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Despite the various English dialects spoken from country to country and within different regions of the same country, there are only slight regional variations in English orthography, the two most notable variations being British and American spelling. Many of the differences between American and British or Commonwealth English date back to a time before spelling standards were developed. For instance, some spellings seen as "American" today were once commonly used in Britain, and some spellings seen as "British" were once commonly used in the United States.
A "British standard" began to emerge following the 1755 publication of Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language, and an "American standard" started following the work of Noah Webster and, in particular, his An American Dictionary of the English Language, first published in 1828.[1] Webster's efforts at spelling reform were effective in his native country, resulting in certain well-known patterns of spelling differences between the American and British varieties of English. However, English-language spelling reform has rarely been adopted otherwise. As a result, modern English orthography varies only minimally between countries and is far from phonemic in any country.
In the early 18th century, English spelling was inconsistent. These differences became noticeable after the publication of influential dictionaries. Today's British English spellings mostly follow Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language (1755), while many American English spellings follow Webster's An American Dictionary of the English Language ("ADEL", "Webster's Dictionary", 1828).[2]
Webster was a proponent of English spelling reform for reasons both philological and nationalistic. In A Companion to the American Revolution (2008), John Algeo notes: "it is often assumed that characteristically American spellings were invented by Noah Webster. He was very influential in popularizing certain spellings in the United States, but he did not originate them. Rather [...] he chose already existing options such as center, color and check for the simplicity, analogy or etymology".[3] William Shakespeare's first folios, for example, used spellings such as center and color as much as centre and colour.[4][5] Webster did attempt to introduce some reformed spellings, as did the Simplified Spelling Board in the early 20th century, but most were not adopted. In Britain, the influence of those who preferred the Norman (or Anglo-French) spellings of words proved to be decisive.[citation needed] Later spelling adjustments in the United Kingdom had little effect on today's American spellings and vice versa.
For the most part, the spelling systems of most Commonwealth countries and Ireland closely resemble the British system. In Canada, the spelling system can be said to follow both British and American forms,[6] and Canadians are somewhat more tolerant of foreign spellings when compared with other English-speaking nationalities.[7] Australian English mostly follows British spelling norms but has strayed slightly, with some American spellings incorporated as standard.[8] New Zealand English is almost identical to British spelling, except in the word fiord (instead of fjord). There is an increasing use of macrons in words that originated in Māori and an unambiguous preference for -ise endings (see below).
Most words ending in an unstressed ‑our in British English (e.g., behaviour, colour, favour, flavour, harbour, honour, humour, labour, neighbour, rumour, splendour) end in ‑or in American English (behavior, color, favor, flavor, harbor, honor, humor, labor, neighbor, rumor, splendor). Wherever the vowel is unreduced in pronunciation (e.g., devour, contour, flour, hour, paramour, tour, troubadour, and velour), the spelling is uniform everywhere.
Most words of this kind came from Latin, where the ending was spelled ‑or. They were first adopted into English from early Old French, and the ending was spelled ‑our, ‑or or ‑ur.[9] After the Norman conquest of England, the ending became ‑our to match the later Old French spelling.[10] The ‑our ending was used not only in new English borrowings, but was also applied to the earlier borrowings that had used ‑or.[9] However, ‑or was still sometimes found.[11] The first three folios of Shakespeare's plays used both spellings before they were standardised to ‑our in the Fourth Folio of 1685.[4]
After the Renaissance, new borrowings from Latin were taken up with their original ‑or ending, and many words once ending in ‑our (for example, chancellour and governour) reverted to ‑or. A few words of the ‑our/or group do not have a Latin counterpart that ends in ‑or; for example, armo(u)r, behavio(u)r, harbo(u)r, neighbo(u)r; also arbo(u)r, meaning "shelter", though senses "tree" and "tool" are always arbor, a false cognate of the other word. The word arbor would be more accurately spelled arber or arbre in the US and the UK, respectively, the latter of which is the French word for "tree". Some 16th- and early 17th-century British scholars indeed insisted that ‑or be used for words from Latin (e.g., color)[11] and ‑our for French loans; however, in many cases, the etymology was not clear, and therefore some scholars advocated ‑or only and others ‑our only.[12]
Webster's 1828 dictionary had only -or and is given much of the credit for the adoption of this form in the United States. By contrast, Johnson's 1755 (pre-U.S. independence and establishment) dictionary used -our for all words still so spelled in Britain (like colour), but also for words where the u has since been dropped: ambassadour, emperour, errour, governour, horrour, inferiour, mirrour, perturbatour, superiour, tenour, terrour, tremour. Johnson, unlike Webster, was not an advocate of spelling reform, but chose the spelling best derived, as he saw it, from among the variations in his sources. He preferred French over Latin spellings because, as he put it, "the French generally supplied us".[13] English speakers who moved to the United States took these preferences with them. In the early 20th century, H. L. Mencken notes that "honor appears in the 1776 Declaration of Independence, but it seems to have been put there rather by accident than by design". In Jefferson's original draft it is spelled "honour".[14] In Britain, examples of behavior, color, flavor, harbor, and neighbor rarely appear in Old Bailey court records from the 17th and 18th centuries, whereas there are thousands of examples of their -our counterparts.[15] One notable exception is honor. Honor and honour were equally frequent in Britain until the 17th century;[16] honor only exists in the UK now as the spelling of Honor Oak, a district of London, and of the occasional given name Honor.
In derivatives and inflected forms of the -our/or words, British usage depends on the nature of the suffix used. The u is kept before English suffixes that are freely attachable to English words (for example in humourless, neighbourhood, and savoury) and suffixes of Greek or Latin origin that have been adopted into English (for example in behaviourism, favourite, and honourable). However, before Latin suffixes that are not freely attachable to English words, the u:
In American usage, derivatives and inflected forms are built by simply adding the suffix in all cases (for example, favorite, savory etc.) since the u is absent to begin with.
American usage, in most cases, keeps the u in the word glamour, which comes from Scots, not Latin or French. Glamor is sometimes used in imitation of the spelling reform of other -our words to -or. Nevertheless, the adjective glamorous often drops the first "u". Saviour is a somewhat common variant of savior in the US. The British spelling is very common for honour (and favour) in the formal language of wedding invitations in the US.[17] The name of the Space Shuttle Endeavour has a u in it because the spacecraft was named after British Captain James Cook's ship, HMS Endeavour. The (former) special car on Amtrak's Coast Starlight train is known as the Pacific Parlour car, not Pacific Parlor. Proper names such as Pearl Harbor or Sydney Harbour are usually spelled according to their native-variety spelling vocabulary.
The name of the herb savory is spelled thus everywhere, although the related adjective savo(u)ry, like savo(u)r, has a u in the UK. Honor (the name) and arbor (the tool) have -or in Britain, as mentioned above, as does the word pallor. As a general noun, rigour /ˈrɪɡər/ has a u in the UK; the medical term rigor (sometimes /ˈraɪɡər/)[18] does not, such as in rigor mortis, which is Latin. Derivations of rigour/rigor such as rigorous, however, are typically spelled without a u, even in the UK. Words with the ending -irior, -erior or similar are spelled thus everywhere.
