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'{{Short description|1923 earthquake and tsunami centered in southeast Honshu, Japan}} {{Infobox earthquake | title = 1923 Great Kantō earthquake | timestamp = 1923-09-01 02:58:35 | anss-url = iscgem911526 | isc-event = 911526 | image = Ryounkaku.jpg | image alt = | imagecaption = | map = 1923 Kanto earthquake intensity-2.png | map alt = | image name = | map2 = {{Location map+|Japan Greater Tokyo area |relief=1|width=260|float=right|border=yes|caption=|places= {{Location map~|Japan Greater Tokyo area | lat_deg = 35 | lat_min = 19.6 | lat_sec = | lat_dir = N | lon_deg = 139 | lon_min = 8.3 | lon_sec = 12.5 | lon_dir = E |mark=Bullseye1.png|marksize=40|position=top}} {{Location map~|Japan |lat=35.7|long=139.715|label=Tokyo|position=right|mark=Green pog.svg}}}} | mapsize = | caption = The [[Ryōunkaku]] in [[Asakusa]], which eventually collapsed | local-date = {{Start date|1923|9|1}} | local-time = 11:58:32 [[Japan Standard Time|JST]] ([[UTC+09:00]]) | duration = 48 s<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kobayashi|first1=Reiji|last2=Koketsu|first2=Kazuki|year=2005|title=Source process of the 1923 Kanto earthquake inferred from historical geodetic, teleseismic, and strong motion data|journal=Earth, Planets and Space|volume=57|issue=4|pages=261|doi=10.1186/BF03352562|bibcode=2005EP&S...57..261K|doi-access=free}}</ref> 4 min<ref>{{cite web|last=Panda|first=Rajaram|title=Japan Coping with a National Calamity|url=http://www.idsa.in/idsacomments/JapanCopingwithaNationalCalamity_rpanda_160311|publisher=Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses (IDSA)|location=Delhi|access-date=21 December 2011}}</ref> | magnitude = 7.9–8.2 {{M|w|link=y}}<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kanamori|first=Hiroo|year=1977|title=The energy release in great earthquakes|journal=J. Geophys. Res.|volume=82|issue=20|pages= 2981–2987|doi=10.1029/JB082i020p02981|bibcode=1977JGR....82.2981K|url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/51386/1/jgr13796.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Namegaya|first1=Yuichi|last2=Satake|first2=Kenji|last3=Shishikura|first3=Masanobu|year=2011|title=Fault models of the 1703 Genroku and 1923 Taisho Kanto earthquakes inferred from coastal movements in the southern Kanto erea|url=https://www.gsj.jp/data/actfault-eq/h22seika/pdf/namegaya.pdf|access-date=27 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.bousai.go.jp/kaigirep/chuobou/senmon/shutochokkajishinmodel/pdf/dansoumodel_01.pdf |title=首都直下地震モデル検討会 }} 首都直下のM7クラスの地震及び相模トラフ沿いのM8クラスの地震等の震源断層モデルと震度分布・津波高等に関する報告書</ref> | depth = {{Convert|23|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} | location = {{Coord|35|19.6|N|139|8.3|E|source:dewiki_region:JP-13_type:landmark|display=inline,title}}<ref>Usami, Tatsuo[[#Soran (2003)|『最新版 日本被害地震総覧』]] p272.</ref> | type = [[Megathrust earthquake|Megathrust]] | countries affected = Japan | damage = | intensity = {{MMI|XI}} <br /> <br /> {{JMA|7}} | PGA = ~ 0.41 ''[[Peak ground acceleration|g]]'' (est) <br> ~ 400 [[Gal (unit)|''gal'']] (est) | tsunami = Up to {{Convert|12|m|ft|abbr=on}}<br>in [[Atami]], [[Shizuoka Prefecture|Shizuoka]], [[Tōkai region|Tōkai]]<ref>{{cite web|last=Hatori|first=Tokutaro|title=Tsunami Behavior of the 1923 Kanto Earthquake at Atami and Hatsushima Island in Sagami Bay|url=http://repository.dl.itc.u-tokyo.ac.jp/dspace/handle/2261/12893|access-date=27 September 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929224549/http://repository.dl.itc.u-tokyo.ac.jp/dspace/handle/2261/12893|archive-date=29 September 2015}}</ref> | landslide = Yes | aftershocks = 6 of 7.0&nbsp;M or higher<ref>{{cite web|last=Takemura|first=Masayuki|year=1994|title=Aftershock Activities for Two Days after the 1923 Kanto Earthquake (M=7.9) Inferred from Seismograms at Gifu Observatory|url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/zisin1948/46/4/46_4_439/_pdf|access-date=27 September 2015}}</ref> | casualties = 105,385–142,800 deaths<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Takemura|first1=Masayuki|last2=Moroi|first2=Takafumi|year=2004|title=Mortality Estimation by Causes of Death Due to the 1923 Kanto Earthquake|journal=Journal of Jaee|volume=4|issue=4|pages=21–45|doi=10.5610/jaee.4.4_21|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/today/index.php?month=9&day=1&submit=View+Date|title=Today in Earthquake History|access-date=15 April 2016}}</ref> | native_name = 関東大地震<br />関東大震災 | native_name_lang = ja | alt = Destroyed shops lined along the street toward [[Sensō-ji]] temple in [[Asakusa]], with walking people, 1923. Both the middle gate (center) and the pagoda (left, lost later) is pictured standing. }} The {{nihongo|'''Great Kantō earthquake'''|関東大地震|Kantō dai-jishin; Kantō ō-jishin}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Doboku Gakkai|url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/taisho-juninen-kanto-ojishin-shingai-chosa-hokoku-report-on-investigation-of-damagescaused-by-the-great-kanto-earthquake-1923/oclc/68327364|title=Taishô jûninen Kantô ôjishin, shingai chôsa hôkoku. (Report on investigation of damages caused by the great Kantô earthquake, 1923.)|date=0000|publisher=Doboku gakkai (Civil engineer Society)|location=Tokyo|language=Japanese|oclc=68327364}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=田中|first1=哮義|url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/taisho-daishinsai-daikasai/oclc/852120700?lang=en|title=大正大震災大火災／関東大震災と帝都復興事業 (Taishō dai-shinsai/dai-kasai: Kantō Daishinsai to Teito fukkō jigyō)|last2=中村|first2=淸二|last3=Nakamura|first3=Seiji (narrated)|date=2013|publisher=[[Kodansha|Dai-nihon Yūbenkai Kōdansha]] (大日本雄辯會講談社)|isbn=978-4-87733-759-9|editor-last=Tanaka|editor-first=Takeyoshi|language=Japanese|trans-title=Dai Nihon Yūbenkai Kōdansha hensan. Daijishin ni yoru daikasai / Rigaku Hakushi Nakamura Seiji jutsu. Kantō Daishinsai to Teito fukkō jigyō / Tanaka Takeyoshi hen, kaisetsu.