Drum and bass

20th century

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, a growing nightclub and overnight outdoor event culture gave birth to new genres in the rave scene including breakbeat hardcore, darkcore, and hardcore jungle, which combined sampled syncopated beats, or breakbeats, and other samples from a wide range of different musical genres and, occasionally, samples of music, dialogue and effects from films and television programmes. From as early as 1991, tracks were beginning to strip away some of the heavier sampling and "hardcore noises" and create more bassline and breakbeat led tracks. Some tracks increasingly took their influence from reggae and this style would become known as hardcore jungle (later to become simply jungle), whilst darkcore (with producers such as Goldie, Doc Scott, 4hero, and 2 Bad Mice) were experimenting with sounds and creating a blueprint for drum and bass, especially noticeable by late 1993.

By 1994, jungle had begun to gain mainstream popularity, and fans of the music (often referred to as junglists) became a more recognisable part of youth subculture. The genre further developed, incorporating and fusing elements from a wide range of existing musical genres, including the raggamuffin sound, dancehall, MC chants, dub basslines, and increasingly complex, heavily edited breakbeat percussion. Despite the affiliation with the ecstasy-fuelled rave scene, jungle also inherited associations with violence and criminal activity, both from the gang culture that had affected the UK's hip-hop scene and as a consequence of jungle's often aggressive or menacing sound and themes of violence (usually reflected in the choice of samples). However, this developed in tandem with the often positive reputation of the music as part of the wider rave scene and dancehall-based Jamaican music culture prevalent in London. By 1995, whether as a reaction to, or independently of this cultural schism, some jungle producers began to move away from the ragga-influenced style and create what would become collectively labelled, for convenience, as drum and bass.^[8]

As the genre became generally more polished and sophisticated technically, it began to expand its reach from pirate radio to commercial stations and gain widespread acceptance (circa 1995–1997). It also began to split into recognisable subgenres such as hardstep, jump up, ragga, techstep, and what was known at the time as intelligent. As more melodic and often jazz-influenced subgenres of drum and bass called atmospheric or intelligent (Blame and Blu Mar Ten) and jazzstep (4Hero, Roni Size) gained mainstream appeal, additional subgenres emerged including techstep in 1996, drawing influence from techno.

21st century

The emergence of related styles such as liquid funk in the 2000s brought a wave of new artists (Carlito & Addiction, Solid State/DJ Dextrous, Subject 13 and Fellowship being amongst the early pioneers to champion the sound) incorporating new ideas and techniques, supporting continual evolution of the genre.

As of 2014, drum and bass makes frequent appearances in mainstream media and popular culture including in television, as well as being a major reference point for subsequent genres such as grime and dubstep,^[9] and producing successful artists including Chase & Status, Netsky, Metrik, and Pendulum.

In 2021, Pitchfork noted a "rising zoomer affinity" for the genre in the 2020s.^[10]

Purple Sneakers described a "drum n' bass Renaissance" occurring at the time of the publication of their articles in 2023.^[11]

Influences

A very obvious and strong influence on jungle and drum and bass, thanks to the British African-Caribbean sound system scene, is the original Jamaican dub and reggae sound, with pioneers like King Tubby, Peter Tosh, Sly & Robbie, Bill Laswell, Lee Perry, Mad Professor, Roots Radics, Bob Marley and Buju Banton heavily influencing the music.^[16][17] This influence has lessened with time, but is still evident, with many tracks containing ragga vocals.

As a musical style built around funk or syncopated rock and roll breaks, James Brown, Al Green, Marvin Gaye, Ella Fitzgerald, Gladys Knight & the Pips, Billie Holiday, Aretha Franklin, Otis Redding, the Supremes, the Commodores, Jerry Lee Lewis, and even Michael Jackson acted as funk influences on the music.^{[18][19][20][21][22][23]} Jazz pioneer Miles Davis has been named as a possible influence.^[24] Blues artists such as Lead Belly, Robert Johnson, Charlie Patton, Muddy Waters and B. B. King have also been cited by producers as inspirations. Even modern avant-garde composers such as Henryk Gorecki have received mention.^[25] One of the most influential tracks in drum and bass history was "Amen Brother" by The Winstons, which contains a drum solo that has since become known as the "Amen break", which, after being extensively used in early hip hop music, went on to become the basis for the rhythms used in drum and bass.^[6]

