Garcia Sanchez Ruben PDF
Garcia Sanchez Ruben PDF
Garcia Sanchez Ruben PDF
GÉNERO:
UNA APROXIMACIÓN CRÍTICA
FEMINISTA
Tesis Doctoral
RUBÉN GARCÍA SÁNCHEZ
Dirección
CARMEN ALMENDROS RODRÍGUEZ
Primavera de 2017
A Carmen
y a José Manuel
A mi familia
Harper Lee
Matar un ruiseñor (1960)
ÍNDICE
Resumen 7
1. Introducción: una arqueología del género 11
1.1. Antropología y sociología del género 13
A. El origen del sistema sexo/género 13
B. Feminismos 19
C. El concepto de género 20
D. El enfoque sociológico 22
1.2. Psicología del género 27
A. Midiendo la masculinidad y la feminidad: el modelo
27
clásico
B. La alternativa: el modelo de la androginia 31
C. Nuevas definiciones de masculinidad y feminidad 38
D. Gender Role Conflict Scale: atendiendo al malestar
39
asociado a la construcción social del género masculino
E. La evaluación de las actitudes sexistas: múltiples
42
instrumentos que comparten una misma perspectiva
F. Hoffman Gender Scale: evaluando el concepto personal
44
de género
G. Conceptos clave: estereotipo, rol e identidad de género 46
2. Presentación de los estudios: objetivos y metodología 51
2.1. Estudio primero: Who Cares about Gender Identity? A
Critical Revision on Scientific Research, Feminist Theories 53
& Epistemology
A. Objetivos y metodología 53
2.2. Estudio segundo: Round Gender Identity: Invariance
Across Gender of the Spanish Version of the Hoffman 54
Gender Scale
A. Participantes y procedimiento 54
B. Medidas 55
C. Análisis de datos 56
2.3. Estudio tercero: Assessment of Conflicts Associated with a
Traditional Masculine Gender Role in Spanish College Men 57
and Women
Estudio 1 58
A. Participantes y procedimiento 58
B. Medidas 58
C. Análisis de datos 59
Estudio 2 60
A. Participantes y procedimiento 60
B. Medidas 60
C. Análisis de datos 61
2.4. Estudio cuarto: Are Sexist Attitudes and Gender
Stereotypes Linked? A Feminist Critical Analysis of Spanish 61
Data
A. Participantes y procedimiento 62
B. Medidas 62
C. Análisis de datos 64
3. ESTUDIO PRIMERO: Who Cares about Gender Identity? A Critical
65
Revision on Scientific Research, Feminist Theories & Epistemology
Abstract 69
3.1. What is said about Gender Identity? An internet-based
73
research
3.2. Most Cited Scientific Publications on Gender Identity 77
3.3. Gender Identity along Feminist Theories 81
3.4. Gender Identity Research in Social Sciences: Feminist
84
Voices
A. The development of sexual differences: a pioneering
85
study
B. The Gender Schema Theory: the irruption of the
87
androgyny model
C. The Social Role Theory of Gender: the explanation of the
90
glass ceiling
D. An integrated identity model applied to gender 91
E. Trans-Identity Theory: Beyond Queer Theory 93
3.5. Final Considerations: Towards a Socially Responsible
94
Feminist Epistemology
A. Future Directions 96
References 99
4. ESTUDIO SEGUNDO: Round Gender Identity: Invariance Across
113
Gender of the Spanish Version of the Hoffman Gender Scale
Abstract 115
4.1. Round Gender Identity: Hoffman Gender Scale 118
4.2. Method 120
A. Participants and Procedures 120
B. Measures 120
C. Back-translation of the HGS Spanish version 121
D. Data Analyses 122
4.3. Results 124
A. Reliability: Internal Consistency 124
B. Item Analysis 124
C. Factorial Analysis 126
D. Measurement Invariance 126
E. Latent Mean Differences 128
F. Other Evidences of Validity 128
4.4. Discussion 129
References 134
Appendix A. Escala de Género de Hoffman – versión para mujeres 140
Appendix B. Escala de Género de Hoffman – versión para hombres 141
5. ESTUDIO TERCERO: Assessment of Conflicts Associated with a
143
Traditional Masculine Gender Role in Spanish College Men and Women
Abstract 145
5.1. Gender (In)Equality in a Spanish Context 147
5.2. Measuring Gender Role Conflict and Stress 149
5.3. Women’s Distress Related to Masculine Stereotyping 150
5.4. The Present Study 152
Study 1 152
5.5. Method 153
A. Participants and Procedures 153
B. Measures 153
C. Back translation of the GRCS-SF Spanish version 154
D. Data Analyses 154
5.6. Results 155
A. Item analysis 155
B. Factor analysis 155
C. Reliability: Internal consistency 156
Study 2 156
5.7. Method 158
A. Participants and Procedures 158
B. Measures 158
C. Data Analyses 159
5.8. Results 161
A. Factor analysis 161
B. Measurement invariance 161
C. Item analysis 162
D. Other evidence of validity of the GRCS-SF scores 164
5.9. Discussion 165
5.10. Limitations and Future Research Directions 168
5.11. Practice Implications 169
5.12. Conclusion 170
References 172
Appendix. Escala de Conflicto de Rol de Género - Versión Breve 183
6. ESTUDIO CUARTO: Are Sexist Attitudes and Gender Stereotypes
185
Linked? A Feminist Critical Analysis of Spanish Data
Abstract 187
6.1. Introduction 188
6.2. Exploring the relationship between gender role attitudes
189
and gender stereotype: theoretical approaches
A. Social role theory 189
B. Gender schema theories 190
C. Gender belief system 191
6.3. Assessing sexist attitudes and gender stereotypes 191
A. Attitudes toward women’s right and responsibilities 192
B. Internalization of stereotypes 192
C. Gender role attitudes 194
6.4. Current social position of women in Spain 195
A. Educational system 195
B. Labor market 196
C. Reconciliation of work with family life 197
D. Leading positions 197
6.5. This study 198
6.6. Method 199
A. Participants and procedure 199
B. Measures 200
C. Back-translation of the Spanish versions of the SRQ, MS
202
and OFS
D. Data analysis 202
6.7. Results 204
A. Reliability: Internal consistency 204
B. Item analysis 204
C. Factor analysis 207
D. Measurement invariance 208
E. Bivariate correlations 210
F. Comparison of means for the various gender stereotypes 210
6.8. Discussion 212
A. The psychometric properties of the SRQ, MS and OFS 212
B. Sex differences in sexist attitudes 214
C. Are we assessing the same construct with different
217
instruments?