|oclc=852120700}}</ref> struck the [[Kantō Plain]] on the main Japanese island of [[Honshū]] at 11:58:44 JST (02:58:44 [[UTC]]) on Saturday, September 1, 1923. Varied accounts indicate the duration of the earthquake was between four and ten minutes.<ref name="James">{{cite web|last=James |first=Charles |title=The 1923 Tokyo Earthquake and Fire |url=http://nisee.berkeley.edu/kanto/tokyo1923.pdf |publisher=University of California, Berkeley |access-date=21 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070316050633/http://nisee.berkeley.edu/kanto/tokyo1923.pdf |archive-date=16 March 2007 }}</ref> Extensive firestorms and even a [[fire whirl]] added to the death toll. Civil unrest after the disaster (i.e., the [[Kantō Massacre]]) has been documented. The earthquake had a magnitude of 7.9 on the [[moment magnitude scale]] ({{M|w}}),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/world/most_destructive.php |title=Most Destructive Earthquakes|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |access-date=2013-02-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091102112417/http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/world/most_destructive.php |archive-date=2009-11-02 }}</ref> with its [[hypocenter|focus]] deep beneath [[Izu Ōshima|Izu Ōshima Island]] in [[Sagami Bay]]. The cause was a rupture of part of the [[convergent boundary]] where the [[Philippine Sea Plate]] is [[subduction|subducting]] beneath the [[Okhotsk Plate]] along the line of the [[Sagami Trough]].<ref name="Bakun">{{cite journal|last=Bakun|first=W.H.|year=2005|title=Magnitude and location of historical earthquakes in Japan and implications for the 1855 Ansei Edo earthquake|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|volume=110|issue=B02304|pages=B02304|doi=10.1029/2004JB003329|url=http://sicarius.wr.usgs.gov/tokyo/submitted/Bakun_JGR_revised8Nov2004.pdf|bibcode=2005JGRB..110.2304B|doi-access=free}}</ref> Since 1960, September 1 has been designated by the Japanese government as {{Nihongo|Disaster Prevention Day|[[:w:ja: 防災の日|防災の日]]|Bōsai no hi}}, or a day in remembrance of and to prepare for major natural disasters including [[tsunami]] and [[typhoon]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=東京消防庁＜消防マメ知識＞＜消防雑学事典＞|trans-title=Tokyo Fire Department > Trivia around fire fighting|url=https://www.tfd.metro.tokyo.lg.jp/libr/qa/qa_59.htm|access-date=2021-07-17|website=tfd.metro.tokyo.lg.jp|publisher=Tokyo Fire Department|via=Sourced by Tokuo Fire Department, from "新 消防雑学事典" (Shin Shōbō Zatsugakujiten) 2nd ed., published by ''Tokyo Union of Fire Prevention Association'' (財)東京連合防火協会発行).}}</ref> Drills, as well as knowledge promotion events, are centered around that date as well as awards ceremonies for people of merit.<ref>{{cite web |date=10 December 2012|title=「防災の日」の創設について：昭和前半期閣議決定等凡例 {{!}} 政治・法律・行政|trans-title=The Disaster Prevention Date designated : Cabinet decisions {{!}} Politics, lawmaking, and administration|url=https://rnavi.ndl.go.jp/politics/entry/bib01341.php|access-date=2021-07-17|website=rnavi.ndl.go.jp|publisher=[[National Diet Library]]|language=Ja|publication-date=17 June 1960}}</ref> ==Earthquake== The ''[[SS Dongola]]''{{'s}} captain reported that, while he was anchored in Yokohama's inner harbor: {{Blockquote|At 11.55 a.m. ship commenced to tremble and vibrate violently and on looking towards the shore it was seen that a terrible earthquake was taking place, buildings were collapsing in all directions and in a few minutes nothing could be seen for clouds of dust. When these cleared away fire could be seen starting in many directions and in half an hour the whole city was in flames.<ref>[http://www.poheritage.com/Upload/Mimsy/Media/factsheet/93060DONGOLA-1905pdf.pdf Ship Fact Sheet: Dongola]</ref>}} This earthquake devastated [[Tokyo City|Tokyo]], the port city of [[Yokohama]], and the surrounding prefectures of [[Chiba Prefecture|Chiba]], [[Kanagawa Prefecture|Kanagawa]], and [[Shizuoka Prefecture|Shizuoka]], and caused widespread damage throughout the Kantō region. The earthquake's force was so great that in [[Kamakura, Kanagawa|Kamakura]], over {{convert|60|km|abbr=on}} from the epicenter, it moved the [[Kōtoku-in|Great Buddha]] statue, which weighs about 121 tonnes, almost 60 centimeters.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Theosakamainichi-earthquakepictorialedition-1923-b2-page35.jpg|title=English: THIS IS AN IMAGE THAT IS PART OF A RAW IMAGE COLLECTIONGreat care should be taken to remove whitespace and captions before using these in a Wiki project. They are provided here in raw scanned quality to preserve as much of the historical value of this document as possible.|first=The Osaka|last=Mainichi|date=September 15, 1923|via=Wikimedia Commons}}</ref> Estimated casualties totaled about 142,800 deaths, including about 40,000 who went missing and were presumed dead.{{Citation needed|date=September 2012}} According to the Japanese construction company [[Kajima]] Kobori Research's conclusive report of September 2004, 105,385 deaths were confirmed in the 1923 quake.