Kevin Saunderson released a series of bass-heavy, minimal techno cuts as Reese/The Reese Project in the late '80s, which were hugely influential in drum and bass. One of his more famous basslines (Reese – "Just Want Another Chance", Incognito Records, 1988) was indeed sampled on Renegade's Terrorist and countless others since, being known simply as the 'Reese' bassline. He followed these up with equally influential (and bassline-heavy) tracks in the UK hardcore style as Tronik House in 1991–1992. Another Detroit artist who was important to the scene was Carl Craig. The sampled-up jazz break on Craig's Bug in the Bassbin was also influential on the newly emerging sound. DJs at the Heaven nightclub on "Rage" nights used to play it as fast as their Technics record decks would go, pitching it up in the process.^[26]

By the late 1980s and early 1990s, the tradition of breakbeat use in hip hop production had influenced the sound of breakbeat hardcore, which in turn led to the emergence of jungle, drum and bass, and other genres that shared the same use of broken beats.^[27][28] Drum and bass shares many musical characteristics with hip-hop, though it is nowadays mostly stripped of lyrics. Grandmaster Flash, Roger Troutman, Afrika Bambaata, Run DMC, Mac Dre, Public Enemy, Schooly D, N.W.A, Kid Frost, Wu-Tang Clan, Dr. Dre, Mos Def, Beastie Boys and the Pharcyde are very often directly sampled, regardless of their general influence.^[29]

Clearly, drum and bass has been influenced by other music genres, though influences from sources external to the electronic dance music scene perhaps lessened following the shifts from jungle to drum and bass, and through to so-called "intelligent drum and bass" and techstep.^{[30][31][32][33]} It still remains a fusion music style.

Some tracks are illegally remixed and released on white label (technically bootleg), often to acclaim. For example, DJ Zinc's remix of Fugees' "Ready or Not", also known as "Fugee Or Not", was eventually released with the Fugees' permission after talk of legal action, though ironically, the Fugees' version infringed Enya's copyright to an earlier song.^[29] White labels, along with dubplates, played an important part in drum and bass musical culture.

Drum elements

Synthesis

Of equal importance is the TR-808 kick drum, an artificially down-pitched or elongated bass drum sound sampled from Roland's classic TR-808 drum machine, and a sound which has been subject to an enormous amount of experimentation over the years.^[37]

Bass elements

The genre places great importance on the bassline, in this case a deep sub-bass musical pattern which can be felt physically through powerful sound systems due to the low-range frequencies favoured. There has been considerable exploration of different timbres in the bass line region, particularly within techstep. The bass lines most notably originate from sampled sources or synthesizers. Bass lines performed with a bass instrument, whether it is electric, acoustic or a double bass, are less common.

Atmospheric elements

Atmospheric pads and samples may be added over the fundamental drum and bass to provide different feels. These have included "light" elements such as ambient pads as found in ambient electronica and samples of jazz and world musics, or "dark" elements such as dissonant pads and sci-fi samples to induce anxiety in the dancer.

Vocal and melodic elements

Old-school DnB usually included an MC providing vocals. Some styles (such as jazz-influenced DnB) also include melodic instruments soloing over the music.

Tempo

Drum and bass is usually between 160 and 180 BPM, in contrast to other breakbeat-based dance styles such as nu skool breaks, which maintain a slower pace at around 130–140 BPM. A general upward trend in tempo has been observed during the evolution of drum and bass. The earliest forms of drum and bass clocked in at around 130 bpm in 1990/1991, speeding up to around 155–165 BPM by 1993. Since around 1996, drum and bass tempos have predominantly stayed in the 170–180 range. Recently, some producers have started to once again produce tracks with slower tempos (that is, in the 150-170 bpm range), but the mid-170s tempo is still a hallmark of the drum and bass sound.^[29][40]