D. Are gender stereotypes and gender role attitudes linked? 218
6.9. Overall conclusion 219
References 221
Appendix A. Cuestionario de Roles Sociales de Género 233
Appendix B. Escalas de Sexismo Moderno y Tradicional 235
7. Discusión general: principales hallazgos, limitaciones y conclusiones 237
7.1. La diversidad en la identidad de género aún no está
reconocida ni legitimada en las publicaciones en medios de 239
comunicación ni en los textos académicos más actuales
7.2. Cinco nuevos instrumentos de evaluación psicológica del
241
género validados para población española
A. Evaluación de nuevos conceptos acerca de la identidad
de género: la confianza en el propio género, su 241
definición y aceptación
B. Conflictos y malestar derivado de la disposición de un rol
de género tradicionalmente asociado a los hombres: la 242
pertinencia de su evaluación con mujeres
C. Actitudes sexistas e igualitarias: una triple aproximación
244
a su aún deficiente evaluación
7.3. Las diferencias encontradas entre hombres y mujeres en los
246
estudios empíricos
A. Las mujeres mostraron mayores niveles de aceptación y
247
definición del propio género
B. Las mujeres también disponen de un rol asociado
típicamente a los varones e informan de conflictos
249
derivados de este rol en igual o mayor medida que los
hombres
C. Las actitudes sexistas aún se mantienen en el contexto
español estando defendidas en mayor medida por los 250
hombres
7.4. Limitaciones de los estudios 252
7.5. Líneas futuras de investigación 254
Referencias generales 261
Resumen
Resumen
desde una perspectiva feminista y aportar cinco nuevos instrumentos que se ponen a
el conflicto del rol de género y las actitudes sexistas, siendo sensibles en nuestros
Scientific Research, Feminist Theories & Epistemology” consiste en una revisión teórica
de las investigaciones que han abordado el estudio de las fronteras de los procesos de la
Spanish Version of the Hoffman Gender Scale” presenta un estudio instrumental que
Gender Scale (Hoffman, 1996; Hoffman, Borders, y Hattie, 2000). Con este
que la definen: la definición del género y la aceptación del género. Representa un claro
innovadores que complementen los aspectos menos estudiados en relación con el género.
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Evaluación Psicológica del Género: Una Aproximación Crítica Feminista
Masculine Gender Role in Spanish College Men and Women” es la adaptación del
Gende Role Conflict Scale – Short Form (Wester, Vogel, O’Neil y Danforth, 2011) al
del paradigma del conflicto de género usando este mismo instrumento en dos muestras
de mujeres españolas. con un triple objetivo: (1) examinar si la estructura interna del
del conflicto de rol entre las mujeres; (2) analizar las diferencias entre hombres y
definido en un origen exclusivamente para los hombres; y (3) establecer las relaciones
psicológico. Wester et al., (2011), desarrollaron una versión reducida del Gender Role
Conflict Scale (O’Neil, Helms, Gable, Davis, & Wrightsman, 1986). Éste consiste en un
prueba más utilizada para la evaluación de los problemas generados por el rol de género
masculino. Los cuatro factores identificados del conflicto de rol de género (O’Neil,
Good y Holmes, 1995) representan diferentes aspectos de las situaciones que generan
tensión y malestar fruto del rol masculino socializado. El primer patrón (“éxito, poder y
competición”), recoge el grado en que los hombres están socializados para buscar el
señala el grado en que aprenden a evitar la expresión verbal de sus emociones y, por
8
Resumen
cómo los hombres están socializados para disponer de una expresión más rígida en el
Feminist Critical Analysis of Spanish Data” tiene tres objetivos: (1) comprobar las
(Baber & Tucker, 2006), Modern Sexism scale y Old-fashioned Sexism scale (Swim,
comunidad científica; (2) comprobar las diferencias entre hombres y mujeres que se
puedan dar en las puntuaciones y estructura factorial de los instrumentos; y (3) estudiar
evaluar las formas más evidentes de sexismo y el Modern Sexism scale para detectar los
aspectos más sutiles como el resentimiento hacia las políticas y prácticas que persiguen
atajar las desigualdades entre hombres y mujeres en la sociedad. Por último, el Social
Roles Questionnaire es un cuestionario que aún cuenta con un uso reducido en estudios
empíricos. Sin embargo, su propuesta pretende ser un avance que pueda enriquecer el
estudio de los roles de género y las actitudes sexistas. Partiendo desde una perspectiva
actitudes sobre los roles sociales en la sociedad norteamericana, con el que pretendían
comportamientos asociados a hombres o mujeres, así como otros ítems que pretendían
9
1. Introducción: Una Arqueología del Género
Introducción: Una Arqueología del Género
nuestra única forma de señalar y analizar tanto este aspecto como cualquier otro. De ahí
desde las diferentes perspectivas de estudio que han protagonizado dicho estudio. Este
ciencia antropológica. Según Lamas (1996), uno de sus intereses ha sido esclarecer
cultura o son heredadas por nuestra naturaleza biológica. Se trata del eterno debate para
cada cultura manifiesta las diferencias entre hombres y mujeres. La división de los roles
condiciones biológicas que preparaban así a cada sexo para distintas actividad (en este
sólo en las propias diferencias entre hombres y mujeres en las instituciones sociales,
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Evaluación Psicológica del Género: Una Aproximación Crítica Feminista
que la sociedad entiende propias de los hombres y de las mujeres. A partir de los años
sesenta fueron muchas las voces de investigadores feministas que criticaron la gran
mayoría de los estudios realizados hasta la fecha sobre este tema por mantener un sesgo
diferencias conductuales entre los sexos para terminar por concluir que la naturaleza
sexual del trabajo en varias sociedades y concluye que no todas estas especificidades
pueden ser explicadas por las diferencias biológicas entre los sexos. De hecho, señala
observables en el comportamiento de los adultos. En 1942, Linton señaló que todas las
personas aprenden su estatus sexual y los comportamientos asociados a éste. Señaló que
identidad psicológica para cada persona, aunque no todas lo hacen de la misma manera.
problema de esta división reside en la obligatoriedad para cada sexo de cumplir con las
14
Introducción: Una Arqueología del Género
una persona desempeña conductas o mantiene actitudes que no son propias de su género.
América y Europa, que pasó a difundirse también en otros países de América, Oriente y
África en los años setenta. Dentro de estos movimientos, las antropólogas participaron
alcances de dicho poder, así como su naturaleza. Se constató que el papel de las mujeres
estructuras sociales que limitan los intentos de las mujeres por cambiar el estatus de la
ideológico y político por las diferencias biológicas entre los sexos, en concreto, la
maternidad. A este respecto surgió una corriente feminista que postuló la “tiranía de la
único de las diferencias sexuales la condición biológica, dejaba fuera de lugar todo
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Evaluación Psicológica del Género: Una Aproximación Crítica Feminista
conciliadoras como las que mantuvieron Sullerot y Monod al estudiar “el hecho
sexo sobre el otro. Así, se postuló que se debe aceptar el origen biológico de algunas
sentido, ambos sexos comparten rasgos y conductas). Se argumentó que aún teniendo
momento fue cómo tratar las diferencias socioculturales que fundamentan la división de
con las características biológicas de cada sexo, de manera que son las creencias
socioculturales las que mantienen estas diferencias en las sociedades. Como demostró
la función de crear una complementariedad entre los sexos. Al existir mujeres con
biológico que la identidad asignada o adquirida, lo que hace femenina a una mujer o
el sexo biológico, sino el hecho de haber vivido desde el nacimiento las experiencias,
16
Introducción: Una Arqueología del Género
Se puede llegar a hacer incluso antes del nacimiento al saber el sexo del/de la
mujer. Se da entre los 2-3 años de edad y a partir de este momento el individuo
la adscripción al género.
