Buddhist tantric literature
Group of Indian and Tibetan texts From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Group of Indian and Tibetan texts From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Buddhist tantric literature refers to the vast and varied literature of the Vajrayāna (or Mantrayāna) Buddhist traditions. The earliest of these works are a genre of Indian Buddhist tantric scriptures, variously named Tantras, Sūtras and Kalpas, which were composed from the 7th century CE onwards.[1] They are followed by later tantric commentaries (called pañjikās and ṭīkās), original compositions by Vajrayana authors (called prakaraṇas and upadeśas), sādhanas (practice texts), ritual manuals (kalpas or vidhis), collections of tantric songs (dohās) odes (stotra), or hymns, and other related works. Tantric Buddhist literature survives in various languages, including Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Chinese. Most Indian sources were composed in Sanskrit, but numerous tantric works were also composed in other languages like Tibetan and Chinese.
Buddhist Tantric texts may have begun appearing during the Gupta Period (320–550 CE).[2][3] However, the earliest known datable Buddhist Tantra is the Awakening of Mahāvairocana Tantra, which was mentioned and collected by the Chinese pilgrim Wu-xing (無行) c. 680 CE.[4]
Wu-xing also reports that at the time he visited India (7th century), the Mantrayāna (“teaching about mantra”, Chinese: zhenyan jiaofa, 真言教法) was already very popular.[5] Amoghavajra (704–774), a scholar translator who traveled to China, reports a canon of eighteen tantras during the 8th century.[6]
Over time the number of texts increased with numerous Tantric scholars writing commentaries and practice manuals. Buddhist Tantric traditions draw on the Mahayana sutras, and older Buddhist esoteric practices like dhāraṇī recitation texts.[7] Furthermore, earlier Buddhist traditions had maintained a collection of scriptures focused on magical practices, called the Vidyādhara Piṭaka (Wizardry Collection) which included various types of rituals and spells (vidyā).[8] In the account of a Buddhist spell master by Yijing, he even mentions erotic practices associated with this collection.[8]
Buddhist tantras were also influenced by non-buddhist traditions, including Śaiva and Śakta sources, the cults of local deities, and rites related to yakshas and nāgas.[9] The Buddhist Yogini tantras contain the most extensive borrowing from Śaiva and Śakta sources. In some cases, whole passages have been copied. This process has been studied by Alexis Sanderson.[10] Scholars like Phyllis Granoff have termed this extensive borrowing of non-buddhist forms "ritual eclecticism".[11] Buddhist Tantric works continued to be produced in India until the 1500s.[12]
Many early Buddhist Tantric texts, later termed “action Tantras” (kriyā tantra), are mostly collections of magical mantras or phrases for mostly worldly ends called mantrakalpas (mantra manuals) and they do not call themselves Tantras.[13] Later Tantric texts from the eighth century onward (termed variously Yogatantra, Mahayoga, and Yoginī Tantras) advocated union with a deity (deity yoga), sacred sounds (mantras), techniques for manipulation of the subtle body and other secret methods with which to achieve swift Buddhahood.[14] Some Tantras contain antinomian and transgressive practices such as ingesting alcohol and other forbidden substances as well as sexual rituals.[3] Some of these later Buddhist Tantras (especially the Yoginītantras) are clearly influenced by Śaiva Vidyāpīṭha scriptures.[1]
Buddhist Tantra quickly spread out of India into nearby countries like Tibet and Nepal in the eighth century, as well as to Southeast Asia and East Asia through overland and maritime trade routes.[1] Buddhist Tantra arrived in China during the Tang dynasty (where it was known as Tangmi) and was brought to Japan by Kukai (774–835), where it is known as Shingon.[15] Tantric texts were brought to Tibet in two historical periods, the eighth century and the 11th century (which are called the "early translations" and "second dissemination" texts).[15] Buddhist tantra remains the main Buddhist tradition in Nepal, Mongolia and Tibet where it is known as Vajrayana.
