Metropolis of Kiev and all Rus'

Metropolis of Lithuania

Having escaped the brunt of the Mongol invasions, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania expanded into neighbouring areas that had been weakened by internal strife and by the Mongol predations. While these expansions were usually at the expense of slavic principalities of the former Kievan Rus', sometimes they were voluntary. For example, the dukes of the Principality of Turov began to cooperate more and more with the Grand Duchy and by the early 14th century the Principality non-violently joined the Grand Duchy. In 1320, most of the principalities of western Rus' were either made into vassals or were directly annexed by Lithuania. In 1321, Gediminas captured Kiev, sending Stanislav, the last Rurikid to rule Kiev, into exile. Gediminas also re-established the permanent capital of the Grand Duchy in Vilnius,^[8] presumably moving it from Old Trakai in 1323.^[9] The state continued to expand its territory under the reign of Grand Duke Algirdas and his brother Kęstutis, who both ruled the state in harmony.^[10][11]

At the time, religious allegiance played an important role in politics. While adhering to the pagan faith, Grand Dukes Vytenis and Gediminas understood the political importance of controlling the Church. Furthermore, the Metropolitan of Kiev and all Rus'—Peter of Moscow—moved the seat of the metropolis to Moscow.^[12] The lack of a metropolitan bishop for the inhabitants of the Grand Principality impeded the development of the idea of a single Lithuanian state that was being advanced by the ruling family.^[13] At the same time, the religious leaders in Rus' realised that the lack of a separate metropolis would leave the Lithuanian state susceptible to the influence of the Latin Church. In attempting to preserve the continued cultural and religious unity of Rus', the Orthodox leaders realised that they might ultimately drive the people into the arms of Rome.^[14] By the mid-1350's, the senior clergy of the Rus' in Lithuania were agreed that a separate Lithuanian metropolis was the lesser of two evils. The question was raised in their letters to patriarchate in Constantinople between 1328 and 1347.^[15] Consequently, the Grand Dukes of Lithuania requested the Patriarch to establish a separate diocese that was independent from Moscow.

The first Metropolitan of Lithuania—Theophilus—reigned from 1317 to 1329. Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos established the metropolis while Patriarch John XIII of Constantinople ordained Theophilus who was of Rus' origin.^[16] When Theophilus died in 1329, the Metropolitan of Kiev and all Rus'—Theognostus—succeeded in restoring unity in the Rus' lands by claiming that there were too few Christians in pagan Lithuania.^[17] The seat of the Metropolis of Lithuania was left vacant between 1329 and 1355.^[18] In the meantime, Theognostus had authority over all Rus' and Lithuania until his own death in 1353. For two years, the see was again vacant. It suited the metropolitans in Moscow to brand the Lithuanians as fire worshippers. Grand Duke Algirdas promoted his candidate Roman for the metropolis of Lithuania. Roman was a monk from Tver and a relative of Algirdas' wife Uliana. Algirdas agreed to cease his support for his previous candidate Teodoryt on the grounds that his ordination was uncanonical, on condition that Roman was also appointed as Metropolitan of All Rus'. Algirdas even promised to convert to Orthodoxy in exchange for the ordination of Roman.^[19] In Constantinople, Patriarch Callistus I was deposed and was succeeded by Patriarch Philotheus I of Constantinople (November 1353 – 1354). In 1355, a restored Callistus, in agreement with Philotheus, ordained Roman as Metropolitan of All Rus'.^[20]

In 1355, after diplomatic struggles, Patriarch Callistus I of Constantinople united the Metropolis of Halych with the Metropolis of Lithuania under the leadership of Roman. Callistus also confirmed that Alexius remained in possession of the "Metropolis of Kiev and all Rus'".^[21] All eparchies of the Halych metropolis were transferred to the jurisdiction of a united "Metropolis of Lithuania-Volhynia" (also known as "Lithuania–Halych").

There were now two metropolitans for all Rus' (see Metropolis of Lithuania-Volhynia below).

Metropolis of Halych

In 1241, the Kingdom of Galicia-Volhynia was captured by the Mongol army.^[22] In 1245, King Daniel of Galicia won a decisive battle over the Hungarian-Polish army of his opponent Rostislav Mikhailovich and united Halychia with Volhynia. After this victory, he built his residence in Kholm in the western part of Volhynia. After Daniel's visit to Batu Khan, he made payments of tribute to the Golden Horde.

In 1299, the Metropolitan of Kiev and all Rus'—Maximus—transferred the metropolitan seat from Kiev to the city of Vladimir-on-Klyazma. In reaction to this move, King Daniel's son and successor on the throne—Leo I—petitioned the Ecumenical Patriarch to erect a new metropolis in the territory of his kingdom. Leo died in 1301 but his son—Yuri I of Galicia—succeeded in securing the charter of establishment from Patriarch Athanasius I of Constantinople with the approval of Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos.

The first Metropolitan of Halych was Niphont (reigned 1303–1305). Following his death, the see lay vacant for three years. During that time, there were civil struggles with neighbouring realms. A Catholic from the Polish Piast dynasty—Yuri II Boleslav—succeeded to the throne of Halych. In 1308, he nominated Peter of Moscow as Metropolitan of Kiev and all Rus'. In the absence of a hierarch in Halych, Peter was effectively the administrator of that metropolis as well as his own metropolis of Kiev. In 1325, Peter moved his metropolitan seat 200 kilometers (120 mi) to the west from Vladimir to Moscow. The second metropolitan was Gabriel (reigned 1326–1329). From 1329–1337 the see was again vacant. During this period the metropolis was effectively administered by Theognostus of Kiev (as Metropolitan of Kiev and all Rus'). The last metropolitan was Teodore (reigned 1337–1347). Following his death in 1347, the Grand Prince of Moscow—Simeon—conspired with Theognostus of Kiev to convince Emperor John VI Kantakouzenos to disestablish the Halych metropolis. At that time, the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia was convulsed by the Galicia–Volhynia Wars which resulted in the kingdom being sundered between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland.

