Wiktionary:About Proto-Japonic

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Proto-Japonic is the reconstructed language of the ancestral Japonic language family, which consists of Japanese, Ryukyuan, Hachijō, and possibly Peninsular Japonic. As Proto-Japonic is a reconstructed language, all entries must be in the Reconstruction mainspace.

Abbreviations

• PJ - Proto-Japonic
• PR - Proto-Ryukyuan
• OJ - Old Japanese
• EMJ - Early Middle Japanese
• MDJ - (Modern) Japanese

Phylogeny

The descendants of Proto-Japonic include:

Phylogeny

• Proto-Japonic
  • Proto-Japanese (unlisted)
    • † Eastern Old Japanese
      • Hachijō Japanese
    • † Kyūshū Old Japanese
    • † (Western) Old Japanese
      • † Early Middle Japanese (unlisted)
        • † Late Middle Japanese (unlisted)
          • (Modern) Japanese (including modern dialects)
  • Proto-Ryukyuan
    • Northern Ryukyuan
      • Kikai
        • Aden (main; unlisted)
        • Shitōke (main; unlisted)
      • Kunigami
        • Hentona (unlisted)
        • Ieshima (unlisted)
        • Nago (unlisted)
        • Oku (unlisted)
        • Sakimotobu (unlisted)
        • Sumuide (unlisted)
        • Yonamine, Nakijin (main; unlisted)
      • Northern Amami Ōshima
        • Naze (main; unlisted)
        • Yamatohama (main; unlisted)
        • Yuwan (unlisted)
      • Okinawan
        • Ishikawa (unlisted)
        • Shuri (main; unlisted)
          • Naha (main; unlisted)
      • Okinoerabu
        • Kamishiro (unlisted)
        • Serikaku (main; unlisted)
        • Tamina (unlisted)
        • Tetechina (main; unlisted)
      • Southern Amami Ōshima
        • Koniya (main; unlisted)
        • Shodon (main; unlisted)
      • Tokunoshima
        • Asama (unlisted)
        • Inō (main; unlisted)
        • Kametsu (main; unlisted)
        • Matsubara (unlisted)
        • San (unlisted)
      • Yoron
        • Chabana (main; unlisted)
        • Mugiya (unlisted)
    • Southern Ryukyuan
      • Miyako
        • Hirara (main; unlisted)
        • Ikema (unlisted)
        • Nakasuji (unlisted)
        • Ōgami (unlisted)
        • Ōura (unlisted)
        • Sarahama (unlisted)
        • Uechi (Unlisted)
        • Yonaha (unlisted)
      • Yaeyama
        • Hateruma (unlisted)
        • Ishigaki (main; unlisted)
        • Kabira (unlisted)
        • Kobama (unlisted)
        • Kuroshima (unlisted)
        • Ōbama (unlisted)
        • Sonai (unlisted)
        • Taketomi (unlisted)
      • Yonaguni
  • →^? † Peninsular-Japonic

Yonaguni also has some shared innovations with Yaeyama, leading Pellard to believe that Yonaguni should be grouped into Yaeyama (Macro-Yaeyama), while the actual Yaeyama language family is called Nuclear Yaeyama (Pellard 2015, 20). Thorpe believes Yonaguni should be considered a third branch of Ryukyuan, descending from an early dialect in Okinawa. He also posits Taketomi as an early South Okinawan dialect that was reshaped by neighboring Yaeyaman varieties, and that the Yuwan dialect in Amami Ōshima is derived from a back-migration from Yoron Island.

A reconstruction can be reliable if it's attested abundantly in the Japanese (particularly Old Japanese, and even Eastern Old Japanese) and Ryukyuan branches (e.g. PJ *kutui (“mouth”) or PJ *kamui (“god”)).

It's best to put sources for the descendants (e.g. PR *iwo (“fish”)). Either directly use the references manually, or you can use {{jpx-ref|[AUTHOR'S LAST NAME] ([YEAR])}} in an entry (has pre-made reference templates).

Reconstructions

See Category:Proto-Japonic lemmas.