<ref name="eas">{{cite web|url=http://www.eas.slu.edu/Earthquake_Center/1923EQ/|title=The 1923 Tokyo Earthquake|access-date=2007-02-22| archive-url= http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20011109225525/http%3A//www%2Eeas%2Eslu%2Eedu/earthquake_center/1923eq/| archive-date= November 9, 2001 | url-status= dead}}</ref><ref name="hku">{{cite web|url=http://www.hku.hk/history/nakasendo/1923quke.htm|title=The 1923 Kanto Earthquake|author1=Thomas A. Stanley |author2=R.T.A. Irving |name-list-style=amp |date=2001-09-05|access-date=2007-02-22 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070304070418/http://www.hku.hk/history/nakasendo/1923quke.htm |archive-date = 2007-03-04}}</ref><ref name="James"/> The damage from this natural disaster was one of the greatest sustained by [[Empire of Japan|Imperial Japan]]. In 1960, on the 37th anniversary of the quake, the government declared September 1 an annual "Disaster Prevention Day". === Damage and deaths === Because the earthquake struck when people were cooking meals, many were killed as a result of large fires that broke out. Fires started immediately after the earthquake.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gulick |first1=Sidney L. |title=The Winning of the Far East: A Study of the Christian Movement in China, Korea, Japan |url=https://archive.org/details/winningoffareast00guli |date=1923 |publisher=George H. Doran Company |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/winningoffareast00guli/page/15 15]}}</ref> Some fires developed into [[firestorm]]s<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greatkantoearthquake.com/earthquake.html|title=The Earthquake and Fires - The Great Kantō Earthquake.com|website=greatkantoearthquake.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://library.brown.edu/cds/kanto/ksmith.html|title=The Great Kanto Earthquake of 1923|website=library.brown.edu}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2011/03/1923-kanto-earthquake-echoes-from-japans-past/100025/|title=1923 Kanto Earthquake: Echoes From Japan's Past|first=Alan|last=Taylor|website=[[The Atlantic]]}}</ref> that swept across cities. Many people died when their feet became stuck on melting [[Tarmacadam|tarmac]]. The single greatest loss of life was caused by a [[fire whirl]] that engulfed the Rikugun Honjo Hifukusho (formerly the Army Clothing Depot) in downtown Tokyo, where about 38,000 people were incinerated after taking shelter there after the earthquake. The earthquake broke [[water mains]] all over the city, and putting out the fires took nearly two full days until late in the morning of September 3.<ref>{{cite book|title=Fire Following Earthquake|year=2005|publisher=ASCE, NFPA|location=Reston, Virginia|isbn=978-0-7844-0739-4|url=http://www.asce.org/Product.aspx?id=2147485909&productid=5362|editor-last=Scawthorn|editor2-last=Eidinger|editor3-last=Schiff|access-date=2012-07-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928111244/http://www.asce.org/Product.aspx?id=2147485909&productid=5362|archive-date=2013-09-28|url-status=dead}}</ref>[[File:Desolation of Nihonbashi and Kanda after Kanto Earthquake.jpg|thumb|Desolation of [[Nihonbashi]] and [[Kanda, Tokyo|Kanda]] seen from the Roof of Dai-ichi Sogo Building|left|400x400px]] A strong [[typhoon]] centered off the coast of the [[Noto Peninsula]] in [[Ishikawa Prefecture]] brought high winds to [[Tokyo Bay]] at about the same time as the earthquake. These winds caused fires to spread rapidly. The [[Emperor Taishō|Emperor]] and [[Empress Teimei|Empress]] were staying at [[Nikkō, Tochigi|Nikko]] when the earthquake struck Tokyo, and were never in any danger.<ref name="nyt1">{{cite news|url=https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0F12FE3E5416738DDDAA0894D1405B838EF1D3|title=Yokohama is Practically Destroyed|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date= September 3, 1923}}</ref> American Acting [[Consul General]] Max David Kirjassoff and his wife Alice Josephine Ballantine Kirjassoff died in the earthquake.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jta.org/1923/09/06/archive/brother-thinks-consul-kirjassoff-may-be-alive|title=Brother Thinks Consul Kirjassoff May Be Alive|date=September 6, 1923}}</ref> The consulate itself lost the entirety of its records in the subsequent fires.<ref>{{Cite archive|collection=United States Consular Records for Yokohama, Japan, 1923–1941|institution=National Archives and Records Administration|item=Correspondence American Consulate In Yokohama 1931 Vol. 5 File Number 131-600|page=10|item-url=https://catalog.archives.gov/id/79322859|item-id=79322859}}</ref> Many homes were buried or swept away by [[landslide]]s in the mountainous and hilly coastal areas in western [[Kanagawa Prefecture]]; about 800 people died. A collapsing mountainside in the village of Nebukawa, west of [[Odawara]], pushed the entire village and a passenger train carrying over 100 passengers, along with the railway station, into the sea. The [[RMS Empress of Australia (1919)|RMS ''Empress of Australia'']] was about to leave Yokohama harbor when the earthquake struck. It narrowly survived and assisted in rescuing 2000 survivors. A [[P&O (company)|P&O]] liner, [[SS Dongola|'' Dongola'']], was also in the harbor at the moment of disaster and rescued 505 people, taking them to [[Kobe]].<ref>[http://www.poheritage.com/Upload/Mimsy/Media/factsheet/93060DONGOLA-1905pdf.pdf Ship Fact Sheet Dongola (1905)] at poheritage.com. Retrieved 9 May 2020</ref> [[File: Marunouchi after the Great Kanto Earthquake.JPG|thumb|[[Marunouchi]] in flames]] A [[tsunami]] with waves up to {{convert|10|m|abbr=on}} high struck the coast of [[Sagami Bay]], [[Bōsō Peninsula]], [[Izu Islands]], and the east coast of [[Izu Peninsula]] within minutes. The tsunami caused many deaths, including about 100 people along Yui-ga-hama Beach in [[Kamakura, Kanagawa|Kamakura]] and an estimated 50 people on the [[Enoshima]] causeway. Over 570,000 homes were destroyed, leaving an estimated 1.9 million homeless. Evacuees were transported by ship from Kantō to as far as [[Kobe]] in Kansai.