The word armour was once somewhat common in American usage but has disappeared except in some brand names such as Under Armour.
The agent suffix -or (separator, elevator, translator, animator, etc.) is spelled thus both in American and British English.
Commonwealth countries normally follow British usage. Canadian English most commonly uses the -our ending and -our- in derivatives and inflected forms. However, owing to the close historic, economic, and cultural relationship with the United States, -or endings are also sometimes used. Throughout the late 19th and early to mid-20th century, most Canadian newspapers chose to use the American usage of -or endings, originally to save time and money in the era of manual movable type.[19] However, in the 1990s, the majority of Canadian newspapers officially updated their spelling policies to the British usage of -our. This coincided with a renewed interest in Canadian English, and the release of the updated Gage Canadian Dictionary in 1997 and the first Canadian Oxford Dictionary in 1998. Historically, most libraries and educational institutions in Canada have supported the use of the Oxford English Dictionary rather than the American Webster's Dictionary. Today, the use of a distinctive set of Canadian English spellings is viewed by many Canadians as one of the unique aspects of Canadian culture (especially when compared to the United States).[citation needed]
In Australia, -or endings enjoyed some use throughout the 19th century and in the early 20th century. Like Canada, though, most major Australian newspapers have switched from "-or" endings to "-our" endings. The "-our" spelling is taught in schools nationwide as part of the Australian curriculum. The most notable countrywide use of the -or ending is for one of the country's major political parties, the Australian Labor Party, which was originally called "the Australian Labour Party" (name adopted in 1908), but was frequently referred to as both "Labour" and "Labor". The "Labor" was adopted from 1912 onward due to the influence of the American labor movement[20] and King O'Malley. On top of that, some place names in South Australia such as Victor Harbor, Franklin Harbor or Outer Harbor are usually spelled with the -or spellings. Aside from that, -our is now almost universal in Australia but the -or endings remain a minority variant. New Zealand English, while sharing some words and syntax with Australian English, follows British usage.
In British English, some words from French, Latin or Greek end with a consonant followed by an unstressed -re (pronounced /ə(r)/). In modern American English, most of these words have the ending -er.[21][22] The difference is most common for words ending in -bre or -tre: British spellings calibre, centre, fibre, goitre, litre, lustre, manoeuvre, meagre, metre (length), mitre, nitre, ochre, reconnoitre, sabre, saltpetre, sepulchre, sombre, spectre, theatre (see exceptions) and titre all have -er in American spelling.
In Britain, both -re and -er spellings were common before Johnson's 1755 dictionary was published. Following this, -re became the most common usage in Britain. In the United States, following the publication of Webster's Dictionary in the early 19th century, American English became more standardized, exclusively using the -er spelling.[5]
In addition, spelling of some words have been changed from -re to -er in both varieties. These include September, October, November, December, amber, blister, cadaver, chamber, chapter, charter, cider, coffer, coriander, cover, cucumber, cylinder, diaper, disaster, enter, fever, filter, gender, leper, letter, lobster, master, member, meter (measuring instrument), minister, monster, murder, number, offer, order, oyster, powder, proper, render, semester, sequester, sinister, sober, surrender, tender, and tiger. Words using the -meter suffix (from Ancient Greek -μέτρον métron, via French -mètre) normally had the -re spelling from earliest use in English but were superseded by -er. Examples include thermometer and barometer.
The e preceding the r is kept in American-inflected forms of nouns and verbs, for example, fibers, reconnoitered, centering, which are fibres, reconnoitred, and centring respectively in British English. According to the OED, centring is a "word ... of 3 syllables (in careful pronunciation)"[23] (i.e., /ˈsɛntərɪŋ/), yet there is no vowel in the spelling corresponding to the second syllable (/ə/). The OED third edition (revised entry of June 2016) allows either two or three syllables. On the Oxford Dictionaries Online website, the three-syllable version is listed only as the American pronunciation of centering. The e is dropped for other derivations, for example, central, fibrous, spectral. However, the existence of related words without e before the r is not proof for the existence of an -re British spelling: for example, entry and entrance come from enter, which has not been spelled entre for centuries.[24]
The difference relates only to root words; -er rather than -re is universal as a suffix for agentive (reader, user, winner) and comparative (louder, nicer) forms. One outcome is the British distinction of meter for a measuring instrument from metre for the unit of length. However, while "poetic metre" is often spelled as -re, pentameter, hexameter, etc. are always -er.[25]
Many other words have -er in British English. These include Germanic words, such as anger, mother, timber and water, and such Romance-derived words as danger, quarter and river.
The ending -cre, as in acre,[26] lucre, massacre, and mediocre, is used in both British and American English to show that the c is pronounced /k/ rather than /s/. The spellings euchre and ogre are also the same in both British and American English.
Fire and its associated adjective fiery are the same in both British and American English, although the noun was spelled fier in Old and Middle English.
Theater is the prevailing American spelling used to refer to both the dramatic arts and buildings where stage performances and screenings of films take place (i.e., "movie theaters"); for example, a national newspaper such as The New York Times would use theater in its entertainment section. However, the spelling theatre appears in the names of many New York City theatres on Broadway[27] (cf. Broadway theatre) and elsewhere in the United States. In 2003, the American National Theatre was referred to by The New York Times as the "American National Theater", but the organization uses "re" in the spelling of its name.[28][29] The John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, D.C. has the more common American spelling theater in its references to the Eisenhower Theater, part of the Kennedy Center.[30] Some cinemas outside New York also use the theatre spelling.[31] (The word "theater" in American English is a place where both stage performances and screenings of films take place, but in British English a "theatre" is where stage performances take place but not film screenings – these take place in a cinema,[citation needed] or "picture theatre" in Australia.)[32]
In the United States, the spelling theatre is sometimes used when referring to the art form of theatre, while the building itself, as noted above, generally is spelled theater. For example, the University of Wisconsin–Madison has a "Department of Theatre and Drama", which offers courses that lead to the "Bachelor of Arts in Theatre", and whose professed aim is "to prepare our graduate students for successful 21st Century careers in the theatre both as practitioners and scholars".[33]
Some placenames in the United States use Centre in their names. Examples include the villages of Newton Centre and Rockville Centre, the city of Centreville, Centre County and Centre College. Sometimes, these places were named before spelling changes but more often the spelling serves as an affectation. Proper names are usually spelled according to their native-variety spelling vocabulary; so, for instance, although Peter is the usual form of the male given name, as a surname both the spellings Peter and Petre (the latter notably borne by a British lord) are found.