Transcription and phonology

The transcription uses modified Hepburn romanization.

Vowels

Six vowels can be reconstructed for Proto-Japonic:

i		u
e	ə	o
	a

Diphthongs

Diphthongs that can be reconstructed for Proto-Japonic include *ui, *oi, *əi, *ai, *ia, *iə, ua, and au.

Standalone forms and combining forms

Some Japanese nouns have two stems; an atomic root form, and one in which the final vowel is fronted. The second form appears when the word is used as a standalone noun or as the latter element in a compound. Words showing this alternation include 雨 (ame, “rain”) ~ 雨雲 (amagumo, “rain clouds”) (< PJ *amay), 火 (hi, “fire”), 炎 (honō, “flames”), etc. In Japanese linguistics, the form of these nouns ending with the front vowels /e, i/ is called the 露出形 (roshutsukei, “exposed form”, when used as a standalone or the latter element in a compound and the final vowel of the noun is "exposed"), and the form with the back or open vowels /u, o, a/ is called the 被覆形 (hifukukei, “hidden form”, when used as the first element of a compound and the final vowel of the noun is "hidden" by the following compounding element).

In Proto-Japonic, this vowel-fronting element is reconstructed by some as *-i, as seen in Hattori and Pellard's works. Vovin also reconstructs *-y, although this appears to be based on Ainu loanword evidence (compare Ainu カムイ (kamuy, “god”) or パスイ (pasuy, “chopsticks”, potentially whence Japanese 箸 (hashi, “chopsticks”, < PJ *pasuy))), and the prohibition of consonant clusters. The final *-y is deleted in ancient compounds (e.g. *may (“eye”) and *mapia (“front”)) and in Eastern Old Japanese (*Oy; compare 月 (tuku, “moon”, Eastern Old Japanese) (< PJ *tukuy) and 火 (pu, “fire”, Eastern Old Japanese; hapax legomenon found as a suffix) (< PJ *poy via vowel raising)), while monophthongization occurs as a standalone noun.

Alexander Vovin traces this *-y element to an earlier *-r (see PJ *wasay (“early rice”)), but this appears to be based solely on Korean 쌀 (ssal, “rice”). Other word-final consonants have been suggested (such as /*-n/, based on the 1.2 and 2.5 accent patterns of Heian-period Kyoto), but these are speculative. The Hateruma/Shiraho and Yonaguni final nasals are certainly parallel innovations and are not indicative of an archaism.

Vowel correspondences

Within Old Japanese and Proto-Ryukyuan:

Vowel correspondences

Old Japanese	Proto-Japonic	Proto-Ryukyuan
i1	*i	*i
i2	*ui	*i
i2	*oi	*i
i2 (e2)	*əi	*e
e2	*ai	*e
e1	*ia	*e
e1	*iə	*e
i1 (e1)	*e	*e
u	*u	*u
o1	*ua	*o
o1	*au	*o
u (o1)	*o	*o
o2	*ə	*o
a	*a	*a

Unknown vowels

If a word cannot be determined an unraised vowel, or a type of vowel is unknown, these cover symbols are used:

• Unknown back vowel */o/ or */u/: *U
• Unknown front vowel */e/ or */i/: *I
• Unknown mid vowels */o/ or */ə/: *O

Consonants

Proto-Japonic has the reconstructed consonant inventory of */p/, */t/, */k/, */np/, */nt/, */nk/, */m/, */n/, */s/, */ns/, */r/, */w/, and */j/ (or y in non-IPA notation). Kupchik (2023) also reconstructs */nr/.

Voiced consonants in Old Japanese and Proto-Ryukyuan are thought to be derived from the pre-nasalized consonant + consonant clusters */np/, */nt/, */nk/, */ns/.

Reconstructing approximants

It was a custom for "Altaicists" and advocates of a "Koreo-Japonic" hypothesis to reconstruct voiced consonants in proto-Japonic (or proto-Japanese), mainly to make "comparisons" with other languages look better. Even if one claims these consonants based on internal reconstruction, it is mostly based on typology, especially in the case of *b Pellard (2023, 07).