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1923/09/09/archives/all-ships-aiding-relief.html "All Ships Aiding Relief"]. ''[[The New York Times]]'', September 9, 1923; [https://www.pbs.org/wnet/savageearth/earthquakes/index.html WNET/PBS, ''Savage Earth: The Restless Planet'' video/broadcast television program]</ref> The damage is estimated to have exceeded US$1 billion (or about ${{formatnum:{{inflation|US|1|1923}}}} billion today).<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/46776002/the-miami-herald/|agency=Associated Press|title=Billion Dollars' Damage in Japan|date=September 26, 1923|newspaper=[[Miami Herald]]|page=1|access-date=March 16, 2020|via=Newspapers.com}} {{free access}}</ref> There were 57 aftershocks. === Ensuing violence === {{main|Kantō Massacre}} [[File:8-2earthquake-kanto.jpg|thumb|left|[[Koreans in Japan|Ethnic Koreans]] were massacred after the earthquake.]] Ethnic Koreans were massacred after the earthquake.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_international/601938.html|title=Collection of 1923 Japan earthquake massacre testimonies released|access-date=2018-04-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.asahi.com/sp/ajw/articles/AJ201710010005.html|title=Ethnic Korean filmmaker ends 30-year hiatus to tackle massacre：The Asahi Shimbun|work=The Asahi Shimbun|access-date=2018-04-21|language=en-us|archive-date=2017-11-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171129193421/http://www.asahi.com/sp/ajw/articles/AJ201710010005.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Home Ministry]] declared [[martial law]] and ordered all sectional police chiefs to make maintenance of order and security a top priority. A false rumor was spread that [[Koreans in Japan|Koreans]] were taking advantage of the disaster, committing arson and robbery, and were in possession of bombs.<ref name="chosen">{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Kokushi Daijiten |title=朝鮮人虐殺事件 |url=http://rekishi.jkn21.com/ |access-date=2012-08-11 |year=2012 |publisher=Shogakukan |location=Tokyo |language=ja |trans-title=Korean Massacre Incident |oclc=683276033 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070825113418/http://rekishi.jkn21.com/ |archive-date=2007-08-25 }}</ref> [[Anti-Korean sentiment]] was heightened by fear of the [[Korean independence movement]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Pursuit of Power in Modern Japan, 1825–1995|author=Chuushichi Tsuzuki|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2000|page=216}}</ref> In the confusion after the quake, mass murder of Koreans by mobs occurred in urban Tokyo and Yokohama, fueled by rumors of rebellion and sabotage.<ref>{{harvnb|Hammer|2006|pp=149–170}}</ref> The government reported that 231 Koreans were killed by mobs in Tokyo and Yokohama in the first week of September.<ref>姜徳相『新版 関東大震災・虐殺の記憶』 青丘文化社</ref> Independent reports said the number of dead was far higher, ranging from 6,000 to 10,000.<ref>{{cite web|last=Neff |first=Robert |title=The Great Kanto Earthquake Massacre |url=http://english.ohmynews.com/articleview/article_view.asp?at_code=363496 |access-date=29 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202222256/https://english.ohmynews.com/articleview/article_view.asp?at_code=363496 |archive-date=2 December 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Hammer|2006|pp=167–8}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://library.brown.edu/cds/kanto/denewa.html |title=The Great Kanto Earthquake of 1923 |publisher=Library.brown.edu |access-date=2013-02-18}}</ref> Some newspapers reported the rumors as fact, including the allegation that Koreans were poisoning wells. The numerous fires and cloudy well water, a little-known effect of a large quake, all seemed to confirm the rumors of the panic-stricken survivors who were living amidst the rubble. [[Vigilante]] groups set up roadblocks in cities, and tested civilians with a [[shibboleth]] for supposedly Korean-accented Japanese: deporting, beating, or killing those who failed. Army and police personnel colluded in the vigilante killings in some areas. Of the 3,000 Koreans taken into custody at the Army Cavalry Regiment base in [[Narashino, Chiba|Narashino]], [[Chiba Prefecture]], 10% were killed at the base, or after being released into nearby villages.<ref name="chosen" /> Moreover, anyone mistakenly identified as Korean, such as Chinese, [[Ryukyuan people|Ryukyuans]], and Japanese speakers of some regional dialects, suffered the same fate. About 700 Chinese, mostly from [[Wenzhou]], were killed.<ref>{{cite web|date=2008-05-27|title=日本１９２３年关东大地震 在日朝鲜人和华工为何地震后惨遭屠杀|publisher=Elite Reference|url=http://qnck.cyol.com/content/2008-05/27/content_2199196.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625005914/http://qnck.cyol.com/content/2008-05/27/content_2199196.htm|archive-date=2008-06-25|access-date=2008-06-25}}</ref> A monument commemorating this was built in 1993 in Wenzhou.<ref>{{cite web|date=2003-09-06 |title=日本暴徒残害温州人的历史记录 ——写在"东瀛血案"八十周年 |work=Wenzhou Daily |url=http://www.wzrb.com.cn/node2/node144/userobject8ai102397.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714223546/http://www.wzrb.com.cn/node2/node144/userobject8ai102397.html |archive-date=2014-07-14 |access-date=2014-06-08 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[File:Metropolitan Police Office after Kanto Earthquake.jpg|right|thumb|Metropolitan Police Department burning at [[Marunouchi]], near [[Hibiya Park]]]] In response, the government called upon the [[Imperial Japanese Army|Japanese Army]] and the police to protect Koreans; 23,715 Koreans were placed in [[protective custody]] across Japan, 12,000 in Tokyo alone.