For British accoutre, the American practice varies: the Merriam-Webster Dictionary prefers the -re spelling,[34] but The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language prefers the -er spelling.[35]
More recent French loanwords keep the -re spelling in American English. These are not exceptions when a French-style pronunciation is used (/rə/ rather than /ə(r)/), as with double entendre, genre and oeuvre. However, the unstressed /ə(r)/ pronunciation of an -er ending is used more (or less) often[weasel words] with some words, including cadre, macabre, maître d', Notre Dame, piastre, and timbre.
The -re endings are mostly standard throughout the Commonwealth. The -er spellings are recognized as minor variants in Canada, partly due to United States influence. They are sometimes used in proper names (such as Toronto's controversially named Centerpoint Mall).[12]
For advice/advise and device/devise, American English and British English both keep the noun–verb distinction both graphically and phonetically (where the pronunciation is -/s/ for the noun and -/z/ for the verb). For licence/license or practice/practise, British English also keeps the noun–verb distinction graphically (although phonetically the two words in each pair are homophones with -/s/ pronunciation). On the other hand, American English uses license and practice for both nouns and verbs (with -/s/ pronunciation in both cases too).
American English has kept the Anglo-French spelling for defense and offense, which are defence and offence in British English. Likewise, there are the American pretense and British pretence; but derivatives such as defensive, offensive, and pretension are always thus spelled in both systems.
Australian[36] and Canadian usages generally follow British usage.
The spelling connexion is now rare in everyday British usage, its use lessening as knowledge of Latin attenuates,[12] and it has almost never been used in the US: the more common connection has become the standard worldwide. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the older spelling is more etymologically conservative, since the original Latin word had -xio-. The American usage comes from Webster, who abandoned -xion and preferred -ction.[37] Connexion was still the house style of The Times of London until the 1980s and was still used by Post Office Telecommunications for its telephone services in the 1970s, but had by then been overtaken by connection in regular usage (for example, in more popular newspapers). Connexion (and its derivatives connexional and connexionalism) is still in use by the Methodist Church of Great Britain to refer to the whole church as opposed to its constituent districts, circuits and local churches, whereas the US-majority United Methodist Church uses Connection.
Complexion (which comes from complex) is standard worldwide and complection is rare.[38] However, the adjective complected (as in "dark-complected"), although sometimes proscribed, is on equal ground in the U.S. with complexioned.[39] It is not used in this way in the UK, although there exists a rare alternative meaning of complicated.[40]
In some cases, words with "old-fashioned" spellings are retained widely in the U.S. for historical reasons (cf. connexionalism).
Many words, especially medical words, that are written with ae/æ or oe/œ in British English are written with just an e in American English. The sounds in question are /iː/ or /ɛ/ (or, unstressed, /i/, /ɪ/ or /ə/). Examples (with non-American letter in bold): aeon, anaemia, anaesthesia, caecum, caesium, coeliac, diarrhoea, encyclopaedia, faeces, foetal, gynaecology, haemoglobin, haemophilia, leukaemia, oesophagus, oestrogen, orthopaedic,[note 1] palaeontology, paediatric, paedophile. Oenology is acceptable in American English but is deemed a minor variant of enology, whereas although archeology and ameba exist in American English, the British versions amoeba and archaeology are more common. The chemical haem (named as a shortening of haemoglobin) is spelled heme in American English, to avoid confusion with hem.
Canadian English mostly follows American English in this respect, although it is split on gynecology (e.g. Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada vs. the Canadian Medical Association's Canadian specialty profile of Obstetrics/gynecology). Pediatrician is preferred roughly 10 to 1 over paediatrician, while foetal and oestrogen are similarly uncommon.
Words that can be spelled either way in American English include aesthetics and archaeology (which usually prevail over esthetics and archeology),[12] as well as palaestra, for which the simplified form palestra is described by Merriam-Webster as "chiefly Brit[ish]."[41] This is a reverse of the typical rule, where British spelling uses the ae/oe and American spelling simply uses e.
Words that can be spelled either way in British English include chamaeleon, encyclopaedia, homoeopathy, mediaeval (a minor variant in both AmE and BrE[42][43][44]), foetid and foetus. The spellings foetus and foetal are Britishisms based on a mistaken etymology.[45] The etymologically correct original spelling fetus reflects the Latin original and is the standard spelling in medical journals worldwide;[46] the Oxford English Dictionary notes that "In Latin manuscripts both fētus and foetus are used".[47]
The Ancient Greek diphthongs <αι> and <οι> were transliterated into Latin as <ae> and <oe>. The ligatures æ and œ were introduced when the sounds became monophthongs, and later applied to words not of Greek origin, in both Latin (for example, cœli) and French (for example, œuvre). In English, which has adopted words from all three languages, it is now usual to replace Æ/æ with Ae/ae and Œ/œ with Oe/oe. In many words, the digraph has been reduced to a lone e in all varieties of English: for example, oeconomics, praemium, and aenigma.[48] In others, it is kept in all varieties: for example, phoenix, and usually subpoena,[49] but Phenix in Virginia. This is especially true of names: Aegean (the sea), Caesar, Oedipus, Phoebe, etc., although "caesarean section" may be spelled as "cesarean section". There is no reduction of Latin -ae plurals (e.g., larvae); nor where the digraph <ae>/<oe> does not result from the Greek-style ligature as, for example, in maelstrom or toe; the same is true for the British form aeroplane (compare other aero- words such as aerosol). The now chiefly North American airplane is not a respelling but a recoining, modelled after airship and aircraft. The word airplane dates from 1907,[50] at which time the prefix aero- was trisyllabic, often written aëro-.
In Canada, e is generally preferred over oe and often over ae,[citation needed] but oe and ae are sometimes found in academic and scientific writing as well as government publications (for example, the fee schedule of the Ontario Health Insurance Plan) and some words such as palaeontology or aeon. In Australia, it can go either way, depending on the word: for instance, medieval is spelled with the e rather than ae, following the American usage along with numerous other words such as eon or fetus,[51] while other words such as oestrogen or paediatrician are spelled the British way. The Macquarie Dictionary also notes a growing tendency towards replacing ae and oe with e worldwide and with the exception of manoeuvre, all British or American spellings are acceptable variants.[8] Elsewhere, the British usage prevails, but the spellings with just e are increasingly used.[12] Manoeuvre is the only spelling in Australia, and the most common one in Canada, where maneuver and manoeuver are also sometimes found.[12]
The -ize spelling is often incorrectly seen in Britain as an Americanism. It has been in use since the 15th century, predating the -ise spelling by over a century.[52] The verb-forming suffix -ize comes directly from Ancient Greek -ίζειν (-ízein) or Late Latin -izāre, while -ise comes via French -iser.[53][54] The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) recommends -ize and lists the -ise form as an alternative.[54]
Publications by Oxford University Press (OUP)—such as Henry Watson Fowler's A Dictionary of Modern English Usage, Hart's Rules,[55] and The Oxford Guide to English Usage[56]—also recommend -ize. However, Robert Allan's Pocket Fowler's Modern English Usage considers either spelling to be acceptable anywhere but the U.S.[57]
American spelling avoids -ise endings in words like organize, realize and recognize.[58]
British spelling mostly uses -ise (organise, realise, recognise), though -ize is sometimes used.[58] The ratio between -ise and -ize stood at 3:2 in the British National Corpus up to 2002.[59] The spelling -ise is more commonly used in UK mass media and newspapers,[58] including The Times (which switched conventions in 1992),[60] The Daily Telegraph, The Economist and the BBC. The Government of the United Kingdom additionally uses -ise, stating "do not use Americanisms" justifying that the spelling "is often seen as such".[61] The -ize form is known as Oxford spelling and is used in publications of the Oxford University Press, most notably the Oxford English Dictionary, and of other academic publishers[62] such as Nature, the Biochemical Journal and The Times Literary Supplement. It can be identified using the IETF language tag en-GB-oxendict (or, historically, by en-GB-oed).[63]
In Ireland, India, Australia, and New Zealand[64] -ise spellings strongly prevail: the -ise form is preferred in Australian English at a ratio of about 3:1 according to the Macquarie Dictionary.