sobre el concepto de género para plantear que las características femeninas son
adquiridas por las mujeres mediante un proceso social y no como una herencia natural
hace mujer”. Esta reflexión dio pie al inicio de la interpretación del problema de la
17
Evaluación Psicológica del Género: Una Aproximación Crítica Feminista
pesar de la confusión inicial que pudiera surgir con el nuevo uso que se le daba al
término “género”, poco a poco se fue situando su verdadero interés intelectual: “¿cuál
humana. Rubin señaló que la subordinación de las mujeres es producto de las relaciones
derechos sobre las mujeres que las mujeres no tienen sobre ellos ni sobre sí mismas.
hombres, de las jerarquías basadas en el sexo y las distribuciones del poder basadas en
el género. Los estudios realizados desde esta perspectiva durante el último siglo
muestran el grado en que las categorías de género han variado a lo largo del tiempo, y
con ellas los territorios sociales y culturales asignados a mujeres y hombres. Por
el ámbito privado de cuidado familiar donde reside la mujer. Cuando la mujer pudo
de uno y otro sexo (la mujer estaría más preparada para trabajar en la enfermería, la
enseñanza o el trabajo social, análogos al trabajo al que estaba preparada por sus
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Introducción: Una Arqueología del Género
(jurídica y simbólica) sobre el uso sexual y reproductivo del cuerpo, y puesto que dicha
B. Feminismos
sexo/género y diferencia sexual), así como las perspectiva del estudio (esencialismo,
construccionismo y deconstruccionismo).
1. Primera ola del feminismo, entre 1880-1920. Supone la transición del feminismo
3. Segunda ola del feminismo, entre 1960-1980. Mayor auge del feminismo
4. Tercera ola del feminismo, entre 1980-1990. Surge de la crítica dentro del
extraer un punto común a todos ellos. Se trata de la crítica al esquema patriarcal que se
análisis social que ordena la realidad en torno a una serie de categorías binarias:
arrojar una visión crítica sobre ellas. Estamos hablando de un esquema que otorga un
19
Evaluación Psicológica del Género: Una Aproximación Crítica Feminista
Según las diferencias en la perspectiva del estudio, para las teorías esencialistas
de las prácticas sociales, mientras que para las teorías construccionistas este orden
mujer y las categorías de género. Como plantea Haraway (1995) deconstruir la biología,
C. El concepto de género
cuerpo. Las feministas de la segunda ola usaron el nuevo término para contraponer la
fuerza del concepto “sexo” que apuntalaba las diferencias entre hombres y mujeres con
una determinación biológica. En los setenta se usaba para diferenciar las formas
referirse a las diferencias entre los hombres y las mujeres en general. Se pretendía que
En este punto fue esencial el aporte de Gayle Rubin (1975) con la expresión “sistema
sexo/género”, mediante la cual se señala que lo biológico es la base que sustenta los
significados culturales. Así, se entiende que el ser fisiológico es un hecho “dado” al que
las feministas explicar las diferencias y semejanzas entre las propias mujeres. Se
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Introducción: Una Arqueología del Género
concibió la identidad sexual como una construcción social pero, al mismo tiempo, como
un hecho común a todas las culturas, hecho que Nicholson denomina “fundacionalismo
masculino/femenino.
sentido, como señaló Joan Scott (1988), si el propio cuerpo siempre se percibe a través
de la interpretación social, el sexo no será distinto al género, sino algo que se puede
incluir en él. Como se puede apreciar, hay dos concepciones diferentes de lo que se
entiende por género y hoy día aún perviven ambas generando gran confusión en su uso.
Según Scott (1988) la proliferación del uso del concepto de género ha sido impulsada
modo de decodificar el significado que las culturas otorgan a las diferencias de sexo y
Propone una definición que tiene dos partes, ambas interrelacionadas, y cuatro subpartes.
21
Evaluación Psicológica del Género: Una Aproximación Crítica Feminista
Monique Wittig (1980) fue un paso más al determinar que la categoría “sexo”
neutros, sin adscripción. No obstante, Butler (1986) tacha dicha tesis como radical y
(1976) al señalar que no existe un sexo natural per se, ya que el cuerpo es vivido según
D. El enfoque sociológico
Margaret Mead (1935) y ha tenido una continuación desigual entre los/as científicos/as.
investigaciones que continúan esta perspectiva será doble: sacar a la luz la diversidad de
Hay dos metodologías diferentes a la hora de abordar esta tarea, una más
22
Introducción: Una Arqueología del Género
y la sexualidad.
Con este breve recorrido podemos concluir que, aunque hay una alta diversidad
culturas las diferencias entre hombres y mujeres son pensadas, de una manera más o
saber:
Ortner, 1972), hay una tendencia universal a asociar lo masculino con la cultura
“cazador”) y a las mujeres por las relaciones que típicamente corresponden a sus
23
Evaluación Psicológica del Género: Una Aproximación Crítica Feminista
Con mucha frecuencia, los mismos ejes que separan y distinguen a los hombres
Para Ortner y Whitehead (1981) hay una variedad de esferas de la vida social
sociales y psicológicas del hecho de que las mujeres no tengan derechos sobre sí
que la construcción cultural del sexo y del género tiende en todas partes a
valoración social, de los mecanismos por los que se alcanza y las condiciones de
24
Introducción: Una Arqueología del Género
su valor social suelen ser idénticos a los conceptos que se usan para
capacidad reproductora).
sí sobre esa base, mientras que las mujeres conforman una masa social
25
Evaluación Psicológica del Género: Una Aproximación Crítica Feminista
del mundo del prestigio masculino. Las ideas culturales acerca de los
que las mujeres (y la esfera doméstica), y las relaciones entre los sexos,
los hombres y las mujeres: las mujeres pueden ser intercambiadas como
prestigio hace resaltar ciertos vínculos entre hombres y mujeres de entre la gama
vínculo entre los sexos más determinante para la posición social de un hombre
específica sobre la que recae el prestigio del varón. Por otro lado, también hay
sociedades en el que los lazos de parentesco son los más significativos para la
26
Introducción: Una Arqueología del Género
obtención del prestigio (la hermana, la madre). En este caso, las mujeres son
otorga la madre).
mujeres con respecto al nivel de inteligencia que demuestran personas de ambos sexos
diferencias en otras aptitudes (Fagot, 1982). Una consecuencia de estos estudios fue la
tiempo, de manera que habría un recorrido investigador de los años veinte a los 70, y
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Evaluación Psicológica del Género: Una Aproximación Crítica Feminista
Tabla 1
Attitude Interest Analysis Survey Terman y Miles 1936 Incongruencias entre el sexo biológico 456
(AIAS) y el “psicológico”.
Minnesota (MMPI)
Attitudes Toward Women Scale Spence y Helmreich 1972 Creencias sobre los derechos y el 55
Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) Bem 1974 Estereotipo masculino, femenino y 60
androginia.