<ref name="chosen" /><ref name="kamado">{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Kokushi Daijiten |title=亀戸事件 |url=http://rekishi.jkn21.com/ |access-date=2012-08-11 |year=2012 |publisher=Shogakukan |location=Tokyo |language=ja |trans-title=Kameido Incident |oclc=683276033 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070825113418/http://rekishi.jkn21.com/ |archive-date=2007-08-25 }}</ref> The chief of police of [[Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama|Tsurumi]] (or [[Kawasaki, Kanagawa|Kawasaki]] by some accounts) is reported to have publicly drunk the well water to disprove the rumor that Koreans had been poisoning wells.{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}} In some towns, even police stations into which Korean people had escaped were attacked by mobs, whereas in other neighborhoods, civilians took steps to protect them.{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}} The Army distributed flyers denying the rumor and warning residents against attacking Koreans, but in many cases, vigilante activity only ceased as a result of Army operations against it. In several documented cases, soldiers and policemen participated in the killings,<ref>{{cite AV media|people=Choongkong Oh (Director)|year=1983 | title=隠された爪跡 – 東京荒川土手周辺から下町の虐殺 | trans-title = Hidden Scars: The Massacre of Koreans from the Arakawa River Bank to Shitamachi in Tokyo | medium=Motion picture}}</ref> and in other cases, authorities handed groups of Koreans over to local vigilantes, who proceeded to kill them.<ref>{{cite AV media|people=Choongkong Oh (Director)|year=1986 | title=払い下げられた朝鮮人-関東大震災と習志野収容所 | trans-title = The Disposed-of Koreans: The Great Kanto Earthquake and Camp Narashino | medium=Motion picture}}</ref> Amidst the mob violence against Koreans in the Kantō Region, regional police and the Imperial Army used the pretext of civil unrest to liquidate political dissidents.<ref name="kamado" /> [[Socialism|Socialists]] such as {{interlanguage link|Hirasawa Keishichi|ja|平澤計七}} (平澤計七), [[anarchism|anarchists]] such as [[Sakae Ōsugi]] and [[Noe Itō]], and the Chinese communal leader, {{interlanguage link|Ō Kiten|ja|王希天}} (王希天), were abducted and killed by local police and Imperial Army, who claimed the radicals intended to use the crisis as an opportunity to overthrow the Japanese government.<ref name="kamado" /><ref>Mikiso Hane, ''Reflections on the Way to the Gallows: Rebel Women in Prewar Japan'', University of California Press, Berkeley, 1988, p.176 (Hane references the memoirs of Japanese socialist Tanno Setsu)</ref> Director Chongkong Oh made two documentary films about the [[pogrom]]: ''Hidden Scars: The Massacre of Koreans from the Arakawa River Bank to Shitamachi in Tokyo'' (1983) and ''The Disposed-of Koreans: The Great Kanto Earthquake and Camp Narashino'' (1986). They largely consist of interviews with survivors, witnesses, and perpetrators. {{Citation needed|date=October 2017}} The importance of obtaining and providing accurate information following natural disasters has been emphasized in Japan ever since. Earthquake preparation literature in modern Japan almost always directs citizens to carry a portable radio and use it to listen to reliable information, and not to be misled by rumors in the event of a large earthquake. == Aftermath == [[File:Kanto-daishinsai.jpg|left|thumb|A view of the destruction in [[Yokohama]]]] Following the devastation of the earthquake, some in the government considered the possibility of moving the capital elsewhere.<ref>{{cite magazine | last=Funabashi | first=Yoichi | title= Rebuilding Japan | magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |access-date= 23 December 2011 | url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,2079476,00.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110625181906/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,2079476,00.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=June 25, 2011 | date=2011-07-04}}</ref> Proposed sites for the new capital were even discussed. Japanese commentators interpreted the disaster as an act of divine punishment to admonish the Japanese people for their self-centered, immoral, and extravagant lifestyles. In the long run, the response to the disaster was a strong sense that Japan had been given an unparalleled opportunity to rebuild the city and rebuild Japanese values. In reconstructing the city, the nation, and the Japanese people, the earthquake fostered a culture of catastrophe and reconstruction that amplified discourses of moral degeneracy and national renovation in interwar Japan.<ref>J. Charles Schenck, "The Great Kanto Earthquake and the Culture of Catastrophe and Reconstruction in 1920s Japan", ''Journal of Japanese Studies'' (2008) 34:2 pp&nbsp;295–331. [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_japanese_studies/v034/34.2.schencking.html online in project MUSE]</ref> After the earthquake, [[Gotō Shinpei]] organized a reconstruction plan of Tokyo with modern networks of roads, trains, and public services. Parks were placed all over Tokyo as refuge spots, and public buildings were constructed with stricter standards than private buildings to accommodate refugees. The outbreak of World War II and subsequent destruction severely limited resources. [[File:Memorial Service for foreigners who died at the earthquake.jpg|thumb|Memorial service for foreigners who died at the earthquake: The woman burning incense is the wife of the Italian Ambassador to Japan. The venue is [[Zōjō-ji]] in [[Shiba Park]].]] [[Frank Lloyd Wright]] received credit for designing the [[Imperial Hotel, Tokyo]], to withstand the quake, although in fact the building was damaged, though standing, by the shock. The destruction of the US embassy caused Ambassador [[Cyrus Woods]] to relocate the embassy to the hotel.