In Canada, the -ize ending is more common, although the Ontario Public School Spelling Book[65] spelled most words in the -ize form, but allowed for duality with a page insert as late as the 1970s, noting that, although the -ize spelling was in fact the convention used in the OED, the choice to spell such words in the -ise form was a matter of personal preference; however, a pupil having made the decision, one way or the other, thereafter ought to write uniformly not only for a given word, but to apply that same uniformity consistently for all words where the option is found. Just as with -yze spellings, however, in Canada the ize form remains the preferred or more common spelling, though both can still be found, yet the -ise variation, once more common amongst older Canadians, is employed less and less often in favour of the -ize spelling. (The alternate convention offered as a matter of choice may have been due to the fact that although there were an increasing number of American- and British-based dictionaries with Canadian Editions by the late 1970s, these were largely only supplemental in terms of vocabulary with subsequent definitions. It was not until the mid-1990s[66][67] that Canadian-based dictionaries became increasingly common.)
Worldwide, -ize endings prevail in scientific writing and are commonly used by many international organizations, such as United Nations Organizations (such as the World Health Organization and the International Civil Aviation Organization) and the International Organization for Standardization (but not by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). The European Union's style guides require the usage of -ise.[68] Proofreaders at the EU's Publications Office ensure consistent spelling in official publications such as the Official Journal of the European Union (where legislation and other official documents are published), but the -ize spelling may be found in other documents.
The same applies to inflections and derivations such as colonised/colonized and modernisation/modernization.
The ending -yse is British and -yze is American. Thus, in British English analyse, catalyse, hydrolyse and paralyse, but in American English analyze, catalyze, hydrolyze and paralyze.
Analyse was the more common spelling in 17th- and 18th-century English. Some dictionaries of the time, however, preferred analyze, such as John Kersey's of 1702, Nathan Bailey's of 1721 and Samuel Johnson's of 1755. In Canada, -yze is preferred, but -yse is also very common. In South Africa, Australia and New Zealand, -yse is the prevailing form.
English verbs ending in either -lyse or -lyze are derived from the Greek noun λύσις lysis ("release"), with the -ise or -ize suffix added to it, and not the original verb form, whose stem is λυ- ly- without the -s/z- segment. For example, analyse comes from French analyser, formed by haplology from the French analysiser,[72] which would be spelled analysise or analysize in English.
Hart's Rules for Compositors and Readers at the University Press, Oxford states: "In verbs such as analyse, catalyse, paralyse, -lys- is part of the Greek stem (corresponding to the element -lusis) and not a suffix like -ize. The spelling -yze is therefore etymologically incorrect, and must not be used, unless American printing style is being followed."[55]
British and other Commonwealth English use the ending -logue while American English commonly uses the ending -log for words like analog(ue), catalog(ue), dialog(ue), homolog(ue), etc., etymologically derived from Greek -λόγος -logos ("one who speaks (in a certain manner)"). The -gue spelling, as in catalogue, is used in the US, but catalog is more common. In contrast, dialogue, epilogue, prologue, and monologue are extremely common spellings compared to dialog etc. in American English, although both forms are treated as acceptable ways to spell the words[73] (thus, the inflected forms, cataloged and cataloging vs. catalogued and cataloguing).
In Australia, analog is standard for the adjective,[citation needed] but both analogue and analog are current for the noun; in all other cases the -gue endings strongly prevail,[12] for example monologue, except for such expressions as dialog box in computing,[74] which are also used in other Commonwealth countries. In Australia, analog is used in its technical and electronic sense, as in analog electronics.[8] In Canada and New Zealand, analogue is used, but analog has some currency as a technical term[12] (e.g., in electronics, as in "analog electronics" as opposed to "digital electronics" and some video-game consoles might have an analog stick). The -ue is absent worldwide in related words like analogy, analogous, and analogist.
Words such as demagogue, pedagogue, synagogue, from the Greek noun ἀγωγός agōgos ("guide"), are seldom used without -ue even in American English.
Both British and American English use the spelling -gue with a silent -ue for certain words that are not part of the -ogue set, such as tongue, plague, vague, and league. In addition, when the -ue is not silent, as in the words argue, ague and segue, all varieties of English use -gue.
The plural of the noun bus is usually buses, with busses a minor American variant.[75] Conversely, inflections of the verb bus usually double the s in British usage (busses, bussed, bussing) but not American usage (buses, bused, busing).[75] In Australia, both are common, with the American usage slightly more common.[76]
The final consonant of an English word is sometimes doubled in both American and British spelling when adding a suffix beginning with a vowel, for example strip/stripped, which prevents confusion with stripe/striped and shows the difference in pronunciation (see digraph). Generally, this happens only when the word's final syllable is stressed and when it also ends with a lone vowel followed by a lone consonant. In British English, however, a final -l is often doubled even when the final syllable is unstressed.[12] This exception is no longer usual in American English, seemingly because of Noah Webster.[77] The -ll- spellings are nevertheless still deemed acceptable variants by both Merriam-Webster Collegiate and American Heritage dictionaries.
Among consonants other than l, practice varies for some words, such as where the final syllable has secondary stress or an unreduced vowel. In the United States, the spellings kidnaped and worshiped, which were introduced by the Chicago Tribune in the 1920s,[79] are common, but kidnapped and worshipped prevail.[80][81] Kidnapped and worshipped are the only standard British spellings. However, focused is the predominant spelling in both British and American English, focussed being just a minor variant in British English.[82]
Miscellaneous:
Conversely, there are words where British writers prefer a single l and Americans a double l. In American usage, the spelling of words is usually not changed when they form the main part (not prefix or suffix) of other words, especially in newly formed words and in words whose main part is in common use. Words with this spelling difference include appall, enrollment, fulfillment, installment, skillful, thralldom, willful. These words have monosyllabic cognates always written with -ll: pall (verb), roll, fill, stall, skill, thrall, will. Cases where a single l nevertheless occurs in both American and British English include null→annul, annulment; till→until (although some prefer til to reflect the single l in until, sometimes using a leading apostrophe ('til); this should be considered a hypercorrection as till predates the use of until); and others where the connection is not clear or the monosyllabic cognate is not in common use in American English (e.g., null is used mainly as a technical term in law, mathematics, and computer science).
