amenemhat III preserves only a regnal length of 40 + x years.^[1][26][27] The entries of his presumed children and immediate successors – Amenemhat IV and Sobekneferu – are near-wholly intact preserving their praenomen and reign lengths.^[1][27]

Amenemhat III is also mentioned in Manetho's Aegyptiaca, originally composed circa the 3rd century BC, tentatively dated to the reign of Ptolemy II.^[28][29][30] The original work is no longer extant, but has persisted through the writings of Josephus, Africanus, Eusebius, and Syncellus.^[31] He is accorded a reign of 8 years under the name Λαχάρης (romanized Lacharês / Lamarês) by both Africanus and Eusebius.^[32] Syncellus accords him a reign of 43 years under the name Μάρης (romanized Marês) as the thirty-fifth king of Thebes.^[33][b]

Chronology

The relative chronology of rulers in the Twelfth Dynasty is considered settled.^[44] The Ramesside king lists and the Turin Canon are a significant source in determining the relative chronology of the rulers.^[45] The Turin Canon has a lacuna of four lines between Amenemhat I and Amenemhat IV, recording only partial regnal lengths for the four kings – 10 + x, 19, 30 + x, and 40 + x years respectively.^[27][46] The king lists of Seti I and Ramesses II at Abydos and the Saqqara tablet each list Amenemhat III with Senusret III – whose praenomen is Kha-kau-re^[11] – as his predecessor and Amenemhat IV – whose praenomen is Maa-kheru-re^[11] – as his successor.^[47][48][49] Instead Egyptological debate has centred on the existence of co-regencies.^[44]

Co-regency

In his twentieth regnal year, Senusret III elevated his son Amenemhat III to the status of co-regent.^[50] The co-regency seems to be established from several indicators,^[c] though not all scholars agree and some^[d] instead argue for sole reigns for both kings.^[58] For the following twenty years, Senusret III and Amenemhat III shared the throne, with Amenemhat III taking the active role as king.^[59][4][60] It is assumed that Amenemhat III took the primary role as the regnal dates roll over from year 19 of Senusret III to year 1 of Amenemhat III.^[60][59] His reign is attested for at least 45 years, though a papyrus fragment from El-Lahun mentioning 'regnal year 46, month 1 of akhet, day 22' probably dates to his rule as well,^[59][61] since the village was founded by Amenemhat III's grandfather, Senusret II, and no other Twelfth Dynasty ruler after Senusret II reigned for more than 40 years. The highest date might be found on a bowl from Elephantine bearing regnal year 46, month 3 of peret. This attribution is favoured by the Egyptologist Cornelius von Pilgrim, but rejected by the Egyptologist Wolfram Grajetzki who places it in the early Middle Kingdom.^[62] In his 30th regnal year, Amenemhat III celebrated his Sed festival which is mentioned in several inscriptions.^[63] His reign ends with a brief co-regency with his successor Amenemhat IV.^[59][64] This is evidenced from a rock inscription at Semna which equates regnal year 1 of Amenemhat IV with regnal year 44 or perhaps 46–48 of Amenemhat III.^[59][65][66]

These two kings – Senusret III and Amenemhat III – presided over the golden age of the Middle Kingdom. Senusret III had pursued aggressive military action to curb incursions from tribes people from Nubia.^[4][67] These campaigns were conducted across several years and were brutal against the native populations, including slaughter of men, enslavement of women and children, and the burning of fields.^[68] He also sent a military expedition into Syria-Palestine, enemies of Egypt since the reign of Senusret I.^[67][69] His internal policies targeted the increasing power of provincial governors, transferring power back to the reigning monarch.^[70][4] It is disputed whether he dismantled the nomarchical system.^[69] Senusret III also formed the basis for the legendary character Sesostris described by Manetho and Herodotus.^[71][68] As a consequence of Senusret III's administrative and military policies, Amenemhat III inherited a peaceful and stable Egypt,^[4] which reached its cultural and economic zenith under his direction.^[64][9][16]