<ref>{{harvnb|Hammer|2006|p=176}}</ref> Wright's structure withstood the anticipated earthquake stresses, and the hotel remained in use until 1968. The innovative design used to construct the Imperial Hotel, and its structural fortitude, inspired the creation of the popular [[Lincoln Logs]] toy.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.history.com/news/the-birth-of-lincoln-logs|title=The Birth of Lincoln Logs|last=Klein|first=Christopher|website=HISTORY|language=en|access-date=2020-03-29}}</ref> The unfinished [[battlecruiser]] ''[[Japanese battlecruiser Amagi|Amagi]]'' was in drydock being converted into an [[aircraft carrier]] in [[Yokosuka]] in compliance with the [[Washington Naval Treaty]] of 1922. The earthquake damaged the ship's [[hull (watercraft)|hull]] beyond repair, leading it to be [[ship breaking|scrapped]], and the unfinished fast battleship ''[[Japanese aircraft carrier Kaga|Kaga]]'' was converted into an aircraft carrier in its place. [[File: Clouds of conflagration caused by Great Kanto earthquake.JPG|thumb|[[Fire cloud]]s over Kantō ]] In contrast to [[London]], where [[typhoid fever]] had been steadily declining since the 1870s, the rate in Tokyo remained high, more so in the upper-class residential northern and western districts than in the densely populated working-class eastern district. An explanation is the decline of waste disposal, which became particularly serious in the northern and western districts when traditional methods of waste disposal collapsed due to urbanization. The 1923 earthquake led to record-high morbidity due to unsanitary conditions following the earthquake, and it prompted the establishment of antityphoid measures and the building of urban infrastructure.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Nagashima | first1 = Takeshi | year = 2004 | title = Sewage Disposal and Typhoid Fever: the Case of Tokyo 1912–1940 | journal = Annales de Démographie Historique | volume = 2 | issue = 1| pages = 105–117 | doi = 10.3917/adh.108.0105 }}</ref> The [[Honda Point Disaster]] on the West Coast of the [[United States]], in which seven [[United States Navy|US Navy]] destroyers ran aground and 23 people died, has been attributed to navigational errors caused by unusual currents set up by the earthquake in Japan.<ref>{{citation|publisher=Naval History and Heritage Command, U.S. Department of the Navy|year=2002|title=Honda Point Disaster, 8 September 1923|url=http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/honda.htm|access-date=24 May 2014|archive-date=8 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131108032918/http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/honda.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> ==Memory== Beginning in 1960, every September 1st is designated as Disaster Prevention Day to commemorate the earthquake and remind people of the importance of preparedness, as August and September are the peak of the typhoon season. Schools and public and private organizations host disaster drills. Tokyo is located near a [[fault (geology)|fault zone]] beneath the [[Izu Peninsula]] which, on average, causes a major earthquake about once every 70 years,<ref name="penguinrandomhouse.com">{{cite web |url=https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/554995/the-big-ones-by-dr-lucy-jones/9780385542708|title=The Big Ones by Lucy Jones &#124; PenguinRandomHouse.com: Books|website=PenguinRandomhouse.com}}</ref> and is also located near the [[Sagami Trough]], a large [[subduction zone]] that has potential for large earthquakes. Every year on this date, schools across Japan take a moment of silence at the precise time the earthquake hit in memory of the lives lost. Some discreet memorials are located in [[Yokoamicho Park]] in [[Sumida, Tokyo|Sumida Ward]], at the site of the open space in which an estimated 38,000 people were killed by a single [[fire whirl]].<ref name="penguinrandomhouse.com"/> The park houses a Buddhist-style memorial hall/museum, a memorial bell donated by Taiwanese Buddhists, a memorial to the victims of [[Bombing of Tokyo in World War II|World War II Tokyo air raids]], and a memorial to the Korean victims of the vigilante killings. == In fiction == {{in popular culture|date=August 2020}} === In written or graphic novels === In the [[historical fantasy]] novel ''[[Teito Monogatari]]'' ([[Hiroshi Aramata]]) a supernatural explanation is given for the cause of the Great Kantō earthquake, connecting it with the principles of [[feng shui]]. In [[Yasunari Kawabata]]'s 1930 novel ''[[The Scarlet Gang of Asakusa]]'' several chapters deal with the Great Kantō earthquake. In one scene in the book, ''[[Japan Sinks]]'' (by [[Sakyo Komatsu]]), due to the fast-moving subduction of the Pacific and Eurasian plates, the Sagami Trough ruptures in a magnitude-8.5 earthquake, killing several million people in Tokyo and other areas, causing major tsunamis, and creating major [[firestorm]]s. In the film adaptation of ''Japan Sinks'', [[Nihon Chinbotsu (1973 film)|'' Nihon Chinbotsu'']], the Sagami Trough ruptures in a massive earthquake called "The Second Great Kanto Earthquake". In the manga (comic) adaptation of ''Japan Sinks'', the Second Kantō Earthquake killed over five million. In the [[Pachinko (TV series)|TV adaptation]] of the [[Pachinko]] [[Pachinko (novel)|Novel]] by [[Min Jin Lee]], a young Hansu escapes Yokohama