Questionnaire (PAQ)
y Russell
Gender Role Conflict Scale O'Neil, Helms, Gable, 1986 Conflicto de rol de género. 37
Old-Fashioned Sexism scale Swim, Aikin, Hall y 1995 Discriminación hacia las mujeres. 8
(OFS) Hunter
Modern Sexism scale (MS) Swim, Aikin, Hall y 1995 Discriminación hacia las mujeres. 8
Hunter
Ambivalent Sexism Inventory Glick y Fiske 1996 Sexismo hostil y benevolente hacia las 22
(ASI) mujeres.
Hoffman Gender Scale (HGS) Hoffman 1996 Definición y aceptación del propio 14
género.
mantener en la sociedad.
28
Introducción: Una Arqueología del Género
dos polos opuestos de una misma dimensión. La variable quedó definida por las
el que cada persona se sitúa. Terman y Miles (1936) desarrollan en su libro Sex and
Miles, 1936). Este instrumento pretendía identificar las incongruencias entre el sexo
invertido”), deben tener mucho en común. También se pensaba que podría ser una
medida útil para el ajuste marital, ya que se consideraba que éste dependía de que el
Hathaway & McKinley, 1943) nació para analizar a aquellas personas que tienden a
identificarse con el sexo contrario, más que con el propio (Thorndike y Hagen, 1977).
Para entender la carga cultural que tiene la definición de estos términos, sirve como
circunscrita solo a esta prueba, ya que en el siguiente MMPI-2, diseñado en los años
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Evaluación Psicológica del Género: Una Aproximación Crítica Feminista
noventa, tan sólo se cambian 4 de los 60 ítems de la escala original (Lewin y Wild,
encuentran dos nuevas escalas, Masculine Gender rol (Gm) y Femenine Gender role
(Gf), que pretendían medir los roles tradicionales de género. No obstante, en el manual
del cuestionario no se encontraba una definición concreta de lo que se busca medir con
la escala M-F, aunque sí señalaban que si un hombre puntúa alto en feminidad, éste
Kaemmer, 1989).
términos de diferencias en las respuestas según el sexo; se trata de una única dimensión
con dos polos extremos (M-F); para medir esta dimensión se obtiene una única
puntuación. Lewin (1984) amplió las conclusiones sobre este modelo teórico: la
gay y las mujeres “femeninas” son idénticos; el rol sexual o las normas de género no
dejan margen a la visión personal de cada persona sobre su propia imagen relacionada
con el género.
introducción del género como una nueva categoría de análisis. De esta manera, la
30
Introducción: Una Arqueología del Género
entonces cuando deviene el segundo modelo que llega hasta nuestros tiempos.
Según Hoffman, Borders y Hattie (2000), hasta los años 70 se aceptaba que la
Kaemmer, 1989; Gough, 1952; Guilford y Martin, 1949; Hathaway y McKinley, 1943;
Strong, 1936; Terman y Miles, 1936). El cambio de concepción vino al romper la visión
de una única dimensión con dos polos mediante la incursión de los cuestionarios de
Bem (BSRI; 1974) y Spence, Helmreich y Stapp (PAQ; 1975). Fue entonces cuando
(feminidad). Uno de los primeros instrumentos en aparecer para poner medida a esta
ánimo inicial de esta autora era, en la línea del movimiento feminista de los años 70 en
los Estados Unidos de América, promover una visión más liberal de la sexualidad
señalando que tanto hombres como mujeres podían disponer de características que eran
fuese sinónimo de salud mental. Surge así el concepto de personalidad andrógina (Bem,
1972), que hace referencia al hecho de que una persona pueda desarrollar
distinción de su sexo biológico. La autora desarrolla en 1974 el famoso Bem Sex Role
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Evaluación Psicológica del Género: Una Aproximación Crítica Feminista
definió como un conjunto de rasgos más deseables según la cultura para hombres y
las que se pide una valoración en una escala Likert de 1 a 7 puntos (Nunca o casi nunca
estereotipo de género masculino (asertivo, fuerte, etc.) y las últimas 20 son consideradas
como neutrales a ambos estereotipos de género (convencional, adaptable, etc.) Cada uno
Helmreich y Stapp (1975) criticaron el hecho de que sea indiferente que la puntuación
en ambas escalas sea alta o baja, con tal de que no haya diferencias significativas, para
denominar a esa persona como “andrógina”. Bem (1977) asumió la crítica y propone un
nuevo formato para obtener la puntuación. De esta manera se conforman cuatro grupos
permite diferenciar si, no habiendo diferencias significativas entre las escalas masculina
o baja (“indiferenciada”).
Años más tarde, la propia autora presentó una versión más breve (Bem, 1979,
Aún a pesar de contar con buenas propiedades psicométricas (Lippa, 1985; Payne,
32
Introducción: Una Arqueología del Género
una gran relevancia pues pone por primera vez de manifiesto que el autoconcepto del
más expresivo, es decir, con mayor preocupación por el bienestar de los demás. De esta
manera podemos comprobar cómo la medición que otorgan los cuestionarios como el
responden al estereotipo que se tiene de cómo se comportan los hombres y las mujeres.
objetivos, realizar tareas, ser autoritario y disponer del control técnico de la situación,
33
Evaluación Psicológica del Género: Una Aproximación Crítica Feminista
mayor flexibilidad y salud mental. En esta línea, otros autores también han añadido su
interés de los varones por el espacio público y el de las mujeres por el privado.
esto es, que cumplen con el rol de género marcado por la sociedad y así disponen de un
andróginas o indiferenciadas, esto es, que tienen la misma cantidad de rasgos tipificados
en este estudio resulta de interés señalar cómo definen los autores lo que entienden
como masculinos (boxear, afeitarse, limpiar las bujías de un coche, cortar leña, levantar
pesas, etc.) y femeninos (ponerse rulos y usas horquillas para el pelo, andar con zapatos
de tacón alto, hacerse la manicura, adoptar una posición sexy, maquillarse, etc.). De esta
entiende como un rol sexual (conductas y rasgos marcados por el sexo), rol de género
o bien al estereotipo de género (lo más común entre hombres y mujeres, lo ideal en la
34
Introducción: Una Arqueología del Género
una lista de 414 categorías de personalidad. Definió una escala masculina, otra
femenina y una con rasgos que ambos marcaban como deseables o rechazables para su
grupo.
Casi al mismo tiempo que Bem, los investigadores Spence, Helmreich y Stapp
modelo. El PAQ también ofrecía un resultado en cuatro grupos al igual que el BSRI. No
obstante, ambos instrumentos difieren en varios aspectos: a diferencia del BSRI, el PAQ
incluye en sus escalas de masculinidad y feminidad ítems que son juzgados como
deseables socialmente para ambos pero que son interpretados como más típicos de un
sexo que del otro. También, Spence, Helmreich y Stapp (1974) se centraron para la
M-F para representar las características que varían su deseabilidad social según si la
persona es hombre o mujer. Por ello han sido largamente criticados, ya que con esta
diferencia más notable entre ambos cuestionarios es lo que cada autor pretende medir
con él. Como ya señalaran Spence y Helmreich (1979), sería un error considerar ambos
y Holahan (1979) consideraron más apropiado valorar ambos instrumentos como una
35
Evaluación Psicológica del Género: Una Aproximación Crítica Feminista
el BSRI, largamente enfrentadas por sus autores, no tienen diferencias reseñables en los
respecto es que Spence y Helmreich sí han aceptado que los listados de rasgos propios
Fernández y Rico, 2005). Hoffman y Borders (2001) realizaron una revisión crítica de
los últimos 25 años de uso del BSRI. Concluyeron varios aspectos a tener en cuenta
tanto para el análisis de los resultados del instrumento, como para la conceptualización
Tanto la propia Bem como otros/as autores/as han establecido selecciones más
breves de los ítems originales, así como nuevos formatos de puntuación del
1985).
reformulados.