A track combining the same elements (broken beat, bass, production techniques) as a drum and bass track, but with a slower tempo (say 140 BPM), might not be drum and bass, but instead may qualify as a drum and bass-influenced breakbeat track.^[41]

Drop

Many mixing points begin or end with a "drop". The drop is the point in a track where a switch of rhythm or bassline occurs and usually follows a recognisable build section and breakdown. Sometimes, the drop is used to switch between tracks, layering components of different tracks, as the two records may be simply ambient breakdowns at this point. Some DJs prefer to combine breakbeats, a more difficult exercise. Some drops are so popular that the DJ will "rewind" or "reload" or "lift up" the record by spinning it back and restarting it at the build. The drop is often a key point from the point of view of the dance floor, since the drum breaks often fade out to leave an ambient intro playing. When the beats re-commence they are often more complex and accompanied by a heavier bassline, encouraging the crowd to begin dancing.

DJ performance

Although this practice has declined in popularity,^[43] DJs are often accompanied by one or more MCs, drawing on the genre's roots in hip hop and reggae/ragga.^[44]

MCs do not generally receive the same level of recognition as producer/DJs, and some events are specifically marketed as being MC-free. There are relatively few well-known drum and bass MCs, mainly based in London and Bristol, including Stevie Hyper D (deceased), the Ragga Twins, Dynamite MC, MC Skibadee(deceased) and MC Tali.^[45]

Live instrument performance

Many musicians have adapted drum and bass to live performances, which feature instruments such as drums (acoustic or electronic), samplers, synthesizers, turntables, bass (either upright or electric) and guitars (acoustic or electric). Samplers have also been used live by assigning samples to a specific drum pad or key on drum pads or synthesizers. MCs are frequently featured in live performances.

Mainstream drum and bass

• Jump-up, appearing in the mid-1990s,^[47] employs heavy and energetic drum and bass,^[47] characterised by robotic and heavy bass sounds. It also is generally less serious and contains more humour than other subgenres.^[48][49]
• Drumstep or halftime is a combination of drum and bass and dubstep, where the beat structure is half time, while the remaining elements still adhere to the usual sub-bass and tempo of drum and bass.^[50][51][52]
• Drill 'n' bass (also known as fungle and spunk jazz) consists of very complex and chopped up rhythms, rapid and irregularly syncopated basslines and often ambient elements similar to earlier subgenres of IDM^[53] (like ambient techno). The subgenre was developed by names like Squarepusher, Luke Vibert (known as Plug) and Aphex Twin.

Light drum and bass

• Intelligent drum & bass or intelligent jungle is a smoother style, influenced by ambient music, chillout, jazz and soul music. It was pioneered by such artists as Omni Trio, Peshay, William Orbit, Seba, Blu Mar Ten, Deep Blue, Photek, LTJ Bukem^[48] and his label Good Looking Records,^[54] and the label Moving Shadow.
• Jazzstep, jazzy jungle, jazz & bass or drum & jazz demonstrates heavy influence by jazz and trip hop. It uses typical jazz scales, rhythms and instrumentation.^[48] It was pioneered by artists such as Alex Reece and LTJ Bukem, and was also utilized in DJ sets by early trip hop producers and DJs such as Kruder & Dorfmeister, Nightmares on Wax, Kid Loco, Thievery Corporation, and Mr. Scruff.
• Liquid drum and bass (or simply "liquid") draws heavily on harmonic and melodic grooves
• Sambass, a Brazilian drum and bass style, incorporates elements from samba, bossa nova and other Latin music styles. Pioneered by artists such as DJ Marky.^[55]

Heavy drum and bass

• Darkstep is characterised by fast drums and a general dark mood, drawing influences from dark ambient, industrial and hardcore music.
• Techstep is characterised by sci-fi soundscapes^[12] and samples from science fiction culture. Pioneered by artists such as Bad Company UK, Ed Rush, Optical, Dom & Roland, and the label Moving Shadow.^[56][57]
• Neurofunk or neuro is the progression from techstep^[58] incorporating more elements from jazz and funk.
• Hardstep is a harder style which uses gritty basslines and heavy yet simple electronic melodies.^[54]
• Metal & bass or bass metal is a style which specifically uses heavy metal guitar riffs. Pioneered by artists such as Concord Dawn, Counterstrike, Zardonic, Dirtyphonics, Pendulum and others.
• Crossbreed is the amalgamation of industrial hardcore and drum and bass often combined with influences of metal and breakcore. It emerged in the mid-2000s, pioneered by record labels such as Prspct Recordings, Yellow Stripe and Future Sickness Records. Notable artists include Switch Technique, Gancher & Ruin, Cooh, Counterstrike, Katharsys, Sinister Souls and Lucy Furr.