Buddhist sources told various myths about the origin of the tantras. One origin myth states that the tantras were initially taught by the Buddha but were hidden away. Then they were rediscovered by Nāgārjuna in an iron stupa in south India.[16] Other origin myths focus around a mythic king of Oḍiyāna named Indrabhūti, who received the tantras with the aid of Vajrapani.[17]
Furthermore, as Gray writes, "there is another major genre of tantric Buddhist origin myths, which we might term “conversion myths” since they feature the founding figure, an awakened buddha, converting Śaiva Hindu deities to Buddhism".[18] These myths were useful in explaining the many Hindu elements which were found in some Buddhist tantric texts.[18] In one such myth told by Śubhakarasiṃha (善无畏, 637–735) and Yixing (一行, 683– 727), Vairocana Buddha turns himself into Mahākāla in order to swallow and subdue Shiva and the ḍākinīs who were killing and eating humans in order to obtain the essence in their hearts. After being subdued, these figures were said to have become Buddhist.[19]
There are various ways to categorize and schematize the various tantric primary sources. The earliest Indian classification scheme is found in the work of the commentator Buddhaguhya (c. 700).[20] He outlined just two types of tantras: outward oriented Kriya tantras (which contain much ritual directed as external objects like a Buddha statue) and the Yoga tantras which focus on inward contemplative practices in which the yogi visualizes themselves as the deity.[20] The commentator Vilāsavajra meanwhile, sometimes added a third category: Carya, which was intermediate between Kriya and Yoga. In another text meanwhile, Vilāsavajra discusses a different third category: Upaya, which referred to more transgressive tantras that made use of sexual yoga.[20]
The Classification of Tantras in Tibetan Buddhism differs by tradition. All traditions agree on three types: Kriyayoga, Caryayoga, and Yogatantra. In the "Ancient" (Nyingma) school, these three "outer tantras" are followed three further "inner tantras": Mahayoga, Anuyoga, and Atiyoga. In the "New Translation" (Sarma) schools, the "higher" classes are called "supreme yoga tantras" (anuttarayogatantra).[21] The Sarma classification systems was constructed by Indo-Tibetan scholastics and date to the mid-12th century based on Indian works.[20]
A fourfold schema can be found in the work of the Indian scholar Śraddhākaravarman, who writes of "four doors" to the Vajratana: Kriyatantra, Caryatantra, Yoga- tantra, and Mahayogatantra.[20] He also mentions a further sub-class of Mahayoga, Niruttarayoga, which refers to Mahayoga tantras with mandalas populated by female deities, i.e., the Yogini tantras. Ratnākaraśānti's (11th century) schema contains the same four latter classes, but adds Niruttarayoga as its own fifth category.[20] Kanha's Yogaratnamala meanwhile, also has four: Kriya, Carya, Yoga, Niruttarayoga. Thus, the Tibetan schema is based on these later Indic classifications schemes.[20]
In Tibetan traditions, the most important tantras are those of the "highest yoga tantra", "Mahayoga" or Atiyoga" classification. There are also various other classes of tantric works, such as hagiographies of great masters (namtars), tantric verse works, songs, meditation manuals, and instructional texts (upadesha). The Nyingma school also has a special category of scripture which were discovered or revealed in Tibet, known as Terma. Some of these are classified as "tantras" but were composed in Tibetan by Tibetans.
Meanwhile, in Shingon Buddhism and Chinese Esoteric Buddhism, these classifications are not used. These traditions mainly rely on the Mahāvairocana Sūtra (大日経, Dainichi-kyō), the Vajraśekhara Sūtra (金剛頂経, Kongōchō-kyō), and the Susiddhikara Sūtra (蘇悉地経, Soshitsuji-kyō).[22]
While traditional schemas classify tantric texts based on whether it is focused on "kriya" (ritual action) or "yoga" (contemplative practice), this does not mean that ritual topics are absent in the yoga tantras, which themselves contain extensive sections on ritual. Likewise, texts labeled "kriya tantra" also contain teachings on yoga.[23]
Many tantric Buddhist texts have titles other than "Tantra", including sutra, kalpa, rajñi, stotra, and doha. The Major Buddhist Tantras also accumulated secondary literature, such as 'Explanatory Tantras' (vyākhyātantra), commentaries (pañjikās, ṭīkās etc.) and sadhana literature which outline specific tantric ritual practices and meditations.[24]