However, both of these voiced consonants are only confined to Sakishima and no other dialect in Japonic; see below.

*w

In Sakishima (Southern Ryukyuan dialects, including Miyako, Yaeyama, and Yonaguni), there have been mostly consistent correspondences of mainland Japanese *w- to initial *b- Whitman (1985, 15-16).

Words in Sakishima dialects that have inital w- are either secondary developments (e.g. pR *uwa (“pig”) > Irabu-Nakachi わー (wā, “pig”)), or recent loanwords (e.g. Irabu-Nakachi わがまま (wagamama, “selfish”), わさび (wasabi, “horseradish, wasabi”), 割り印 (wariin, “seal over adjacent edges of a sheet”), 悪者 (warumunu, “bad person”); they are explicitly marked as "new (新)").

Some Northern Ryukyuan dialects have a change *w- > gw- (e.g. Benoki), *wu- > gu- (e.g. Aden in Kikai), or *w- > f- (e.g. Yoron Higashi-ku), which has no explanation should *b- be reconstructed. Even if it's somehow possible, it is certainly less natural than a change w- > gw-.

There are no correspondences of Old Japanese u- to any Sakishima dialect bu-, as wu is basically absent from Japanese altogether. To account for this missing correspondence, it is more plausible to reconstruct *w-.

Sino-Japanese loanwords have b- in them (e.g. Irabu-Nakachi 茶碗 (chaban, “teacup”), Yonaguni 茶碗 (saban, “teacup”), 恩義 (bundi, “favor”)), but then, it may have simply been a process of adjusting all initial w- in the loanwords to b-.

Compounds that involve *-w- often get deleted, e.g. "couple" has Irabu-Nakachi みゅーとぅ (mjūtu), Minna みーとぅら (mītura), Yonaguni みとぅだ (mituda) (*me (“female”) + *woto (“husband”)); also Irabu-Nakachi みゅーイ゚ (myūɿ, “niece and nephew, young sibling”) < *mei (“niece”) + *woi (“nephew”). There is no explanation for the Minna form to be derived from *meboto(ra). However, one can also argue that the medial *-w- had lenited.

One evidence that Whitman and Vovin add to support *b- internally is using (Hirara) Miyako data that has v(u)-, which can be observed in words that have *-bu-, e.g. Miyako あっヴぁ (avva, “oil, fat”). However, Pellard (2023, 09) gives a note that some data from Miyako, including the Hirara dialect, could have been potentially been respelled to make it look closer to its Japanese corresponding form.

*y

It is only Yonaguni that has most of Japanese and Ryukyuan y- correspond to d-, e.g. 屋 (dā, “house”), 夜 (dū, “night”), 世 (dū, “world, era”), 枝 (duda, “branch”).

Typologically, Yonaguni has undergone many other fortitions: e.g. *z- > d-, *ch- > t.

There are no correspondences of Old Japanese i- to Yonaguni di-. yi- can only be reconstructed from morphological alternations, e.g. 行く (yuku, iku, “to go”). To account for this missing correspondence, it is more plausible to reconstruct *y-.

Many compounds have a y that have been formed from compounds: e.g. compounds with "house" include: ちむぬや (chimunuya, “kitchen”), っとぅにゃ (ttunya, “stranger's house”), どぅどぅや (duduya, “a house for Buddhist memorial service”), ばや (baya, “my house”), ふりや (furiya, “bathroom”), ふるや (furuya, “bathroom, pigsty”), むとぅや (mutuya, “head house”), んでゃ (ndya, “your house”); one compound with "night" is っくゆ (kkuyu, “moon”).

Sino-Japanese loanwords also have d- for y-: e.g. 野菜 (dasai, “vegetable (new)”), 欲 (dugu, “desire”), but it is possible that Yonaguni adjusted y- to d- in the loanwords.