Military campaigns

There is very little evidence for military expeditions during Amenemhat III's reign. One rock inscription records a small mission in regnal year nine. It was found in Nubia, near the fortress of Kumma. The short text reports that a military mission was guided by the mouth of Nekhen Zamonth who states that he went north with a small troop and that there were no deaths on the return south.^[72] There is a stela dated to regnal 33 that was discovered at Kerma, south of the Third Cataract, discussing the construction of a wall, though this stela must have originated elsewhere as Kerma was beyond Egypt's control at this time.^[63]

Mining expeditions

Sinai mines

Tura

Gebel Zeit

Hatnub

Wadi Hammamat

Aswan

Wadi el-Hudi

Gebel el-Asr

Mining sites in Amenemhat III's reign

Exploitation of the quarries of Egypt and the Sinai for turquoise and copper peaked during his reign.^[64] A collection of more than 50 texts were inscribed at Serabit el-Khadim, Wadi Maghara, and Wadi Nasb.^[64][14] The efforts here were so extensive that near-permanent settlements formed around them.^[64][73] The quarries at Wadi Hammamat (schist), Wadi el-Hudi (amethyst), Tura (limestone), Hatnub (alabaster), Aswan (red granite) and throughout Nubia (diorite) were all also exploited.^[64][74][75] These all translated into an extensive building program, particularly in the development of Faiyum.^[64][73]

Egypt

One inscription dating to year 43 of Amenemhat III's reign comes from Tura and refers to the quarrying of limestone there for a mortuary temple, either that at Dahshur or Hawara.^[82] A stela retrieved from the massif of Gebel Zeit, 50 km (31 mi) south of Ras Ghareb, on the Red Sea coast shows activity at the Galena mines there. The stela bears a partial date suggesting that it was inscribed after regnal year 10.^[83][84]

Several expeditions to Wadi Hammamat where schist was quarried were recorded.^[64][85] These date to regnal years 2, 3, 19, 20 and 33.^[85] Three inscriptions from year 19 note the workforce of labourers and soldiers employed and the outcome of the efforts resulting in ten 2.6 m (8.5 ft) tall seated statues of the king being made. The statues were destined for the Labyrinth at Hawara.^[82][86] A few expeditions were sent to Wadi el-Hudi, south-east of Aswan, at the southern border of Egypt, where amethyst was collected. These enterprises date to regnal years 1, 11, 20, and 28.^[87][88][89] An expedition was also sent to Wadi Abu Agag, near Aswan, in regnal year 13.^[90]

Trade expeditions

A stela was discovered at Mersa on the Red Sea coast, by Rosanna Pirelli in 2005 that detailed an expedition to Punt during the reign of Amenemhat III. The expedition was organized by chief steward Senbef. Under his direction, two contingents were formed. The first was led by an Amenhotep and bound for Punt to acquire incense. The second led by a Nebesu was sent to the mines referred to as Bia-Punt to procure exotic metals.^[94][95] There were a total of between two and five expeditions organized during Amenemhat III's rule.^[96] Two of the stelae recovered from the site are dated indicating activity there in his 23rd and 41st regnal years.^[97]

Dahshur

The construction of the pyramid at Dahshur, the 'Black Pyramid' (Egyptian language: Sḫm Ỉmn-m-hꜣt meaning 'Amenemhat is Mighty'^[106] or Nfr Ỉmn-m-hꜣt meaning 'Amenemhat is Beautiful'^[107]/'Perfect One of Amenemhat'^[108]) began in the first year of Amenemhat III's reign.^[106][109] The pyramid core was constructed entirely of mudbrick and stabilized through the building of a stepped core rather than with a stone framework.^[110][109] The structure was then encased by 5 m (16 ft; 9.5 cu) thick, fine white Tura limestone blocks held together by wooden dove-tail pegs.^[110] The pyramid was given a base length of 105 metres (344 ft; 200 cu) that was inclined towards the apex at between 54°30′ to 57°15′50″ reaching a height of 75 m (246 ft; 143 cu) for a total volume of 274,625 m³ (9,698,300 cu ft).^[111][112] The apogee of the structure was crowned, seemingly, by a grey granite pyramidion 1.3 m (4.3 ft) high.^[113] This now resides in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, catalogued as JE 35133.^[114] The pyramidion had a band of hieroglyphic text running on all four of its sides.^[115] That the name of Amun has been erased on the pyramidion can only be the result of Akhenaten's proscription against the god.^[114]

