Rigvedic rivers

Identification of Rigvedic hydronyms has engaged multiple historians; it is the single most important way of establishing the geography and chronology of the early Vedic period.^[1][2] Rivers with certain identifications stretch from eastern Afghanistan to the western Gangetic plain, clustering in the Punjab. The Rigveda mentions the sapta-sindhavaḥ (Sanskrit: सप्तसिन्धवः, seven rivers), along with other rivers:

“He has surveyed eight summits of the Earth, three shore or desert regions, seven rivers.” (aṣṭaú vy àkhyat kakúbhaḥ pr̥thivyā́s trī́ dhánva yójanā saptá síndhūn RV.I.35.8).^[3]

Sapta-sindhavaḥ is cognate with Avestan hapta həndu, and is interpreted as referring to Punjab.^[a] The region's name comes from پنج, panj, 'five' and آب, āb, 'water' thus "five waters", a Persian calque of the Indo-Aryan Pancha-nada meaning "five rivers".^[4]

The same names were often imposed on different rivers as the Vedic culture migrated eastward from around Afghanistan (where they stayed for a considerable time) to the subcontinent via Punjab.^[1]

Multiple hydronyms are located in the Rigvedic corpus; they are slotted according to rough geographical locations, following the scheme of Michael Witzel.^[1] Alongside, opinions of scholars about modern correlates are provided:^[5][6]

Indus:

• Síndhu – Identified with Indus.^[5] The central lifeline of RV.^[6]

Northwestern Rivers:

• Tr̥ṣṭā́mā – Blažek identifies with Gilgit.^[5] Witzel notes it to be unidentified.^[1]
• Susártu – Unidentified.
• Ánitabhā – Unidentified.
• Rasā́ – Described once to be on the upper Indus; at other times a mythical entity.^[5]
• Mehatnū – A tributary of Gomatī́.^[5] Unidentifiable.^[1]
• Śvetyā́ – Unidentified.
• Kúbhā – Identified with Kabul river.
• Krúmu – Identified with Kurrum.
• Suvā́stu – Identified with Swat.
• Gomatī́ – Identified with Gomal.
• Saráyu / Harōiiu – Blažek identifies with Sarju.^[5] Witzel identifies with Hari.^[1]
• Kuṣávā – Probably the Kunar River.
• Yavyā́vatī – Noted to be a branch of Gomatī́. Witzel as well as Blažek identifies with Zhob River.^[1][5] Dähnhardt comments it to be synonymous to Yamúnā or flowing very close to it.^[6]

Eastern tributaries:

• Suṣómā – Identified with Soan.
• Arjikiya – Blažek identifies with Haro.^[5] Witzel speculates it to be Poonch or Tawi.^[1]
• Rivers of Punjab:
  • Vitástā – Identified with Jhelum.
  • Asiknī́ – Identified with Chenab.
  • Iravatī – Identified with Ravi.
  • Vípāśā – Identified with Beas.
  • Śutudrī́ – Identified with Sutlej.
  • Marúdvr̥dhā – Identified with Mahuvardhavan.^[5]

Haryana:

• Sarasvati^[7]
  • Āpayā́ and Āpayā́ – Streams/rivers of Sarasvati basin.^[5]
  • Drishadvati^[5][6][8]

Eastern Rivers:

• Áśmanvatī – Identified with Assan.
• Yamúnā – Identified with Yamuna.
  • Aṃśumátī – Probably an epithet for Yamúnā.^[5]
• Gáṅgā – Identified with Ganga.