The most decisive evidence in favor of y- is that the placename Yonaguni is recorded in a Korean record as 閏伊是麼 (zyun.i.si.ma), which implies a fortition *y- > *z- > d-. The modern placename is どぅなん (dunan).

Pitch accent

The following accent patterns can be reconstructed for Proto-Japonic (an abbreviation indicates dubiousness, but after an accent, implies the accent in a particle if the accent is different):

Proto-Japonic accent patterns

Syllables	Accent Class	Heian period Kyoto accent	Tokyo	Kyoto	Kagoshima	Proto-Ryukyuan	Notes
1	1	Hː	L	Hː	F	A	All monosyllables in Kyoto undergo vowel lengthening.
1	2	Fː	H	Hː	F	A	Most Tokyo dialects, including "standard" Japanese, only have L accent.
1	3	Lː	L	HL	H(L)	B
2	1	HH	LH	HH	HL	A
2	2	HL	LH(L)	HL	HL	A
2	3	LL	LH(L)	HL	LH(L)	B, (C)	Proto-Ryukyuan tone class C rarely occurs in some 2.3 words (e.g. pJ *pama (“beach”), *pone (“bone”), *panki (“foot; leg”))
2	4	LH	HL	LH	LH(L)	B, C
2	5	LF	HL	LF	LH(L)	B, C
3	1	HHH	LHH	HHH	LHL	A
3	2	HHL	LHH	LHL	LHL	A
3	(3)	HLL	HLL	HLL	LHL	A	This accent class only contains a few words, many of which are obvious compounds. Thus, this accent class has been rejected in modern scholarship, and Yosuke Igarashi appears to reconstruct Pre-Proto-Japonic accent classes (e.g. *konkanay (“gold”) < 3.1 and *tikara (“power, strength”) < 3.2)
3	4	LLL	LHH(L)	HLL	LLH(L)	B, (C)	Proto-Ryukyuan tone class C rarely occurs in some 3.4 words (e.g. *katana (“single-edged blade”) > *katana)
3	5	LLH	LHH	HLL	B	B, C
3	6	LHH	LHH	LLH ~ LLL(H)	LLH(L)	B, C
3	7	LHL	HLL	LHL	LLH(L)	C

Vovin (2008) proposes that the falling pitch of 2.5 nouns were derived from a final *-m, based on both internal and external evidence (see also Vovin (2014)). For internal examples, 早 (haya, “quickly”, accent class 2.5) has a verb 早める (hayameru, “to quicken”), and 長 (osa, “elder; boss”, accent class 2.5) has a verb 収める (osameru, “to control”). For external instances, see *asa (“morning”) and *turu (“crane”). He also assumes the low register goes back to an initial voiced consonant, claiming that this is how the low register corresponding to Proto-Ryukyuan tone class B has developed from such. However, there is no internal evidence for this.

Tonal correspondences of Proto-Ryukyuan tone classes

Syllable Count	Tone Class	Asama	Wadomari	Yoron	Nakijin	Shuri	Tarama (X=mai... 'X is also...')	Ishigaki	Yonaguni	Notes
1	A	Hː	Rː	Lː	Hː	Fː	Lː=LL	Fː	Hː	All monosyllabic words in Ryukyuan languages undergo vowel lengthening.
1	B	Hː	Hː	Lː	Rː	Lː	Hː=HL	Hː	Lː	All monosyllabic words in Ryukyuan languages undergo vowel lengthening.
2	A	HHː	LHˑ	LL	LHː	HL	LL=LL	HL	LH
2	B	LRː	LRː	LH	LRː	LL	HH=HL	HH	LL
2	C	LːH	LF	HH	HL(ː)	LːL	HL=LL	HH	LF	Asama and Shuri lengthen the initial syllable in this tone class.
3	A	HHːL or HHH	LHH	LLL	LHːL	HHL	LLL=LL	LHL	LHH
3	B	LLRː	LLRː	LHH	LLHː	LLL	HHH=HL	HHH	LLL
3	C	LL(ː)H	LLH	HHH	LLːH	LLL	HHL=LL	HHH	LHF

It has been argued that a split in classes B and C of class 2.4 and 2.5 nouns were caused by either of the following:

• The split was caused by a condition in the vowel.
  • There are conflicting correspondences.
• That class C nouns were derived from vowel length, as suggested by Hattori.
  • However, many Ryukyuan dialects often have accent on the penultimate mora, and even in some heavy syllables (e.g. "today" (*keu), "body; self" (*dou")), there is a penultimate accent. In addition, words that actually have etymologically long vowels are typically preserved in some compounds, while long vowels from class C are typically shortened in compounds.
• That the split is due to dialectal contact, as suggested by de Boer (2010).