In front of the pyramid, lay a mortuary temple of simple design comprising an offering hall and an open columned courtyard. Surrounding the complex were two mudbrick enclosing walls. From the mortuary temple an open, mudbrick walled causeway led to the valley temple.^[116] Beneath the pyramid was built a substructure with an intricate series of passages and chambers, with burial chambers for the king and two queens.^[117][114] The two queens, Aat and an unidentified queen, were buried here and their remains were recovered from their chambers.^[118][115] The king, though, was not buried here.^[119] Shortly after the completion of the pyramid superstructure, in around Amenemhat III's 15th regnal year, the substructure began to buckle with cracks appearing inside as a result of groundwater seepage.^[119][120] Rushed efforts were made to prevent the structure collapsing, which were successful, but just as Sneferu had decided to do with his Bent Pyramid, Amenemhat III chose to build a new one.^[120]

Hawara

The second pyramid is at Hawara (Egyptian language: Uncertain, possibly ꜥnḫ Ỉmn-m-hꜣt 'Amenemhat Lives'^[120]), in the Faiyum Oasis.^[121] This pyramid project was begun around Amenemhat III's 15th regnal year, after problems with the Dahshur pyramid persisted.^[36][120] The choice of Hawara suggests that the cultivation of Faiyum was complete and that Amenemhat III was diverting resources to that area.^[122] The pyramid had a core constructed entirely of mudbrick encased in fine white Tura limestone.^[123][120] The pyramid had a base length of between 102 m (335 ft; 195 cu) and 105 m (344 ft; 200 cu) with a shallower inclination of between 48° and 52° up to a peak height 58 m (190 ft; 111 cu) for a total volume of 200,158 m³ (7,068,500 cu ft).^[111][112] The shallower inclination angle was a step taken to guard against the threat of a collapse and avoid a repeat of the failure at Dahshur.^[120] Inside the substructure, builders took further precautions, such as lining chamber pits with limestone.^[123] The burial chamber was chiselled out of a single quartzite block measuring 7 m (23 ft) by 2.5 m (8.2 ft) by 1.83 m (6.0 ft) and weighing over 100 t (110 short tons).^[123][120]

Before the pyramid lay a mortuary temple, that has been identified as "the Labyrinth" which Classical travellers such as Herodotus and Strabo referred to and which was said to have inspired the 'Labyrinth of Minos'.^[124][120] The temple was destroyed in antiquity and can only be partially reconstructed.^[124][120] Its floorplan covered an estimated 28,000 m² (300,000 sq ft).^[124] According to Strabo's account, the temple contained as many rooms as there were nomes in Egypt,^[125] while Herodotus wrote about being led 'from courtyards into rooms, rooms into galleries, galleries into more rooms, thence into more courtyards'.^[120] A limestone statue of Sobek and another of Hathor were discovered here^[125] as were two granite shrines each containing two statues of Amenemhat III.^[120] A north-south oriented perimeter wall enclosed the entire complex^[125] which thus measured 385 m (1,263 ft) by 158 m (518 ft).^[120] The causeway has been identified near the south-west corner of the complex, but neither it nor the valley temple have been investigated.^[126]

Neferuptah

The pyramid of Neferuptah was built 2 km (1.2 mi) south-east of Amenemhat III's Hawara pyramid. It was excavated by Nagib Farag and Zaky Iskander in 1956.^[127] The superstructure of the pyramid is near completely lost and the substructure was found full of groundwater, but her burial was otherwise undisturbed including both her sarcophagus and funerary equipment.^[128]