36
Introducción: Una Arqueología del Género
situaciones que son ajenas a los genitales. Más recientemente, la propia autora
(Bem, 1993), nos incita a que nos resistamos a usar “las lentes del género” que
y la feminidad son conceptos más amplios que el grado de adecuación a los roles
Varios análisis factoriales han sido realizados sobre el BSRI (Antill y Russell,
1982; Gaudreau, 1977; Pedhazur y Tetenbaum, 1979). Todos concluyen que las
37
Evaluación Psicológica del Género: Una Aproximación Crítica Feminista
acogida por Bem, pues según esta definición, se trataría mejor del estereotipo de
ya se ha comentado.
Major, 1987; Lewin, 1984; Lewin y Wild, 1991; Marsh y Myers, 1986; McCreary,
1990; Morawski, 1987; Spence, 1984a, 1984b, 1985, 1991, 1993, 1999). Aunque el
cuestionario de Bem y el cuerpo teórico que presentaba pretendía romper con una
salud mental, su propio instrumento y su posterior uso no ha hecho más que remarcar la
Ravinder Sex Role Salience Reptest (Ravinder, 1987). Aunque ambos fueron utilizados
en pocos estudios, planteaban una línea de trabajo muy diferente a la que se venía
38
Introducción: Una Arqueología del Género
Holmes, 1995), identidad femenina (Ossana, Helms y Leonard, 1992), actitud feminista
(Henley, Meng, O’Brien, McCarthy y Sockloskie, 1998), etc. Estas nuevas medidas han
BSRI y el PAQ se han seguido usando de manera masiva y, en muchas ocasiones, como
social (Groeschel, Wester y Sedivy, 2010) que dicta unos valores, ideales y prácticas
específicas (Connell y Messerschmidt, 2005). Esta idea se incluyó dentro del concepto
Bem (1974, 1979) en donde sugirió que la masculinidad es específica de cada contexto
social y se aprende a través de la transmisión de las normas definidas por dicha sociedad
(Levant, 1995).
Brannon, 1976; O’Neil, 2013; Pleck y Pleck, 1980). El conflicto de rol de género existe
cuando los roles de género tienen consecuencias negativas para los sujetos y las
39
Evaluación Psicológica del Género: Una Aproximación Crítica Feminista
personas de su alrededor (Garnets y Pleck, 1979; O’Neil, 1981a,b,; Pleck, 1981). El sex
role strain paradigm (Pleck, 1981), señala que la violación del rol de género tradicional
puede tener consecuencias negativas, que ciertas características de dicho rol son
tensión por esta razón. Siguiendo este modelo teórico, centrándose en el rol de género
masculino, surgió el concepto de “gender role strain” (Pleck, 1995), que señala que los
hombres aprenden una serie de mandatos sociales que recogen conductas apropiadas
para ellos, siendo estas en algunos casos poco adaptativas y problemáticas para su salud.
Los hombres experimentan cierto malestar intentando vivir bajo ese modelo y se
frustran al no poder alcanzar las expectativas marcadas. A partir de esta teoría, O’Neil
(1987, 2008) desarrolló la teoría del “gender role conflict” centrada en el grado en que
situacionales (Wester, 2008; Wester & Vogel, 2002), y los consecuentes problemas que
interpersonales aparecen cuando los hombres, manteniendo sus roles de manera rígida,
llevan a cabo conductas de riesgo para su salud y la de los demás (Brooks & Silverstein,
1995; O’Neil, 1990). Los conflictos personales aparecen cuando los hombres no viven
discrepancia entre su autoconcepto real e ideal (O’Neil, Good y Holmes, 1995), además
Role Conflict Scale (O’Neil et al., 1986), convirtiéndose en la prueba más utilizada para
la evaluación de los problemas generados por el rol de género masculino (O’Neil, 2013).
Los cuatro factores identificados del conflicto de rol de género (O’Neil et al., 1995)
40
Introducción: Una Arqueología del Género
representan diferentes aspectos de las situaciones que generan tensión y malestar fruto
del rol masculino socializado. El primer patrón (“éxito, poder y competición”), recoge
el grado en que los hombres están socializados para buscar el éxito personal a través de
aprenden a evitar la expresión verbal de sus emociones y, por tanto, aparentar cierta
(“restricción afectiva en el contacto entre hombres”), explora cómo los hombres están
socializados para disponer de una expresión más rígida en el contacto con otros
señala el grado en que tienen dificultades en la gestión de las demandas del trabajo o
Wester et al., (2012) desarrollaron una versión más corta, con la intención de
que pueda ser aplicada en diversas culturas, de manera que se pueda conseguir una
Vogel, Wei y Zhang, 2014), encontrándose apoyo para la equivalencia del instrumento
Australia, Portugal, Corea, Japón, Suecia, Alemania, Canadá e Indonesia (O’Neil, 2013).
Sin embargo, hasta la fecha no se han estudiado sus propiedades psicométricas en una
este constructo entre hombres y mujeres, lo cual sería muy interesante para evaluar si
41
Evaluación Psicológica del Género: Una Aproximación Crítica Feminista
misma perspectiva
Spence y Buckner (2000) pusieron a prueba esta teoría en una investigación muy
con otras medidas de creencias relacionadas con el género y actitudes sexistas, como
son: Attitudes Toward Women Scale (Spence y Helmreich, 1972, 1979), Male-Female
Relations Questionnaire (Spence et al., 1980), Modern Sexism Scale (Swim, Aikin, Hall
significativas entre estas medidas y el resto relacionadas con las creencias y actitudes
sexistas. Estos resultados sugierieron que había diferencias en los constructos medidos
predilecto de evaluación en los estudios que pretenden abordar las actitudes sobre los
roles de género (Smiler y Epstein, 2010). Podemos destacar los siguientes instrumentos
original contenía 55 ítems (Spence y Helmreich, 1972), que posteriormente fue reducida
42
Introducción: Una Arqueología del Género
grado de acuerdo o desacuerdo a una serie de ítems (ej. “Under modern economic
conditions with women being active outside the home, men should share in household
tasks such as washing dishes and doing laundry”). Se trata de unos de los instrumentos
más utilizada en las últimas décadas (Spence y Hahn, 1997). A pesar de los buenos
Old-Fashioned Sexism (OFS) y Modern Sexism (MS) (Swim et al., 1995; Swim
racistas. El OFS fue diseñado para evaluar las formas más evidentes de sexismo y el MS
para detectar los aspectos más sutiles como el resentimiento hacia las políticas y
prácticas que persiguen atajar las desigualdades entre hombres y mujeres en la sociedad.
Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (ASI; Glick y Fiske, 1996). Fue diseñado para
evaluar dos tipos de sexismo: hostil y benevolente. La definición de sexismo hostil que
sexismo, entendiéndolo como un prejuicio que sitúa a las mujeres como adversarios de
43
Evaluación Psicológica del Género: Una Aproximación Crítica Feminista
aparición, este cuestionario aún cuenta con un uso reducido en estudios empíricos. Sin
embargo, su propuesta pretende ser un avance que pueda enriquecer el estudio de los
roles de género y las actitudes sexistas. En este sentido, las autoras de este instrumento
reproducir una visión dicotómica del género. Partiendo desde una perspectiva
actitudes sobre los roles sociales en la sociedad norteamericana, con el que pretendían
comportamientos asociados a hombres o mujeres, así como otros ítems que pretendían
propusieron una versión breve del mismo con 13 ítems para facilitar su posterior
aplicación.
Durante este largo recorrido han sido varias las voces que han criticado que se
McCreary, 1990; Spence, 1985). Spence (1985) fue la primera en sugerir que la
44
Introducción: Una Arqueología del Género
estereotipo de género y/o rol de género). Desde este planteamiento (Spence, 1985), la
incluye en su propia definición personal de lo que significa ser un hombre o una mujer y
mismo/a.
entender el género. Lewin (1984) propuso que las medidas de masculinidad y feminidad
Surgió para responder a preguntas tales como qué significa para una persona en
De esta manera, la identidad de género del individuo formaría parte del concepto propio
del género que tiene dicha persona. Como parte de esta nueva línea argumental (Basow,
1992), surgió otro concepto relacionado con la confianza en uno/a mismo/a en tanto en
cuanto se identifica con su concepto propio del género. Esto sería la “confianza en el
45
Evaluación Psicológica del Género: Una Aproximación Crítica Feminista
propia identidad de género, y ésta es un aspecto del concepto del propio género.
mujer. Es un concepto más amplio que la identidad de género, según la cual, uno se
percibe como hombre o mujer sin estar convencido/a o sentirse seguro/a de su propia
en el sentido de ser hombre o mujer. Puede incluir o no una sólida identidad de género,
así como la identidad de género puede o no incluir una alta confianza en el propio
género. En esta línea se desarrolla la investigación del grupo de trabajo liderado por R.
(HGS; Hoffman, 1996; Hoffman, Borders y Hatie, 2000). Con este instrumento se
pretende medir la confianza en el propio género mediante dos aspectos que la definen:
la “definición del propio género”, que señala cómo percibe la persona la propia
“aceptación del propio género”, que se entiende como lo a gusto que se siente la
persona como miembro de su género y cómo se acepta, respeta y valora en tanto que
hombre/mujer (Hoffman et al., 2000). Además, la HGS incluye una pregunta abierta
para que los/as participantes señalen qué entienden por masculinidad/feminidad. De esta
vienen usando en la Psicología del Género. Siguiendo a Toldos (2002) cabe distintguir:
46
Introducción: Una Arqueología del Género
Rol de género. Se refiere a las definiciones sociales o creencias acerca del modo
son considerados como apropiados y deseables para los hombres y las mujeres.
47
Evaluación Psicológica del Género: Una Aproximación Crítica Feminista
determinados grupos. Los estereotipos de género suelen tomar dos o más valores
cultura a la que se pertenece. Por otra parte, el concepto identidad de género es usado
Fivush, 1994). Spence y Sawin (1985), la definen como una convicción básica y
existencial de que uno/a es hombre o mujer. Para Lewin (1984), se refiere más a una
género (gender role identity), que viene a referirse al grado de acuerdo que una persona
tiene con la construcción social de la masculinidad y feminidad (Basow, 1992; Mintz &
O’Neil, 1990). En este sentido, señalan que este sería el objeto de análisis de
instrumentos como el BSRI (Bem, 1974) o el PAQ (Spence, Helmreich y Stapp, 1975),
hombres y mujeres, es decir, son un reflejo del constructo social de lo que se espera de
un hombre y una mujer. Podemos usar un ejemplo planteado por Spence (1985) para
entender cómo funcionan estos dos conceptos: una persona con una orientación de su
48
Introducción: Una Arqueología del Género
deseo sexual hacia personas de su mismo sexo, puede tener una marcada identidad de
género, es decir, sentirse muy segura/o como mujer/hombre, pero no se identificará con
49
2. Presentación de los Estudios: Objetivos y Metodología
Presentación de los Estudios: Objetivos y Metodología
2.1. Estudio primero: Who Cares about Gender Identity? A Critical Revision on
Este trabajo consiste en una revisión teórica de las investigaciones que han
A. Objetivos y metodología
concepto de identidad de género, se revisaron las páginas web más visitadas que
recogen las definiciones sobre el concepto. Además, para determinar el impacto que han
género y qué metodología han usado estos estudios, realizamos un análisis crítico de los
Por otro lado, también analizamos la evolución del concepto de identidad de género a lo
largo del desarrollo de las principales teorías feministas. De manera más concreta, nos
centramos en la obra de Judith Butler, por ser una de las filósofas feministas más
feministas más relevantes en esta línea de trabajo; para ello revisamos el trabajo de
Eleanor Maccoby, Sandra Bem, Alice Eagly, Kay Deaux y Julia Nagoshi, por ser ellas,
53
Evaluación Psicológica del Género: Una Aproximación Crítica Feminista
entre otras, quienes han realizado una aportación fundamental y decisiva al estudio
2.2. Estudio segundo: Round Gender Identity: Invariance Across Gender of the
Hoffman, Borders y Hattie, 2000). Con este instrumento se pretende medir la confianza
en el propio género mediante dos aspectos que la definen: la definición del género y la
empíricamente.