It is thus that most linguists, such as Thomas Pellard and Yosuke Igarashi, propose that the split goes back to Proto-Japonic.

Key

• H - High pitch.
• L - Low pitch.
• R - Rising pitch.
• F - Falling pitch.

Unraised medial vowels

Normally, Proto-Japonic /e/ and /o/ raises to /i/ and /o/ in attested daughter languages. An example is Proto-Japonic *eku (“how many; how much”) and Proto-Japonic *ika (“squid”), or Proto-Japonic *moko (“bridegroom; son-in-law”) and Proto-Japonic *muk- (“to face”).

There are word medial e₁ and o₁ in Old Japanese that cannot be explained away as originating from diphthongs. Examples include:

• e₁
  • 箆 (pe₁ra, “moldboard, spatula”)
  • 今日 (ke₁pu, “today”)
  • 叫ぶ (sake₁bu, “to shout”)
  • 帰る (kape₁ru, “to return”, intransitive), 返す (kape₁su, “to return”, transitive)
  • 朮 (uke₁ra, “Atractylodes japonica”) (< PJ *wokera; no Ryukyuan cognates, which is unsurprising as the plant is not native there)
  • 照る (teru, “to shine”)
• o₁
  • 恋 (ko₁pi₂, “love”) (< PJ *kopoy)
  • 焦ぐ (ko₁gu, “to burn”)
  • 苫 (to₁ma, “woven rain-cover”)
  • 空 (so₁ra, “sky”) (< PJ *sora)
  • 虎 (tora, “tiger”) (< PJ *tora)
  • 弱 (yowa-, “weak”) (< PJ *yowa)
  • 鵙 (mo₁zu, “shrike”)
  • 海蓴 (ko₁mo, “eelgrass”)

These should be reconstructed with a medial *-e- and medial *-o- in Proto-Japonic, unless excepted (e.g. internal etymologies such as PJ *kansuapu (“to count”), from *kansu (“number”) + *apu (“to put together”)).

Speculatively, most of the unraised *o seems to be adjacent to *a, suggesting that the adjacency blocked vowel raising in Mainland Japanese.

Verbs

For the time being, verbs should be reconstructed with only the root. There has been arguments that the terminal suffix must have contracted an ancient root form, but there is no proper consensus about this on Wiktionary.

In the Ryukyuan languages, some verbs appear to derive from the 連用形 (ren'yōkei, “stem or continuative form”) + *worV-, an auxiliary suffix cognate with 居る (oru < woru, “to be, to exist”).

An example:

• Proto-Japonic *kaku (“to scratch, to write”)
  • Proto-Ryukyuan *kaki
    • Kikai 書ちゅい (kachui)
    • Okinawan 書ちゅん (kachun)

Adjectives

Use only the adjective root, not a suffix added to it. For example, Japanese 甘い (amai, “sweet”) descends from Proto-Japonic *ama, without a **-sV suffix. Exceptions are シク活用 (shiku katsuyō, “shiku adjective”): e.g. *pəsi (“wanted, desired”), *kanasi (“emotionally overwhelming”).

Further reading

• Proto-Japonic on Wikipedia.Wikipedia
• Proto-Japonic References

See also

• Wiktionary:Transliteration
• Wiktionary:Reconstructed terms
• Wiktionary:Etymology
• Category:Proto-Japonic language
• Wiktionary:About Proto-Ryukyuan
• Wiktionary:About Proto-Indo-European