Kubera

Early descriptions and parentage

In the Atharvaveda—where he first appears^[10]—and the Shatapatha Brahmana, Kubera is the chief of evil spirits or spirits of darkness, and son of Vaishravana.^[12][17] The Shatapatha Brahmana calls him the Lord of thieves and criminals.^[18] In the Manusmriti, he becomes a respectable lokapala ("world protector") and the patron of merchants.^[13] In the epic Mahabharata, Kubera is described as the son of Prajapati Pulastya and his wife Idavida, and the brother of sage Vishrava. Kubera is described as born from a cow. However, from the Puranas, he is described as the grandson of Pulastya and the son of Vishrava and his wife Ilavida (or Ilivila or Devavarnini), daughter of the sage Bharadvaja or Trinabindu.^{[9][10][14][17]}

By this time, though still described as an asura, Kubera is offered prayers at the end of all ritual sacrifices.^[17] His titles, such as "best of kings" and "Lord of kings" (TheHarivamsa indicates that Kubera is made "Lord of kings"), in contrast to the god-king of heaven, Indra, whose title of "best of gods" led to the later belief that Kubera was a man. The early texts Gautama Dharmashastra and Apastamba describe him as a man. Only the Grihyasutras of Shankhayana and Hiranyakesin call him a god, and suggest offerings of meat, sesame seeds and flowers to him.^[8][19]

Puranic and epic descriptions

The Puranas and the epics Mahabharata and Ramayana grant Kubera unquestioned godhood.^[8] Kubera also acquired the status of the "Lord of riches" and the wealthiest Deva. He also becomes a lokapala ("world protector") and guardian (dikapala) of the North direction, although he is also sometimes associated with the East.^[14][17] Kubera's status as a lokapala and a dikpala is assured in the Ramayana, but in the Mahabharata, some lists do not include Kubera. Thus, Kubera is considered a later addition to the original list of Loka-palas, where the gods Agni or Soma appear in his place.^[20] This status, the Ramayana records, was granted to Kubera by Brahma—the creator-god and father of Pulastya—as a reward for his severe penance. Brahma also conferred upon Kubera the riches of the world (Nidhis), "equality with gods", and the Pushpaka Vimana, a flying chariot. Kubera then ruled in the golden city of Lanka, identified with modern-day Sri Lanka.^[9][10][14] The Mahabharata says that Brahma conferred upon Kubera the lordship of wealth, friendship with Shiva, godhood, status as a world-protector, a son called Nalakubera/Nalakubara, the Pushpaka Vimana and the lordship of the Nairrata demons.^[14]

Both the Puranas and the Ramayana feature the half-blood siblings of Kubera. Vishrava, Kubera's father, also married the rakshasa (demigod) princess Kaikesi, who mothered four rakshasa children: Ravana, the chief antagonist of the Ramayana, and his siblings, Kumbhakarna, Vibhishana, and Shurpanaka.^[9][17] The Mahabharata regards Vishrava as the brother of Kubera, so Kubera is described as the uncle of Ravana and his siblings. It records that when Kubera approached Brahma for the favour of superseding his father Pulastya, Pulastya created Vishrava. To seek the favour of Vishrava, Kubera sent three women to him, by whom Vishrava begot his demon children.^[14][21] Ravana, after acquiring a boon of Brahma, drove Kubera away from Lanka and seized his Pushpaka Vimana, which was returned to Kubera after Ravana's death. Kubera then settled on Gandhamandana mountain, near Mount Kailash – the abode of the god Shiva—in the Himalayas. Sometimes, Kailash itself is called Kubera's residence. His city is usually called Alaka or Alaka-puri ("curl-city"), but also Prabha ("splendour"), Vasudhara ("bejeweled") and Vasu-sthali ("abode of treasures").^{[9][10][14][16]} There, Kubera had a grove called Caitraratha, where the leaves were jewels and the fruits were girls of heaven. There is also a charming lake called Nalini in the grove.^[14][21] Kubera is often described as a friend of Shiva in the epics.^[4] The Padma Purana says that Kubera prayed to Shiva for many years, and Shiva granted him the kingship of yakshas.^[9]