with his father's former [[Yakuza]] employer, Ryoichi, from the Great Kantō Earthquake. The Great Kantō Earthquake is not featured in the book. In [[Oswald Wynd]]'s novel ''[[The Ginger Tree]]'', Mary Mackenzie survives the earthquake, and later bases her clothes designing company in one of the few buildings that remained standing in the aftermath. === In film or animation === An incident after the Great Kanto earthquake is recreated in the 1998 film, ''[[After_Life_(film)|After Life]]'', known in Japanese as ''Wandafuru Raifu'' (or ''Wonderful Life''). Directed by [[Hirokazu Kore-eda]], the plot takes place in a way station for those who have just died. The newly deceased will take their happiest memory with them into the afterlife. One of the newly deceased has a memory of being in the woods after the earthquake. [[Michiyo Akaishi|Michiyo Akaishi's]] [[josei manga]] ''Akatsuki no Aria'' features the earthquake in volume 8. Several places frequented by the protagonist Aria Kanbara, like her boarding school and the house of the rich Nishimikado clan that she is an illegitimate member of, become shelters for the wounded and the homeless. Aria's birth mother is severely injured by debris and later dies, and this triggers a subplot about Aria's own heritage. In [[Yuu Watase|Yuu Watase's]] 2017 josei manga ''[[Fushigi Yûgi Byakko Senki]]'', the heroine Suzuno Osugi enters ''The Universe of the Four Gods'' for the first time right after the earthquake: her father Takao, who is dying from injuries he suffered when the family house fatally collapsed on him and Suzuno's mother Tamayo, orders her to do so, so she will survive the disaster and its aftermath. After a brief time there, she's sent back to the already destroyed Tokyo, and she, alongside her soon-to-be love interest Seiji Horie and two young boys named Hideo and Kenichi, is taken in by a friend of the late Takao, Dr. Oikawa. [[Waki Yamato]]'s manga ''[[Haikara-san ga Tōru]]'' actually reaches its climax after the Great Kantō earthquake—which happens right before the wedding of the female lead, Benio Hanamura, and her second love Tousei. Benio barely survives when the Christian church she's getting married in collapses, and then she finds her long-lost love Shinobu whose other love interest Larissa is among the victims; they get back together, and Tousei allows them to. In Makiko Hirata's josei manga and anime ''Kasei Yakyoku'' the story finishes some time after the earthquake, as a corollary to the main love triangle between the noblewoman Akiko Hashou, her lover Taka Itou, and Akiko's personal maid Sara Uchida. The earthquake happens just as the marriage between Akiko and her fiancé Kiyosu Saionji is announced. Sara is in the streets, and Taka is taking Sara's brother Junichirou to a hospital after he was injured in a yakuza-related incident. The Hashou's mansion is destroyed, leading to an emotional confrontation between Akiko and Saionji; meanwhile, Sara's humble house in the suburbia is also destroyed and her and Junichirou's mother dies of injuries she sustained in the earthquake.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.technogirls.org/barbara/anime/kasei.htm|title=Nightsong of Splendor — Kasei Yakyoku| access-date= 11 December 2011 <!--DASHBot-->}}</ref> [[Maurice Tourneur]]'s 1924 silent film ''[[Torment (1924 film)|Torment]]'' has an earthquake in Yokohama in its plot, and uses footage of the Kantō earthquake in the film.<ref>{{cite book|title=Maurice Tourneur: The Life and Films|first=Harry|last=Waldman|date=2001|page=[https://archive.org/details/mauricetourneurl00wald/page/117 117]|isbn=9780786409570|location=Jefferson, NC|publisher=McFarland & Co.|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/mauricetourneurl00wald/page/117|chapter=The Films in America, 1914–1926}}</ref> In the animated series, ''[[Tokyo Magnitude 8.0]]'', the Sagami Trough ruptures in a magnitude-8.0 earthquake, killing over 200,000 in Tokyo, causing floods and fires, and putting the main character at risk. [[Go Nagai]]'s manga ''[[Violence Jack]]'' is set in a scenario in which a gigantic earthquake called 'The Great Kanto Hellquake', reminiscent of the 1923 earthquake, devastates Tokyo and severs the Kanto region from the rest of Japan, as well as cutting it off from the outside world. In the 2013 animated film by director [[Hayao Miyazaki]], ''[[The Wind Rises]]'', the protagonist [[Jiro Horikoshi]] is traveling to Tokyo by train to study engineering. On the way, the 1923 earthquake strikes, damaging the train and causing a huge fire in the city. Part of the story in the anime and manga versions of [[Taisho Otome Fairy Tale]] (by Sana Kirioka) happened during the earthquake. At that time Yuzuki was in Tokyo visiting a friend, causing Tamahiko to worry, and follow her to Tokyo. ==See also== {{Portal|Tokyo|Japan|Earth sciences}} * [[1293 Kamakura earthquake]] * [[1703 Genroku earthquake]] * [[1906 San Francisco earthquake]] * [[Amakasu Incident]] * [[List of earthquakes in 1923]] * [[List of earthquakes in Japan]] * [[List of megathrust earthquakes]] ==Notes== {{Reflist|30em}} ==References and further reading== {{refbegin}} * Aldrich, Daniel P. "Social, not physical, infrastructure: the critical role of civil society after the 1923 Tokyo earthquake." ''Disasters'' 36.3 (2012): 398–419. * {{cite journal | last = Borland | first = Janet | title = Capitalising on catastrophe: reinvigorating the Japanese state with moral values through education following the 1923 Great Kantō Earthquake | journal = [[Modern Asian Studies]] | volume = 40 | issue = 4 | pages = 875–907 | doi = 10.1017/S0026749X06002010 | jstor = 3876637 | date = October 2006 | s2cid = 145241763 }} * {{cite journal | last = Borland | first = Janet | title = Stories of ideal Japanese subjects from the great Kantō earthquake of 1923 | journal = Japanese Studies| volume = 25 | issue = 1 | pages = 21–34 | doi = 10.1080/10371390500067645 | date = May 2005 | s2cid = 145063880 }} * Borland, Janet. "Voices of vulnerability and resilience: children and their recollections in post-earthquake Tokyo." ''Japanese Studies'' 36.3 (2016): 299–317. * Clancey, Gregory. "The Changing Character of Disaster Victimhood: Evidence from Japan's 'Great Earthquakes'." ''Critical Asian Studies'' 48.3 (2016): 356–379. * {{cite book | last = Clancey | first = Gregory | title = Earthquake nation: the cultural politics of Japanese Seismicity | publisher = [[University of California Press]] | location = Berkeley | year = 2006 | isbn = 9780520246072 }} * {{cite book |last=Gulick |first=Sidney L. |date=1923 |title=The Winning of the Far East: A Study of the Christian Movement in China, Korea, and Japan |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/winningoffareast00guli |publisher=George H. Doran Company |chapter=The Great Earthquake and Fire in Japan: An Interpretation }} * {{Citation | last = Hammer | first = Joshua | title = Yokohama burning: the deadly 1923 earthquake and fire that helped forge the path to World War II | publisher = [[Simon & Schuster]] | year = 2006 | isbn = 9780743264655 | url = https://archive.org/details/yokohamaburningd00hamm }} * {{Cite news | last = Helibrun | first = Jacob | title = Aftershocks | work = [[The New York Times]] | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/17/books/review/Heilbrunn.t.html | date = September 17, 2006 }} * Hunter, Janet. "'Extreme confusion and disorder'? the Japanese economy in the Great Kantō earthquake of 1923." ''Journal of Asian Studies'' (2014): 753–773 [http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/57693/1/Hunter_Extreme%20Confusion.pdf online]. * Hunter, Janet, and Kota Ogasawara. "Price shocks in regional markets: Japan's Great Kantō Earthquake of 1923." ''Economic History Review'' 72.4 (2019): 1335–1362. * {{cite journal | last = Lee | first = Eun-gyong | title = The Great Kantō Earthquake and "life-rationalization" by modern Japanese women | journal = [[Asian Journal of Women's Studies]] | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 2–18 | doi = 10.1080/12259276.2015.1029230 | date = January 2015 | s2cid = 143301950 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Nyst | first1 = M. | last2 = Nishimura | first2 = T. | last3 = Pollitz | first3 = F. F. | last4 = Thatcher | first4 = W. | title = The 1923 Kantō earthquake reevaluated using a newly augmented geodetic data set | journal = [[Journal of Geophysical Research]] | volume = 111 | issue = B11306 | doi = 10.1029/2005JB003628 | date = November 2006 | pages = n/a |bibcode = 2006JGRB..11111306N | doi-access = free }} [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2005JB003628/pdf Pdf.] * {{cite book | last1 = Scawthorn | first1 = Charles | last2 = Eidinger | first2 = John M. | last3 = Schiff | first3 = Anshel J. | title = Fire following earthquake | publisher = [[American Society of Civil Engineers]] | location = Reston, Virginia | year = 2006 | isbn = 9780784407394 }} * {{cite journal | last = Schencking | first = J. Charles | title = The Great Kantō Earthquake and the culture of catastrophe and reconstruction in 1920s Japan | journal = [[Journal of Japanese Studies]] | volume = 34 | issue = 2 | pages = 295–331 | doi = 10.1353/jjs.0.0021 | date = Summer 2008 | s2cid = 146673960 }} * Weisenfeld, Gennifer. ''Imaging Disaster: Tokyo and the visual culture of Japan's Great Earthquake of 1923'' (Univ of California Press, 2012). {{refend}} ==External links== {{Commons category|1923 Great Kantō earthquake}} *[http://www.greatkantoearthquake.com/ The Great Kantō earthquake of 1923] – Great Kanto Earthquake.com *[http://www.japan-guide.com/a/earthquake/ Great Kanto Earthquake 1923] – Photographs by August Kengelbacher *[http://www.britishpathe.com/workspace.php?id=11103 Japan Earthquake 1923] – [[Pathé News]] *[http://dl.lib.brown.edu/kanto The Great Kanto Earthquake of 1923] – Brown University Library Center for Digital Scholarship *[http://english.ohmynews.com/articleview/article_view.asp?menu=c10400&no=320400&rel_no=1 The Great Kanto Earthquake Massacre] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110317165553/http://english.ohmynews.com/articleview/article_view.asp?menu=c10400&no=320400&rel_no=1 |date=2011-03-17 }} – [[OhmyNews]] *{{EQ-isc-link|911526}} *[http://www.check123.com/videos/9520-1923-great-kanto-earthquake-fire-tornado 1923 Great Kanto Earthquake – Fire Tornado – Video] | Check123 – Video encyclopedia {{Earthquakes in Japan}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Great Kanto Earthquake}} [[Category:1923 Great Kantō earthquake| ]] [[Category:Earthquakes of the Taishō period]] [[Category:Megathrust earthquakes in Japan]] [[Category:Natural disasters in Tokyo]] [[Category:Earthquakes in the Empire of Japan]] [[Category:1923 in Japan]] [[Category:1923 earthquakes|Kanto, Great]] [[Category:1920s in Tokyo]] [[Category:Fires in Japan]] [[Category:Massacres in Japan]] [[Category:Racially motivated violence in Asia]] [[Category:Korea under Japanese rule]] [[Category:Anti-Korean sentiment in Japan]] [[Category:Zainichi Korean history]] [[Category:Urban fires in Asia]] [[Category:1923 tsunamis]] [[Category:Tsunamis in Japan|1923]] [[Category:Tsunamis in New Zealand|1923]] [[Category:September 1923 events]] [[Category:Landslides in Japan]] [[Category:Shindo 7 earthquakes]] [[Category:1923 disasters in Japan]] [[Category:1923 fires in Asia]]'