In the UK, a single l is generally preferred over American forms distill, enroll, enthrall, and instill, although ll was formerly used;[85] these are always spelled with ll in American usage. The former British spellings dulness, fulness, and instal are now quite rare.[12] The Scottish tolbooth is cognate with tollbooth, but it has a distinct meaning.
In both American and British usages, words normally spelled -ll usually drop the second l when used as prefixes or suffixes, for example all→almighty, altogether; full→handful, useful; well→welcome, welfare; chill→chilblain.
Both the British fulfil and the American fulfill never use -ll- in the middle (i.e., *fullfill and *fullfil are incorrect).[86][87]
Johnson wavered on this issue. His dictionary of 1755 lemmatizes distil and instill, downhil and uphill.[12]
British English sometimes keeps a silent "e" when adding suffixes where American English does not. Generally speaking, British English drops it in only some cases in which it is needed to show pronunciation whereas American English only uses it where needed.
Both forms of English keep the silent "e" in the words dyeing, singeing, and swingeing[89] (in the sense of dye, singe, and swinge), to distinguish them from dying, singing, swinging (in the sense of die, sing, and swing). In contrast, the verb bathe and the British verb bath both form bathing. Both forms of English vary for tinge and twinge; both prefer cringing, hinging, lunging, syringing.
A "c" is generally soft when followed by an "e", "i", or "y". One word with a pronunciation that is an exception in British English, "sceptic", is spelled "skeptic" in American English. See Miscellaneous spelling differences below.
In a few cases, essentially the same word has a different spelling that reflects a different pronunciation.
As well as the miscellaneous cases listed in the following table, the past tenses of some irregular verbs differ in both spelling and pronunciation, as with smelt (UK) versus smelled (US) (see American and British English grammatical differences: Verb morphology).
| UK | US | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| airplane | Aeroplane, originally a French loanword with a different meaning, is the older spelling.[99] The oldest recorded uses of the spelling airplane are British.[99] According to the OED,[100] "[a]irplane became the standard American term (replacing aeroplane) after this was adopted by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics in 1916. Although A. Lloyd James recommended its adoption by the BBC in 1928, it has until recently been no more than an occasional form in British English." In the British National Corpus,[101] aeroplane outnumbers airplane by more than 7:1 in the UK. The case is similar for the British aerodrome[102] and American airdrome;[103]Aerodrome is used merely as a technical term in Australia, Canada and New Zealand. The prefixes aero- and air- both mean air, with the first coming from the Ancient Greek word ἀήρ (āēr). Thus, the prefix appears in aeronautics, aerostatics, aerodynamics, aeronautical engineering and so on, while the second occurs invariably in aircraft, airport, airliner, airmail etc. In Canada, airplane is more common than aeroplane, although aeroplane is used as part of the regulatory term "ultra-light aeroplane".[104] | |
| aluminium | aluminum | The spelling aluminium is the international standard in the sciences according to the IUPAC recommendations. Humphry Davy, the element's discoverer, first proposed the name alumium, and then later aluminum. The name aluminium was finally adopted to conform with the -ium ending of some metallic elements.[105] Canada uses aluminum and Australia and New Zealand aluminium, according to their respective dictionaries[12] although the Canadian trade association is called the 'Aluminium Association of Canada'[106] |
| ampoule | ampoule or ampule | The -poule spelling and /-puːl/ pronunciation, which reflect the word's French origin, are common in the US,[107] whereas -pule and /-pjuːl/ are rare in Britain.[108] Another US variant is ampul. |
| arse | ass | In vulgar senses "buttocks" ("anus"/"wretch"/"idiot"); unrelated sense "donkey" is ass in both. Arse is very rarely used in the US, though often understood, whereas both are used in British English (with arse being considered vulgar). Arse is also used in Newfoundland. |
| behove | behoove | The 19th century had the spelling behove pronounced to rhyme with move.[109] Subsequently, a pronunciation spelling with doubled oo was adopted in the US, while in Britain a spelling pronunciation rhyming with rove was adopted. |
| bogeyman | boogeyman or boogerman | It is pronounced /ˈboʊɡimæn/ in the UK, so that the American form, boogeyman /ˈbʊɡimæn/, is reminiscent of musical "boogie" to the British ear. Boogerman /ˈbʊɡərmæn/ is common in the Southern US and gives an association with the slang term booger for nasal mucus while the mainstream American spelling of boogeyman does not, but aligns more closely with the British meaning where a bogey is also nasal mucus. |
| brent | brant | For the species of goose. |
| carburettor | carburetor or carburator | The word carburetor comes from the French carbure meaning "carbide".[110][111] In the UK, the word is spelled carburettor and pronounced /ˌkɑːrbjʊˈrɛtər/ or /ˈkɑːrbərɛtər/. In the US, the word may be spelled carburetor or carburator; it is pronounced /ˈkɑːrbəreɪtər/. |
| charivari | shivaree, charivari | In the US, where both terms are mainly regional,[112] charivari is usually pronounced as shivaree, which is also found in Canada and Cornwall,[113] and is a corruption of the French word. |
| closure | cloture | Motion in legislative or parliamentary procedure that quickly ends debate. Borrowed from the French clôture meaning "closure"; cloture remains the name used in the US. The American spelling was initially used when it was adopted into the UK in 1882 but was later changed to closure.[114][115] |
| eyrie | aerie | This noun (not to be confused with the adjective eerie) rhymes with weary and hairy respectively. Both spellings and pronunciations occur in the US. |
| fillet | fillet, filet | Meat or fish. Pronounced the French way (approximately) in the US; Canada follows British pronunciation and distinguishes between fillet, especially as concerns fish, and filet, as concerns certain cuts of beef. McDonald's in the UK and Australia use the US spelling "filet" for their Filet-O-Fish. |
| fount | font | Fount was the standard British spelling for a metal type font (especially in the sense of one consignment of metal type in one style and size, e.g. "the printing company had a fount of that typeface"); lasted until the end of the metal type era and occasionally still seen.[116] From French fondre, "to cast". |
| furore | furor | Furore is a late 18th-century Italian loanword that replaced the Latinate form in the UK in the following century,[117] and is usually pronounced with a voiced final e. The Canadian usage is the same as the American, and Australia has both.[12] |
| grotty | grody | Clippings of grotesque; both are slang terms from the 1960s.[118] |
| haulier | hauler | Haulage contractor; haulier is the older spelling.[12] |
| jemmy | jimmy | In the sense "crowbar". |
| moustache | mustache moustache | In the US, according to the Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary and The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, the British spelling is an also-ran, yet the pronunciation with second-syllable stress is a common variant. In Britain the second syllable is usually stressed. |