A. Participantes y procedimiento
23.11; DT = 3.98) los varones. Todos de origen español, informaron disponer de una
54
Presentación de los Estudios: Objetivos y Metodología
de tres cursos académicos (2012/2014) los estudiantes pudieron elegir entre diferentes
B. Medidas
2000). Versión en castellano traducida para este estudio, pretende medir dos constructos
que forman parte de la confianza en el propio género, a saber: la definición del propio
dos versiones paralelas del instrumento, uno redactado para mujeres sobre su feminidad
Bem Sex Rol Inventory-12 (BSRI; Bem, 1974). La versión española de Mateo y
55
Evaluación Psicológica del Género: Una Aproximación Crítica Feminista
una escala Likert de 1 (nunca o casi nunca) a 7 (siempre o casi siempre). El cuestionario
Forns y Pero (2007) consiste en una prueba compuesta por 53 ítems medidos en una
está compuesta por cinco ítems con un formato de respuesta de 6 puntos desde 0
C. Análisis de datos
Se utilizaron los programas EQS 6.1 (Multivariate Software, Inc.; Bentler, 1995)
y SPSS version 19.0 (IBM Corp., 2010). Se llevaron a cabo análisis descriptivos de los
ítems y diferentes análisis factoriales confirmatorios con los ítems del HGS en las
ambas muestras. También se empleó la prueba estadística t de Student para examinar las
diferencias las puntuaciones medias en los ítems y las subescalas entre hombres y
mujeres. Se utilizó la d de Cohen para evaluar el tamaño del efecto de las diferencias
encontradas. Para examinar otra evidencia de validez, en este caso de tipo interna
56
Presentación de los Estudios: Objetivos y Metodología
conflicto de género usando este mismo instrumento con dos muestras de mujeres
españolas. Ello, con un triple objetivo: (1) examinar si la estructura interna del
del conflicto de rol entre las mujeres; (2) analizar las diferencias entre hombres y
definido en un origen exclusivamente para los hombres; y (3) establecer las relaciones
Wester et al., (2012), desarrollaron una versión reducida del Gender Role
Conflict Scale (O’Neil, Helms, Gable, Davis y Wrightsman, 1986). Éste consiste en un
prueba más utilizada para la evaluación de los problemas generados por el rol de género
masculino. Los cuatro factores identificados del conflicto de rol de género (O’Neil,
Good y Holmes, 1995) representan diferentes aspectos de las situaciones que generan
tensión y malestar fruto del rol masculino socializado. El primer patrón (“éxito, poder y
competición”) recoge el grado en que los hombres están socializados para buscar el
señala el grado en que aprenden a evitar la expresión verbal de sus emociones y, por
57
Evaluación Psicológica del Género: Una Aproximación Crítica Feminista
los hombres están socializados para disponer de una expresión más rígida en el contacto
trabajo”) señala el grado en que tienen dificultades en la gestión de las demandas del
continuación:
A. Participantes y procedimiento
tres cursos académicos (2012/2014) los estudiantes pudieron elegir entre diferentes
confidencialidad de los e-mails facilitados por los estudiantes que quisieron recibir un
B. Medidas
Gender Role Conflict Scale - Short Form (GRCS-SF; Wester, Vogel, O’Neil y
58
Presentación de los Estudios: Objetivos y Metodología
Danforth, 2012). Versión española para esta tesis del instrumento original de Wester et
al., (2012), desarrollado a partir del Gender Role Conflict Scale (O’Neil et al., 1986).
personas del mismo sexo”, y “Conflictos entre relaciones de familia y trabajo”. Todos
los ítems fueron adaptados para que las mujeres pudieran responder la misma versión
que los varones (ej., en el original se hace referencia a la “restricción afectiva entre
hombres” y en este caso utilizamos “restricción afectiva entre personas del mismo
sexo”).
C. Análisis de datos
Para el análisis de los datos se utilizaron los programas FACTOR 9.2 (Lorenzo-
Seva y Ferrando, 2006, 2013) y SPSS version 19.0 (IBM Corp., 2010). El programa
las escalas se examinó mediante el análisis de los coeficientes alfa de Cronbach para las
59
Evaluación Psicológica del Género: Una Aproximación Crítica Feminista
consistencia interna de las subescalas, las diferencias de medias entre sexos y las
A. Participantes y procedimiento
entre 20 y 62 años de edad (M = 23.48, DT = 5.60) los varones. Todos de origen español,
informaron disponer de una orientación del deseo heterosexual. La muestra para este
B. Medidas
Gender Role Conflict Scale - Short Form (GRCS-SF; Wester, Vogel, O’Neil y
Forns y Pero (2007) consiste en una prueba compuesta por 53 ítems medidos en una
está compuesta por cinco ítems con un formato de respuesta de 6 puntos desde 0
60
Presentación de los Estudios: Objetivos y Metodología
C. Análisis de datos
Se utilizaron los programas EQS 6.1 (Multivariate Software, Inc.; Bentler, 1995)
y SPSS version 19.0 (IBM Corp., 2010). Se llevaron a cabo análisis descriptivos de los
ítems y diferentes análisis factoriales confirmatorios con los ítems del GRCS-SF en las
muestras. También se calcularon las t de Student para examinar las diferencias en ítems
(Gaetano, 2013). Se utilizó la d de Cohen para evaluar el tamaño del efecto de las
diferencias encontradas en las puntuaciones entre hombres y mujeres. Para obtener otro
utilizados.
2.4. Estudio cuarto: Are Sexist Attitudes and Gender Stereotypes Linked? A
El cuarto y último estudio tiene tres objetivos: (1) comprobar las propiedades
2006), Modern Sexism scale y Old-fashioned Sexism scale (Swim, Aikin, Hall y Hunter,
1995; Swim y Cohen, 1997); (2) comprobar la estructura factorial de los instrumentos
El instrumento Old-Fashioned Sexism scale fue diseñado para evaluar las formas
más evidentes de sexismo y el Modern Sexism scale para detectar los aspectos más
sutiles, como el resentimiento hacia las políticas y prácticas que persiguen atajar las
61
Evaluación Psicológica del Género: Una Aproximación Crítica Feminista
empíricos. Sin embargo, su propuesta pretende ser un avance que pueda enriquecer el
estudio de los roles de género y las actitudes sexistas. Este nuevo instrumento partió de
para la evaluación de las actitudes sobre los roles sociales en la sociedad norteamericana.
asociados a hombres o mujeres, así como otros ítems que pretendían recoger actitudes
A. Participantes y procedimiento
tres cursos académicos (2012/2014) los estudiantes pudieron elegir entre diferentes
confidencialidad de los e-mails facilitados por los estudiantes que quisieron recibir un
B. Medidas
Bem Sex Rol Inventory-12 (BSRI; Bem, 1974). La versión española de Mateo y
62
Presentación de los Estudios: Objetivos y Metodología
una escala Likert de 1 (nunca o casi nunca) a 7 (siempre o casi siempre). El cuestionario
Modern Sexism scale (MS; Swim et al., 1995). Con esta medida se evalúan las
compuesta por 8 ítems evaluados en una escala tipo Likert de 5 puntos (1 = en total
Old-Fashioned Sexism scale (OFS; Swim et al., 1995). Este instrumento evalúa
actitudes abiertamente sexistas hacia la mujer. Contiene 5 ítems evaluados en una escala
“Trascendentes al género” con 5 ítems que evalúan el apoyo a las actitudes que
mantienen una visión del género no dicotómica; y “Vinculadas al género” con 8 ítems
que evalúan las creencias sobre la asociación de determinadas actividades con uno u
otro género.
sobre los constructos evaluados y sobre la construcción de tests. Los instrumentos fuero
63
Evaluación Psicológica del Género: Una Aproximación Crítica Feminista
C. Análisis de datos
Se utilizaron los programas EQS 6.1 (Multivariate Software, Inc.; Bentler, 1995)
y SPSS version 19.0 (IBM Corp., 2010). Se llevaron a cabo análisis descriptivos de los
ítems y diferentes análisis factoriales confirmatorios con los ítems de los instrumentos
MS, OFS y SRQ en las muestras de hombres y mujeres, y también se aplicó un análisis
para evaluar el tamaño del efecto de las diferencias encontradas en las puntuaciones
entre hombres y mujeres. El análisis de la relación empírica entre SRQ, MS y OFS con
el instrumeto BSRI se hizo siguiendo una doble estrategia: (1) análisis de las
correlaciones de Pearson entre los instrumentos para los grupos de hombres y mujeres;
(2) primero, se clasificó la muestra en grupos basados en sus puntuaciones en las escalas
Wallis.