Metropolis of Lithuania-Volhynia

Theognostus of Kiev died in 1353. He was succeeded in the Metropolis of Kiev and all Rus' by Alexius (reigned 1354–1378). In 1355, after diplomatic struggles, a restored Patriarch Callistus I of Constantinople, in agreement with Philotheus, united the Metropolis of Halych with the Metropolis of Lithuania under the leadership of Metropolitan Roman. Callistus also confirmed that Alexius remained in possession of the "Metropolis of Kiev and all Rus'".^[21] All eparchies of the Halych metropolis were transferred to the jurisdiction of a united metropolis, which was also known as the "Metropolis of Lithuania-Volhynia".

There were now two metropolitans for all Rus'; the ensuing struggle between them continued until Roman's death in 1362. Initially, Roman won over some bishops. He failed, however, to secure the support of the Bishop of Tver. Both Metropolitans travelled to Constantinople to make their appeals in person. In 1356, their cases were heard by a Patriarchal Synod.^[23] The Holy Synod confirmed that Alexius was the Metropolitan of Kiev while Roman was also confirmed in his see at Novogorodek. In 1361, the two sees were formally divided. Shortly afterwards, in the winter of 1361/62, Roman died; at that point, the Lithuanian metropolitanate was effectively dissolved. From 1362 to 1371, the territory of the former metropolises of Halych and of Lithuania were officially lowered to the rank of bishoprics within the Kiev metropolis.^[21] These changes, however, did not end the political rivalry for religious influence in Rus'.

Metropolis of Kiev and Lithuania

The Grand Duke of Lithuania—Algirdas—attacked Muscovy on three occasions between 1368 and 1372 as part of the Lithuanian–Muscovite War. Hostilities between Moscow and Lithuania resumed; in August 1375 Muscovite troops captured Tver. Patriarch Philotheus I agreed to grant the petition to create a separate metropolis in the territory of the Grand Duchy. Philotheus also listened to the petitions of the Eastern Orthodox princes to have Cyprian as their metropolitan. In 1375, Philotheus consecrated Cyprian as "Metropolitan of Kiev and Lithuania".^[24] At the Council of Constantinople,^{[which?][when?]} it was decided that "upon the death of Alexius, Cyprian should become the Metropolitan of Kiev and all Rus'".^[25][24]

Reunification of the Metropolis of Kiev and all Rus'

In 1325, the metropolitan seat was moved from Vladimir to Moscow^[26] by Metropolitan Peter of Moscow under the instruction of Grand Prince Ivan of Moscow.^[27] During the 14th century, the church was de facto split in two or three. Starting from the 15th century, the church was finally reunited and continued to be governed from Moscow by the Metropolitan of Kiev and all Rus.

On 12 February 1376, Alexius died; by the terms of the agreement with the patriarch, Cyprian was entitled to rule the religious affairs of all Rus'. On 6 June 1376, Cyprian arrived at his residence in Kiev. He attempted, but failed, to get recognition of his rights in the whole metropolitan diocese from the Grand Duke of Moscow Dmitri Donskoi, Novgorod, and Pskov. However, in the same year, there was a palace mutiny in Constantinople in which power was usurped by Andronikos IV. The new emperor deposed Patriarch Philotheus and installed Macarius in his stead. Macarius assured Dmitriy of Moscow in writing that he denied Cyprian's claims to the Church of Great Rus. He also offered to send the Grand Duke's nominee—Mitya—to Constantinople for his consecration as metropolitan.^[28] Mitya, however, died (1379) within sight of Constantinople.^[28]: 218 Mitya was accompanied by Pimen. The succeeding Patriarch—Nilus—may have been tricked by Pimen using forged letters into consecrating Pimen in Mitya's place in June 1380.^{[28]: 219–220}

As a result, Cyprian's rights to the united metropolis was disputed by Pimen (1380–1382). Dmitry, upon hearing the news of Pimen's consecration, angrily swore not to accept Pimen upon his return. Thus Pimen's metropolitanate was contested from the start, and he accomplished little as a result. Cyprian's rights were also disputed by Dionysius (1384–1385). Dionysius died in detention in Kiev on 15 October 15, 1385. After this, Cyprian enjoyed undisputed leadership of the Church throughout the Rus' and Lithuanian lands. He died in 1406.

The Lithuanian masses remained pagan until suddenly, to the surprise of all, Lithuanians, Russians, and Teutonic Knights alike, they were brought to Roman Christianity through royal fiat. In 1387, Algirdas' successor, King Władysław II Jagiełło, converted Lithuania to Catholicism. This marked the beginning of a long period of hardship for the Orthodox Church in western Rus'.^[29]

In 1414, Grand Duke Vytautas attempted to re-establish the Metropolis of Lithuania. He arranged for a synod of bishops to elect Gregory Tsamblak as the Metropolitan of Lithuania.^[30] The consecration took place without the consent of Patriarch Euthymius II of Constantinople and was not recognized in Moscow.

Exarchate of Ukraine

As with the previous Florentine union, the Union of Brest was not accepted by all orthodox clergymen causing some eparchies (dioceses) to continue their loyalty to Constantinople. In 1620 the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem Theophanes consecrated Job Boretsky as the new Metropolitan of Kiev, Galicia and all Ruthenia and the Exarch of Ukraine. This appointment revitalized Eastern Orthodox churches and deepened the schism.