A description of Kubera's magnificent court appears in the Mahabharata as well as the Meghaduta. Here, gandharvas and apsaras entertain Kubera. Shiva and his wife Parvati often frequent Kubera's court, which is attended by semi-divine beings like the vidyadharas; kimpurushas; rakshasas; pishachas; as well as Padma and Shankha; personified treasures (nidhi); and Manibhadra, Kubera's chief attendant and chief of his army. Like every world-protector, Kubera has seven seers of the North in residence. Alaka is recorded to be plundered by Ravana once, and attacked by the Pandava prince, Bhima once.^{[8][9][10][14][15]} Kubera's Nairrata army is described to have defeated king Mucukunda, who then defeated them by the advice of his guru Vashishta. Shukra, the preceptor of the asuras, is also recorded to have defeated Kubera and stolen his wealth.^[6][9] Another major tale in the scriptures records how Kubera entertained the sage Ashtavakra in his palace.^[6][9]

Kubera is the treasurer of the gods, and the overlord of the semi-divine yakshas, the guhyakas, kinnaras and gandharvas, who act as his assistants and protectors of the jewels of the earth, as well as guardians of his city. Kubera is also the guardian of travelers and the giver of wealth to individuals, who please him. The rakshasas also serve Kubera,^[4] however, some cannibalistic rakshasas are described to have sided with Ravana in the battle against Kubera.^[14] Kubera also developed as minor marriage-divinity. He is invoked with Shiva at weddings and is described as Kameshvara ("Lord of Kama – pleasure, desire etc.").^[22] He is associated with fertility of the aquatic type.^[23]

The Puranas and the Mahabharata record that Kubera married Bhadra ("auspicious"), or Riddhi ("prosperity"), daughter of the demon Mura. She is also called Yakshi – a female yaksha, Kauberi ("wife of Kubera") and Charvi ("splendour"). They had three sons: Nalakubara ("Reed-axle"), Manigriva ("Bejewled-neck") or Varna-kavi ("Colourful poet"), and Mayuraja ("king of animals resembling men"); and a daughter called Minakshi ("fish-eyed").^[4][10][21]

Buddhism

Kubera is the Buddhist Vaiśravaṇa or Jambhala, and the Japanese Bishamon. The Buddhist Vaisravana, like the Hindu Kubera, is the regent of the North, a lokapala and the Lord of yakshas. He is one of the Four Heavenly Kings, each associated with a cardinal direction.^[26] In Buddhist legends, Kubera is also equated with Pañcika, whose wife Hariti is the symbol of abundance.^[27] The iconography of Kubera and Pancika is so similar that in certain cases, A. Getty comments, it is extremely difficult to distinguish between Pancika and Kubera.^[7] The Japanese Bishamon, also known as Tamon-Ten,^[28] is one of the Jūni-Ten (十二天), a group of 12 Hindu deities adopted in Buddhism as guardian deities (deva or ten) who are found in or around Buddhist shrines. The Juni-Ten group of twelve deities were created by adding four deities to the older grouping of Happou-Ten, the eight guardians of the directions. Bishamon rules over the north, like his Hindu counterpart Kubera.^[28][29][30]

Jainism

In Jainism, Kubera is the attendant yaksha of the 19th Tirthankar Mallinath.^[25] He is usually called Sarvanubhuti or Sarvahna, and may be depicted with four faces, rainbow colours and eight arms. The Digambara sect of Jainism gives him six weapons and three heads; while the Śvetāmbaras portray him with four to six arms, numerous choices of weapons, though his attributes, the money bag and citron fruit are consistent. He may ride a man or an elephant.^[25][31] He is related to the Buddhist Jambhala rather than the Hindu Kubera.^[31]