| mum(my) | mom(my) | Mother. Mom is sporadically regionally found in the UK (e.g., in West Midlands English). Some British and Irish dialects have mam,[119] and this is often used in Northern English, Hiberno-English, and Welsh English. Scottish English may also use mam, ma, or maw. In the American region of New England, especially in the case of the Boston accent, the British pronunciation of mum is often retained, while it is still spelled mom. In Canada, there are both mom and mum; Canadians often say mum and write mom.[120] In Australia and New Zealand, mum is used. In the sense of a preserved corpse, mummy is always used. |
| naivety, naïveté | naïveté | The American spelling is from French, and American speakers generally approximate the French pronunciation as /nɑːˈiːv(ə)teɪ/, whereas the British spelling conforms to English norms, as also the pronunciation /nɑːˈiːv(ə)ti/[121][122]. In the UK, naïveté is a minor variant, used about 20% of the time in the British National Corpus; in the US, naivete and naiveté are marginal variants, and naivety is almost unattested.[12][123] |
| orientated | oriented | In the UK, Australia and New Zealand, it is common to use orientated (as in family-orientated), whereas in the US, oriented is used exclusively (family-oriented). The same applies to the negative (disorientated, disoriented). Both words have the same origins, coming from "orient" or its offshoot "orientation".[124] |
| pernickety | persnickety | Persnickety is a late 19th-century American alteration of the Scots word pernickety.[125] |
| plonk | plunk | As verb meaning "sit/set down carelessly".[126] |
| potter | putter | As verb meaning "perform minor agreeable tasks".[127] |
| pyjamas | pajamas | The 'y' represents the pronunciation of the original Urdu "pāy-jāma", and in the 18th century spellings such as "paijamahs" and "peijammahs" appeared: this is reflected in the pronunciation /paɪˈdʒɑːməz/ (with the first syllable rhyming with "pie") offered as an alternative in the first edition of the Oxford English Dictionary. Two spellings are also known from the 18th century, but 'pajama' became more or less confined to the US.[128] Canada follows both British and American usage, with both forms commonplace. |
| quin | quint | Abbreviations of quintuplet. |
| scallywag | scalawag scallywag | In the United States (where the word originated, as scalawag),[12] scallywag is not unknown.[129] |
| sledge | sled | In American usage a sled is smaller and lighter than a sledge and is used only over ice or snow, especially for play by young people, whereas a sledge is used for hauling loads over ice, snow, grass, or rough terrain.[130] Australia follows American usage.[131] |
| speciality | specialty | In British English the standard usage is speciality, but specialty occurs in the field of medicine[132] and also as a legal term for a contract under seal. In Canada, specialty prevails. In Australia and New Zealand, both are current.[12] |
| titbit | tidbit | According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the oldest form was "tyd bit", and the alteration to "titbit" was probably under the influence of the obsolete word "tit", meaning a small horse or girl. |
In the UK, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand and Canada, it is more common to end some past tense verbs with a "t" as in learnt or dreamt rather than learned or dreamed.[dubious – discuss][133] However, such spellings are also found in American English. However, in American English, burned and burnt have different usages.
Several verbs have different past tenses or past participles in American and British English:
In the table below, the main spellings are above the accepted alternative spellings.
| United Kingdom (UK) | United States (US) | Remarks |
|---|---|---|
| annexe | annex | To annex is the verb in both British and American usage. However, the noun—an annex(e) of a building—is spelled with an -e at the end in the UK, but not in the US. Australia follows US usage.[51] |
| apophthegm[135] | apothegm[136] | Johnson favoured apophthegm (the ph is silent) which matches Ancient Greek: ἁπόφθεγμα, romanized: apophthegma.[137] Webster favoured apothegm, which matches Latin: apothegma, and was also more common in England until Johnson.[137] There is an unrelated word spelled apothem in all regions.[137] |
| artefact, artifact | artifact | In British English, artefact is the main spelling and artifact a minor variant.[138] In American English, artifact is the usual spelling. Canadians prefer artifact and Australians artefact, according to their respective dictionaries.[12] Artefact reflects Arte-fact(um), the Latin source.[139] |
| axe | ax, axe | Both the noun and verb. The word comes from Old English æx. In the US, both spellings are acceptable and commonly used. The Oxford English Dictionary states that "the spelling ax is better on every ground, of etymology, phonology, and analogy, than axe, which became prevalent in the 19th century; but it ["ax"] is now disused in Britain".[140] |
| camomile, chamomile | chamomile, camomile | The word derives, via French and Latin, from Greek χαμαίμηλον ("earth apple"). The more common British spelling "camomile", corresponding to the immediate French source, is the older in English, while the spelling "chamomile" more accurately corresponds to the ultimate Latin and Greek source.[141] In the UK, according to the OED, "the spelling cha- is chiefly in pharmacy, after Latin; that with ca- is literary and popular". In the US, chamomile dominates in all senses. |
| carat | carat, karat | The spelling with a "k" is used in the US only for the measure of purity of gold. The "c" spelling is universal for weight.[139] |
| cheque | check | Used in banking, hence the terms pay cheque and paycheck. Accordingly, the North American term for what is known as a current account or cheque account in the UK is spelled chequing account in Canada and checking account in the US. Some American financial institutions, notably American Express, use cheque, but this is merely a trademarking affectation. |
| chequer | checker | As in chequerboard/checkerboard, chequered/checkered flag etc. In Canada and Australia, as in the US.[12] |
| chilli | chili, chile | The original Mexican Spanish word is chile, itself derived from the Classical Nahuatl chilli.[12][142] In Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, chile and chilli are given as also variants. |
| cipher, cypher | cipher | |
| cosy | cozy | In all senses (adjective, noun, verb). |
| coulter, colter | colter | |
| doughnut | doughnut, donut | In the US, both are used, with donut indicated as a less common variant of doughnut.[143] |
| draught draft | draft | British English usually uses draft for all senses as the verb;[144] for a preliminary version of a document; for an order of payment (bank draft), and for military conscription (although this last meaning is not as common as in American English). It uses draught for drink from a cask (draught beer); for animals used for pulling heavy loads (draught horse); for a current of air; for a ship's minimum depth of water to float;[145] and for the game draughts, known as checkers in the US. It uses either draught or draft for a plan or sketch (but almost always draughtsman in this sense; a draftsman drafts legal documents).