Dhāraṇīs are an earlier class of Buddhist texts which are not specifically "tantric" or "Vajrayanist" in nature. They may be found in classic Mahayana sutras like the Lotus Sutra, and thus pre-date the development of Buddhist tantra.[25] Dhāraṇī practices and texts were part of mainstream Mahayana Buddhism well before the rise of Vajrayana, and as such, are not "tantric" works nor specifically connected to esoteric or Mantrayāna Buddhism.[26] However, some tantras and tantric works do make use of dhāraṇīs in a broader tantric context and later canonical collections included numerous dhāraṇīs into the tantra classification. Indeed, some scholars like Koichi Shinohara argue that the Buddhist tantric literature grew out of the earlier Mahayana dhāraṇī texts through a process of gradual expansion and the incorporation of new ritual elements (such as mandalas and visualization practices).[6]
There are between 1500 and 2000 surviving Indian Buddhist Tantric texts in Sanskrit, and over 2000 more Tantras solely survive in translation (mostly Tibetan or Chinese).[27] In the Tibetan canons, there are 450 Tantras in the Kanjur collection and 2400 in the Tengyur.[3]
The most important texts of the Vajrayana Buddhist traditions are the "tantras". The term tantra has many meanings, but one of the most common meaning is simply a specific type of divinely revealed text or scripture. In the Buddhist context, tantras were considered to be the words of a Buddha or bodhisattva (buddhavacana).[28]
Unlike Mahayana sutras, tantras are quite technical, outlining the details of rituals, such as how to construct a mandala.[28] They also contain unique tantric terminology and "coded language" (sandhyā-bhāṣa), which is metaphorical and secretive. They often omit important details and misdirect the reader, thus maintaining secrecy and requiring further commentary to be properly understood.[29] Their original language was Sanskrit, but not classical Sanskrit (Pāṇinean) per se, since tantras often include different word forms or grammar associated with regional Middle-Indic languages, like Apabraṃśa.[30] Apabraṃśa is also often used for tantric songs and poems.[30]
Tantric scriptures were also considered to be secret by tantric Buddhist communities, and would only be revealed to disciples which had gone through the necessary initiations.[31] Buddhist tantras promise both the ability to attain worldly magical powers (laukikasiddhi) and the surepeme achievement (lokottarasiddhi) of Buddhahood in one lifetime.[6]
Some of the unique themes and ideas found in the Buddhist Tantras is the revaluation of the body and its use in attaining great bliss (mahasukha), a revaluation of the role of women, yoginīs (female yogis), and female deities.[32][3] The tantras also contain a revaluation of supposedly negative mental states (like desire and anger) and antinominan behavior (like drinking alcohol, eating meat, living in charnel grounds etc.), which can be used in the service of liberation. This is manifested in the promotion of tantric fierce deities. As the Hevajra Tantra says "the world is bound by passion, also by passion it is released".[3] Some tantras, especially those of the Yoginītantra genre, have many erotic and sexual elements. The Guhyasamāja tantra, Hevajra, Caṇḍamahāroṣaṇa, Saṃvarodaya, and Sampuṭikātantrarāja, all open as follows: “Thus I have heard: at one time the Bhagavān resided in the vulvas of the women who are the vajras of the body, speech and mind of all the Tathāgatas” (evaṃ mayā śrutam ekasmin samaye bhagavān sarvva-tathāgata-kāya-vāk-citta-vajra-yonī-bhāgeṣu vijahāra).[33]
Regarding their philosophical view, the Buddhist tantras generally follow the view of the Mahāyāna sutras, especially the theories of emptiness, buddha-nature, and luminosity.[34][35] According to the tantras, to reach Buddhahood, one needs to recognize the true nature of one's mind, the buddha-nature, which is a non-dual empty luminosity (prabhāsvara) which is pure, blissful, and free of all concepts.[36] The true nature is the same in Buddhas and sentient beings, and is thus the ultimate "continuum" (tantra). The Guhyasamāja Tantra describes the ultimate nature of mind thus: "Devoid of all existents, free of the aggregates, the sense objects and media, and subject and object, one’s mind, being identical to the selflessness of dharmas, is originally unarisen and has emptiness as its nature."[34] This ultimate nature can be accessed through skillful means, especially the contemplative tantric techniques taught in the tantras.[37]
When it comes to practical content, tantras contain numerous explanations of yogic practice and ritual actions. Common topics related to spiritual practice include: how to make mandalas, how to perform ritual initiations (abhisheka), explanation of mantras, fire ritual (homa), special observances (carya), descriptions of tantric feasts (ganacakra), descriptions of tantric deities, deity yoga, subtle body based practices (of the perfection stage) and teachings on the yoginis.[23]
The following is a list of some major Buddhist Tantras from the classic period of Indian Buddhist tantrism as well as other tantric scriptures like sutras and dharanis. The list is organized according to the traditional classification used in the Tibetan canon.