Atmospheric drum and bass

• Modern atmospheric drum and bass is characterised by large, ambient pads and synths, and hard hitting drum breaks. It hit a peak in the early 2020s following the emergence of popular artist within the genre, Sewerslvt (now known as Cynthoni). It often utilizes pop culture art elements and samples.

Genres influenced by drum and bass

Born around the same time as jungle, breakcore and digital hardcore share many of the elements of drum and bass and to the uninitiated, tracks from the extreme end of drum and bass may sound identical to breakcore thanks to speed, complexity, impact and maximum sonic density combined with musical experimentation. German drum and bass DJ The Panacea is also one of the leading digital hardcore artists. Raggacore resembles a faster version of the ragga-influenced jungle music of the 1990s, similar to breakcore but with more friendly dancehall beats (dancehall itself being a very important influence on drum and bass).^[59] Darkcore, a direct influence on drum and bass, was combined with influences of drum and bass itself leading to the creation of darkstep. There is considerable crossover from the extreme edges of drum and bass, breakcore, darkcore, digital hardcore and raggacore with fluid boundaries.

Intelligent dance music (IDM) is a form of art music based on DnB and other electronic dance musics, exploring their boundaries using ideas from science, technology, contemporary classical music and progressive rock, often creating un-danceable, art gallery style music.

Ghettotech, a club music genre from Detroit, contains synth and basslines similar to drum and bass.^{[40][60][61][62][63]}

Record labels

Drum and bass is dominated by a small group of record labels. These are mainly run by DJ-producers, such as London Elektricity's Hospital Records, Andy C and Scott Bourne's RAM,^[64] Goldie's Metalheadz, Fabio and Sarah Sandy's Creative Source Records, DJ Dextrous's King of the Jungle Records, Subversive Recordings and State of the Art Recordings, Kasra's Critical Music, DJ Friction's Shogun Audio,^[65] DJ Fresh's Breakbeat Kaos,^[66] Ed Rush & Optical's Virus Recordings, Futurebound's Viper Recordings and DJ Hype, Pascal, NoCopyrightSounds and formerly DJ Zinc's True Playaz (known as Real Playaz as of 2006).^[67]

Prior to 2016, the major international music labels such as Sony Music and Universal had shown very little interest in the drum and bass scene, with the exception of some notable signings, including Pendulum's In Silico LP to Warner. Roni Size's label played a big, if not the biggest, part in the creation of drum and bass with their dark, baseline sounds. V Recordings also played a large part of the development of drum and bass.^[68]

BMG Rights Management acquired Ram Records in February 2016,^[7] making a strategic investment to help RAM Records (a London-based drum and bass record company co-owned by Andy C and his business partner Scott Bourne). RAM Records has been pushing the boundaries of drum and bass further into the mainstream with artists such as Chase and Status and Sub Focus.^[64]

Now defunct labels include Rob Playford's Moving Shadow, running from 1990 until 2007, which played a pivotal role in the nineties drum and bass scene, releasing records by artists such as Omni Trio.

Formats and distribution

Regional scenes

Media presence

Today, drum and bass is widely promoted using different methods such as video sharing services like YouTube and Dailymotion, blogs, radio, and television, the latter being the most uncommon method. More recently, music networking websites such as SoundCloud and Mixcloud have become powerful tools for artist recognition, providing a vast platform that enables quick responses to new tracks. Record labels have adopted the use of podcasts. Prior to the rise of the internet, drum and bass was commonly broadcast over pirate radio.^[73]