American English uses draft in all these cases. Canada uses both systems; in Australia, draft is used for technical drawings, is accepted for the "current of air" meaning, and is preferred by professionals in the nautical sense.[12] The pronunciation is always the same for all meanings within a dialect (RP /drɑːft/, General American /dræft/). The spelling draught reflects the older pronunciation, /drɑːxt/. Draft emerged in the 16th century to reflect the change in pronunciation.[146][147] |
| dyke | dike | The spelling with "i" is sometimes found in the UK, but the "y" spelling is rare in the US, where the y distinguishes dike in this sense from dyke, a (usually offensive) slang term for a lesbian. |
| gauge | gauge, gage[148] | Both spellings have existed since Middle English.[149] |
| gauntlet | gauntlet, gantlet | When meaning "ordeal", in the phrase running the ga(u)ntlet, American style guides prefer gantlet.[150] This spelling is unused in Britain[151] and less usual in the US than gauntlet. The word is an alteration of earlier gantlope by folk etymology with gauntlet ("armoured glove"), always spelled thus. |
| glycerine | glycerin | Scientists use the term glycerol. |
| grey | gray | Grey became the established British spelling in the 20th century,[12] but it is a minor variant in American English, according to dictionaries. Canadians tend to prefer grey[why?]. The two spellings are of equal antiquity, and the Oxford English Dictionary states that "each of the current spellings has some analogical support".[152] Both Grey and Gray are found in proper nouns everywhere in the English-speaking world. The name of the dog breed greyhound is never spelled grayhound; the word descends from grighund. |
| grill, grille |
grill, grille | In the US, "grille" refers to that of an automobile, whereas "grill" refers to a device used for heating food. However, it is not uncommon to see both spellings used in the automotive sense,[153] as well as in Australia[154] and New Zealand.[155] Grill is more common overall in both BrE and AmE.[156] |
| hearken | hearken, harken[citation needed] | The word comes from hark. The spelling hearken was probably influenced by hear.[157] Both spellings are found everywhere. |
| idyll | idyl | Idyl is the spelling of the word preferred in the US by the Merriam-Webster dictionary, for the same reason as the double consonant rule; idyll, the original form from Greek eidullion, is also used. |
| jail, gaol | jail | In the UK, gaol and gaoler are used sometimes, apart from literary usage, chiefly to describe a medieval building and guard. Both spellings go back to Middle English: gaol was a loanword from Norman French, while jail was a loanword from central (Parisian) French. In Middle English the two spellings were associated with different pronunciations. In current English, the word, however spelled, is always given the pronunciation originally associated only with the jail spelling /dʒeɪl/. The survival of the gaol spelling in British English is "due to statutory and official tradition".[158] In Australia, the spelling "gaol" is obsolete and only used in historical contexts (e.g. Maitland Gaol, although the modern spelling is used for the tourist attraction). The spelling "jail" has been used throughout the 20th century and was made the preferred spelling by the Government Publishing Style Manual in 1978.[159] However, while the terms "jail" and "prison" are commonly used in Australia, the term "correctional facility" is officially used by most state and territory governments. |
| kerb | curb | For the noun designating the edge of a roadway (or the edge of a British pavement/ American sidewalk/ Australian footpath). Curb is the older spelling, and in the UK and US it is still the proper spelling for the verb meaning restrain.[160] |
| (kilo)gram, (kilo)gramme | (kilo)gram | The dated spelling (kilo)gramme is used sometimes in the UK[161] but never in the US. (Kilo)gram is the only spelling used by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures. The same applies to other related terms such as decagram and hectogram. |
| liquorice | licorice | The American spelling is nearer the Old French source licorece, which is ultimately from Greek glykyrrhiza.[162] The British spelling was influenced by the unrelated word liquor.[163] Licorice prevails in Canada and it is common in Australia, but it is rarely found in the UK. Liquorice is all but nonexistent in the US ("Chiefly British", according to dictionaries).[12] |
| midriff | midriff, midrif[164][165] | |
| mollusc | mollusk | The related adjective may be spelled molluscan or molluskan. |
| mould | mold | In all senses of the word. Both spellings have been used since the 16th century.[166] In Canada, both spellings are used.[12] In Australian and New Zealand, "mold" refers to a form for casting a shape while "mould" refers to the fungus. |
| moult | molt | |
| neurone | neuron | Canada and Australia generally use the American "neuron" according to their relevant dictionaries. |
| omelette | omelet, omelette | The omelet spelling is the older of the two, in spite of the etymology (French omelette).[12] Omelette prevails in Canada and Australia. |
| plough | plow | Both spellings have existed since Middle English. In England, plough became the main spelling in the 18th century.[167] Although plow was Noah Webster's pick, plough continued to have some currency in the US, as the entry in Webster's Third (1961) implies. Newer dictionaries label plough as "chiefly British". The word snowplough/snowplow, originally an Americanism, predates Webster's dictionaries and was first recorded as snow plough. Canada has both plough and plow,[12] although snowplow is more common. In the US, "plough" sometimes describes a horsedrawn kind while "plow" refers to a gasoline (petrol) powered kind.[citation needed] |
| primaeval | primeval | Primeval is also common in the UK but etymologically 'ae' is nearer the Latin source primus first + aevum age.[168] |
| programme, program | program | While "program" is used in British English in the case of computer programs, "programme" is the spelling most commonly used for all other meanings. However, in American English, "program" is the preferred form. |
| rack and ruin | wrack and ruin | Several words like "rack" and "wrack" have been conflated, with both spellings thus accepted as variants for senses connected to torture (orig. rack) and ruin (orig. wrack, cf. wreck)[169] In "(w)rack and ruin", the W-less variant is now prevalent in the UK but not the US.[170] The term, however, is rare in the US. |
| sceptic, skeptic | skeptic | The American spelling, akin to Greek, is the earliest known spelling in English.[171] It was preferred by Fowler, and is used by many Canadians, where it is the earlier form.[12] Sceptic also pre-dates the European settlement of the US and it follows the French sceptique and Latin scepticus. In the mid-18th century, Dr Johnson's dictionary listed skeptic without comment or alternative, but this form has never been popular in the UK;[172] sceptic, an equal variant in the old Webster's Third (1961), has now become "chiefly British". Australians generally follow the British usage (with the notable exception of the Australian Skeptics). All of these versions are pronounced with a /k/ (a hard "c"), though in French that letter is silent and the word is pronounced like septique. |
| slew, slue | slue | Meaning "to turn sharply; a sharp turn", the preferred spelling differs. Meaning "a great number" is usually slew in all regions.[173] |
| smoulder | smolder | Both spellings go back to the 16th century, and have existed since Middle English.[139][174] |
| storey, storeys | story, stories | Level of a building. The letter "e" is used in the UK and Canada to differentiate between levels of buildings and a story as in a literary work.[12] Story is the earlier spelling. The Oxford English Dictionary states that this word is "probably the same word as story [in its meaning of "narrative"] though the development of sense is obscure."[175] One of the first uses of the (now British) spelling "storey" was by Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852 (Uncle Tom's Cabin xxxii). |
| sulphate, sulfate[176] | sulfate, sulphate | The spelling sulfate is the more common variant in British English in scientific and technical usage; see the entry on sulfur and the decisions of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)[177] and the UK's Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC).[178] |
| sulphur | sulfur, sulphur | Sulfur is the preferred spelling by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) since 1971 or 1990[177] and by the UK's Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC) since 1992.[178] Sulfur is used by scientists in all countries and has been actively taught in chemistry in British schools since December 2000,[179] but the spelling sulphur prevails in British, Irish and Australian English, and it is also found in some American place names (e.g., Sulphur, Louisiana, and White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia). Use of both variant f~ph spellings continued in Britain until the 19th century, when the word was standardized as sulphur.[180] On the other hand, sulfur is the form that was chosen in the United States, whereas Canada uses both. Oxford Dictionaries note that "in chemistry and other technical uses ... the -f- spelling is now the standard form for this and related words in British as well as US contexts, and is increasingly used in general contexts as well."[181] Some American English usage guides suggest sulfur for technical usage and both sulfur and sulphur in common usage and in literature, but American dictionaries list sulphur as a less common or chiefly British variant.[182][183][184][185] The variation between f and ph spellings is also found in the word's ultimate source: Latin sulfur, sulphur,[186] but this was due to Hellenization of the original Latin word sulpur to sulphur in the erroneous belief that the Latin word came from Greek. This spelling was later reinterpreted as representing an /f/ sound and resulted in the spelling sulfur which appears in Latin toward the end of the Classical period. (The true Greek word for sulfur, θεῖον, is the source of the international chemical prefix thio-.) In 12th-century Anglo-French, the word became sulfre. In the 14th century, the erroneously Hellenized Latin -ph- was restored in Middle English sulphre. By the 15th century, both full Latin spelling variants sulfur and sulphur became common in English. |
| through | through, thru[187] | "Thru" is typically used in the US as shorthand. It may be acceptable in informal writing, but not for formal documents. "Thru" is commonly used on official road signs in the US, as in "no thru traffic", to save space.