The scriptures in this category are considered to emphasize ritual action (kriyā), preparation of ritual spaces, textual recitation / chanting (of mantras, dhāraṇīs, vidyās, and other texts), and the external worship of deities.[38] Key Action tantras include:[39][33]
Scriptures in this category are seen as containing equal ritual and meditation elements. They mostly focus on Vairocana, Vajrapāṇi and Acala. Some key scriptures:[42][33]
These tantras focus on meditation, i.e. yoga. However, unlike the Anuttara- or Mahāyoga tantras, these scriptures do not contain much wrathful, antinomian or sexual elements, and instead focus on themes of ritual purity, mandalic buddhafields, and "peaceful" deities and Buddhas like Vairocana Buddha and Vajrasattva. Mantras, mandalas and mudras are key elements of the practices taught in these tantras.[43][44] Some key Yoga tantras are:[45][33]
The fourth category of tantric scriptures is considered to be the highest and most powerful class of tantra in Tibetan Buddhism.[20] This view is not shared by other Buddhist Mantrayāna traditions like Shingon. This class of texts is called by different names, including Anuttarayogatantra, Mahāyoga, Niruttarayoga, and Yoginī Tantras.[20] They are also often further divided into different sub-categories, like "father", "mother" and "non-dual" tantras.[33] Japanese scholars like Tsukamoto further classify these into different families, like Akṣobhya-kula, Vairocana-kula, Heruka-kula, Vajra-sūrya-kula, Padmanarteśvara-kula, Paramāśva-kula, and Vajradhara-kula.[33]
These tantras tend to contain more transgressive elements, including sexual themes, sexual yoga (karmamudrā), wrathful deities, charnel ground imagery, the ingestion of taboo substances (blood, meat, alcohol, sexual fluids), tantric feasts, as well as numerous Shaiva and Shakta influences.[20][40] The deities in these scriptures often (but not always) appear as fierce herukas and erotic dakinis. Some key tantras in this category include:[46]
There are various other types of tantric Buddhist texts composed in India. One class of tantric text that are not always considered tantras but have tantric elements in them are several late Prajñāpāramitā sutras which have numerous tantric or Mantrayāna elements. These include: the Adhyardhaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (150 lines), the Heart Sutra (Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya), the Ekaślokikā prajñāpāramitā, Svalpākṣarā Prajñāpāramitā, Kauśikā Prajñāpāramitā, Saptaślokikā Prajñāpāramitā, the *Prajñāpāramitānāmāṣṭaśataka and the Candragarbha Prajñāpāramitā.[48]
Other "tantric" sutras include the Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra, the source of the famous Mani mantra, and the Śūraṅgama Sūtra, which is included in the Chinese Tripitaka's Esoteric Sutra category.[49] The Śūraṅgama text contains indic materials, but may have been compiled or heavily edited in China.
Another class of tantric texts are verses, songs and other original compositions by tantric sages known as mahasiddhas ("greatly accomplished ones"). Their tantric songs, variously called dohā (rhyming couplets), caryāgīti (songs of realization), and vajragīti, were often grouped together into collections, like the proto-Bengali Caryapāda and Saraha's Dohakośa.[50] There are various works on these tantric sages. Sāṅkrtyāyana lists the following important siddhas: Saraha, (Nāgārjuna), (Sabarapa), Luīpa, Dārikāpa, (Vajra-ghaṇṭāpa), Kūrmapā, Jālandharapā, (Kaṃha(pā) Caryapā), Guhyapā (Vijayapa), Tilopa, Naropa.[33] There are longer lists which contain eighty four mahasiddhas in works such as Abhayadatta Śrī's History of the Eighty-four Mahasiddhas (Caturasitisiddha pravrtti).[33]
Another class of verse tantric works are hymns (stotras) to specific deities.[51]
Yet another class of texts are ritual manuals and collections of rites or sādhanas (practices).[51] One example of these kinds of collections is the Sādhanamālā (Garland of Sādhanas) which contains numerous sādhanas composed by various Indian tantric masters. Another example is Abhayakaragupta's Niṣpannayogāvalī, which contains details on 26 different mandalas.[52]
As Buddhist Tantra became more widely practiced in the middle of the seventh century, pandits (scholars) at mainstream Buddhist institutions like Nālandā, Vikramaśilā and Somapura began to write treatises, commentaries and other works on Vajrayana Buddhism. Other tantric works were written by lay yogis, yoginis, and mahasiddhas which were outside of the traditional monastic institutions. Another important site for the development of Buddhist tantric literature was Kashmir, a major center for tantric practice (both Buddhist and non-buddhist, such as Trika Saiva Tantra).