In the COBOL programming language, THRU is accepted as an abbreviation of the keyword THROUGH. Since programmers like to keep their code brief, THRU is generally the preferred form of this keyword. |
| tyre | tire | The outer portion of a wheel. In Canada, as in the US, tire is the older spelling, but both were used in the 15th and 16th centuries (for a metal tire). Tire became the settled spelling in the 17th century but tyre was revived in the UK in the 19th century for rubber/pneumatic tyres, possibly because it was used in some patent documents,[12] though many continued to use tire for the iron variety. The Times newspaper was still using tire as late as 1905. For the verb meaning "to grow weary" both American and British English use only the tire spelling. |
| vice | vise, vice | For the two-jawed workbench tool, Americans and Canadians retain the very old distinction between vise (the tool) and vice (the sin, and also the Latin prefix meaning a deputy), both of which are vice in the UK and Australia.[12] Regarding the "sin" and "deputy" senses of vice, all varieties of English use -c-. Thus, American English, just as other varieties, has vice admiral, vice president, and vice principal—never vise for any of those. |
| whisky (Scotland), whiskey (Ireland) | whiskey, whisky | In the United States, the whiskey spelling is dominant; whisky is encountered less frequently, but is used on the labels of some major brands (e.g., Early Times, George Dickel, Maker's Mark, and Old Forester) and is used in the relevant US federal regulations.[188] In Canada, whisky is dominant. Often the spelling is selected based on the origin of the product rather than the location of the intended readership, so it may be considered a faux pas to refer to "Scotch whiskey" or "Irish whisky". Both ultimately derive from "uisce beatha" (Irish) and "uisge beatha" (Scottish) meaning 'water of life'. |
| yoghurt, yogurt, yoghourt | yogurt, yoghurt | Yoghurt is an also-ran in the US, as is yoghourt in the UK. Although the Oxford Dictionaries have always preferred yogurt, in current British usage yoghurt seems to be prevalent. In Canada, yogurt prevails, despite the Canadian Oxford preferring yogourt, which has the advantage of satisfying bilingual (English and French) packaging requirements.[6][189] The British spelling is dominant in Australia. Whatever the spelling is, the word has different pronunciations: /ˈjɒɡərt/ in the UK, /ˈjoʊɡərt/ in New Zealand, the US, Ireland, and Australia. The word comes from the Turkish language word yoğurt.[190] The voiced velar fricative represented by ğ in the modern Turkish (Latinic) alphabet was traditionally written gh in the Latin script of the Ottoman Turkish (Arabic) alphabet used before 1928. |
British English often prefers hyphenated compounds, such as anti-smoking, whereas American English discourages the use of hyphens in compounds where there is no compelling reason, so antismoking is much more common.[191] Many dictionaries do not point out such differences. Canadian and Australian usage is mixed, although Commonwealth writers generally hyphenate compounds of the form noun plus phrase (such as editor-in-chief).[12] Commander-in-chief prevails in all forms of English.
Compound verbs in British English are hyphenated more often than in American English.[192]
Acronyms pronounced as words are often written in title case by Commonwealth writers, but usually as upper case by Americans: for example, Nasa / NASA or Unicef / UNICEF.[198] This does not apply to abbreviations that are pronounced as individual letters (referred to by some as "initialisms"), such as US, IBM, or PRC (the People's Republic of China), which are virtually always written as upper case. However, sometimes title case is still used in the UK, such as Pc (Police Constable).[199]
Contractions where the final letter is present are often written in British English without full stops/periods (Mr, Mrs, Dr, Fr, and St — for "Saint" but not for "Street"). Abbreviations where the final letter is not present generally do take full stops/periods (such as vol., etc., i.e., ed.); British English shares this convention with the French: Mlle, Mme, Dr, Ste, but M. for Monsieur. In American and Canadian English, abbreviations like St., Ave., Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr., and Jr., usually require full stops/periods. Some initials are usually upper case in the US but lower case in the UK: liter/litre and its compounds (2 L or 25 mL vs 2 l or 25 ml);[200][201] and ante meridiem and post meridiem (10 P.M. or 10 PM vs 10 p.m. or 10 pm).[202][203][204] Both AM/PM and a.m./p.m. are acceptable in American English, but U.S. style guides overwhelmingly prefer a.m./p.m.[205]
The use of quotation marks, also called inverted commas or speech marks, is complicated by the fact that there are two kinds: single quotation marks (') and double quotation marks ("). British usage, at one stage in the recent past, preferred single quotation marks for ordinary use, but double quotation marks are again now increasingly common; American usage has always preferred double quotation marks, as have Canadian, Australian, and New Zealand English. It is the practice to alternate the type of quotation marks used where there is a quotation within a quotation.[206]
The convention used to be, and in American English still is, to put full stops (periods) and commas inside the quotation marks, irrespective of the sense. British style now prefers to punctuate according to the sense, in which punctuation marks only appear inside quotation marks if they were there in the original. Formal British English practice requires a full stop to be put inside the quotation marks if the quoted item is a full sentence that ends where the main sentence ends, but it is common to see the stop outside the ending quotation marks.[207]
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