Benoytosh Bhattacharyya notes that there are two main chronological lists of prominent Indian Tantric authors, the first from Tāranātha's works (c. 1575–1634) and the second from Kazi Dawasamdup's introduction to the Cakrasaṃvara Tantra.[53]
Tāranātha's list:[53]
Kazi Dawasamdup's list:[53]
Other important Indian tantric authors include:
Tantric Buddhism arrived in China during the Tang dynasty, when numerous esoteric works were translated into Chinese.[65] During this era, three great tantric masters (vajracharyas) came from India to China: Śubhakarasiṃha (637–735), Vajrabodhi (671–741) and Amoghavajra (705–774). They worked on translations of classic tantras like the Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra and the Vajrasekhara Sutra, and also composed practice manuals and commentaries in Chinese.[66] They are considered to be the founding patriarchs of Chinese Esoteric Buddhism and their writings are central to the East Asian Mantrayāna traditions.
The tradition was passed on from later figures like Huiguo to various Japanese Buddhist disciples who founded the Mantrayāna lineages in Japan. One important figure is Kūkai (774–835), the founder of the Shingon school. Kūkai's numerous works and commentaries on tantric practice are foundational texts for the Shingon tradition. One of the most important works of Kūkai is his magnum opus, the Jūjū shinron (Treatise on Ten Levels of Mind), along with its summary, the Hizō hōyaku (Precious Key to the Secret Treasury).[67]
The Tendai school meanwhile also maintains its own collection of Mantrayāna texts, commentaries and practice manuals, composed by traditional figures like Saicho, Ennin and Annen. The original works of Annen (841–889?) are particularly important for Tendai esotericism, especially his Shingonshū kyōjigi (On the Meaning of Teachings and Times in Esoteric Buddhism) and the Taizōkongō bodaishingi ryaku mondōshō (Abbreviated Discussion on the Meaning of Bodhicitta according to the Garbha and Vajra realms) [68]
As Vajrayana Buddhism developed in Tibet (beginning in the 8th century CE), Tibetan Buddhists also began to compose Vajrayana scriptures, commentaries and other works. Eventually, a vast literature of original Tibetan Vajrayana compositions developed. There are many types of indigenous Tibetan tantric literature. Each school of Tibetan Buddhism maintains their own collections of texts composed by the lineage masters of their tradition and considered to be canonical by their sect. These include commentarial works, original treatises, meditation manuals, sadhanas, ritual texts, poems and hymns, as well as new revelations (such as treasure texts and "pure vision" texts).
The Nyingma school for example, maintains a large collection of texts which are part of their "Dzogchen" (Great Perfection) tradition. This class of tantric Buddhist texts is divided into three divisions: the "Mind Series" (Semde, the earliest Dzogchen texts, c. 9th century), which includes tantras like the Kulayarāja Tantra (All Creating King), the "Space Series" (Longde, c. 11th–14th centuries), and the "Esoteric Instructions" series (Menngagde, c. 11th–14th centuries), which include the Seventeen Tantras and the Vima Nyingthig.[69] The Nyingma school also maintains other collections of texts called "Terma" (Treasure Texts). These texts were revealed by "treasure revealers" (tertons) at different times in Tibetan history. Examples include the Bardo Thödol (the "Tibetan Book of the Dead"), the Longchen Nyingthig, Dudjom Tersar and the Yuthok Nyingthig.
The Kagyu school on the other hand maintains several collections of tantric texts which are unique to their school. These include the Collected works of Milarepa (Mila Gnubum, which includes his many songs), the Collected works of Gampopa (Dagpo Kabum, including Jewel Ornament of Liberation), and, for the Karma Kagyu school, the works of lineage masters like the Karmapas. The Kagyu tradition emphasizes the esoteric practice of Mahamudra, and as such, they also maintain many collections of texts that focus on this method. The seventh Karmapa Chödrak Gyatso (1454- 1506) collected many Indian Mahamudra sources into the three volume collection called The Indian Mahāmudrā Treatises (Tib. Phyag rgya chen po 'i rgya gzhung).[70]
In the Gelug school, the tantric works of the founder Tsongkhapa and his direct disciples are generally seen as foundational texts. The Sakya school and the Jonang school likewise maintain collections of the tantric works of their founding figures, such as Sakya Pandita and Dolpopa respectively.
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