64
3. ESTUDIO PRIMERO: Who Cares about Gender Identity? A
Epistemology
García-Sánchez, R., Almendros, C., Gámez-Guadix, M., Martín, M. J., Aramayona, B.,
to Feminism Review.
Estudio PRIMERO
Abstract
This theoretical work aims to collect current knowledge about the construction of
one's identity in the sex / gender / sexuality system. There is a need to consider the
different dimensions or factors that make up gender identity, and at the same time,
methodological approaches, we reviewed the most visited web pages on gender identity
to collect and analyse the definitions they provide by elucidating their limitations. The
ten most mentioned publications on gender identity are collected and studied, analysing
review the most relevant scientific production of the most important feminist
researchers around the study of gender identity. We hold a critical reflection on the
experiences around gender identity and offer some of the lines of work we consider
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Who Cares about Gender Identity? A Critical Revision on Scientific Research, Feminist
“One is not born a woman, but rather becomes one”. With this sentence Simone
de Beauvoir anchored one of the most significant foundations of the discourse held by
contemporary feminist movements. Its echo still resounds strongly making it necessary
to drive more efforts to reach gender equality. For this, a critical analysis of the social
learning gender roles, and their impact on the health and well-being of women have
been a subject of study in past decades: gender roles and the privilege associated with
masculinity (e.g., Eagly & Diekman, 2005; Ridgeway & Bourg, 2004), the
see Szymanski, Moffitt, & Carr, 2011), gender violence (see Nakray, 2013), and the
maintenance and evolution of sexist attitudes (see Becker & Sibley, 2016). However,
there are many neglected areas of study’ about the building of self-identity in the
Philosophy (e.g., Zima, 2015), Sociology (e.g., Wharton, 2012), Anthropology (e.g.,
Mascia-Lees & Black, 2017), and Psychology (e.g., Nagoshi, Nagoshi, & Brzuzy, 2014).
identity, gender or sexual stereotypes, and sex and gender prejudices (both explicit and
implicit). However, a number of key questions can be identified in the current scientific
literature that require an effort to standardize and update the knowledge in order to
reflection, and that allow for the conclusion of verifiable hypotheses. With regard to
gender identity, on the one hand, the need for considering the different dimensions or
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factors forming gender identity, while also considering that gender identity occurs in
collusion with other social categories, has been recently stated (Settles & Buchanan,
intersectional approach to its study. On the other hand, another important consideration
is that the development of gender identity is constant along the life cycle so it would be
necessary to consider the changes that may occur through social interactions and
different life experiences. Schmader and Block (2015) highlighted the need for
clarifying the definition of gender identity and achieving a greater consensus in terms of
modulate our behavior. Keener (2015) explained the urgency of adopting new
approaches that cover the diverse, multidimensional nature of gender. And Mehta
(2015) argued that gender identity is conditioned by contextual and social structural
gathering all attributes, attitudes and behaviors associated with one gender or the other.
These recent considerations are consistent with the critical proposals from a
feminist perspective concerning the importance of the study and definition of gender
identity in the current scientific and academic setting. Consequently, research must be
social-economic and cultural conditions delimiting and influencing it. To approach this
– For the purpose of gathering the most widespread and available meaning on
the concept of gender identity, we reviewed the most visited web pages
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study of gender identity and the methods used in these studies. For this we
system.
visible the careers of the most relevant feminist researchers in this area of
study. For this we reviewed the works of Eleanor Maccoby, Sandra Bem,
Alice Eagly, Kay Deaux and Julia Nagoshi, who, amongst others, made a
We performed this review and critical analysis work with the aim of making
available a consultation document that compiles the most relevant contributions in the
research on gender identity. This work is also intended to serve as a tribute to feminist
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female Social Sciences researchers who have devoted their professional careers to the
study of gender issues. It has not always been easy to study such politicized, critical
subjects that are still highly topical. It is our responsibility to lend continuity to their
legacy.
We carried out an advanced search through the Google browser (05-2016) with
the following criteria: finding “gender identity” in any part of the page, without
restriction for language, region, or update date. Approximately 12,600,000 results were
found, from which we selected the five most visited for analysis (Table 1).
The first site was the Wikipedia entry about the concept “Gender Identity”. The
definition given legitimizes the diverse experiences, on the one hand, though it
modification beyond the age of three would involve a process that would be part of a
the adolescent or adult age would involve assuming the existence of a mental health
The second web space is the section dealing with “Sexual Orientation and
Gender Identity Definitions” of the Human Rights Campaign. They only perform the
recognition of sexual and gender diversity by considering the definition as man, woman,
or “both or neither”. Again, the expected type of link between sex and gender constructs
is not specified.
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Table 1.
List of the 5 most relevant websites in Google search about “gender identity” (05-2016).
The next web page is Gender Spectrum, a site where several professionals
collaborate. The definition is exactly the same as that offered by the website of the
Human Rights Campaign, except for the addition of the age at which gender identity is
formed (between 18 months and 3 years of age). However, the experiences or processes
whereby gender identity is formed and why it cannot be modified beyond that age are
not specified. With regard to persons developing a gender identity not consistent with
their biological sex, they state that there are possible changes of social, hormonal, or
surgical types that can be used to achieve consistency between biological sex and
gender identity. Although the categories into which the system classifies these persons
are not specified, the need for making a change to achieve the normative consistency is
still highlighted implicitly. This definition breaches the rule that, according to the
arguments of the queer theory analyzed below, should search for a creative examination
of other forms of expression and building of gender identity at any time during personal
development.
gender identity, gender expression, and sexual orientation. These share the approach of
the earlier definitions, noting new classification categories to include persons not
comprised in the normative definition of “man” or “woman”. However, the need for
making a change to reach normative consistency between gender identity and biological
The last web page collected is the entry dealing with “Gender Identity” on
Medscape web, a virtual space created by medical specialists that provides medical
information and educational tools on an integrated basis. Its definition differs from the
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rest by including an express, concise relationship between gender roles and identity,
however not defining the process involving this relationship. Again, only new
categories are proposed to address sexual and gender diversity, without explaining the
process or the meaning of not feeling identified with the established gender identities.
In conclusion, the five definitions provided show the same shortcomings as they
do not recognize, on the one hand, the developments in theoretical feminist discourse,
and, on the other hand, the achievements made by feminist movements and LGTBI in
increasing the visibility and legitimating the diverse experiences in relation to the
diversity is not discussed either (Kreukels, Steensma, & de Vries, 2014). It can be
concluded that the definitions found on the websites are the result of biased, non-
scientific knowledge. They are not updated thereby reproducing and perpetuating myths
that are harmful in terms of sensitization and recognition of sexual and gender diversity
in society.
A search was carried out (05-2016) on the database Web of Science with the
following criteria: containing the literal expression “gender identity” in the title of the
document and being scientific review articles or studies. As a result, 1,136 studies were
located, with a total of 11,065 citations (9.74 citations on average per study). Through
this database, a list with the 10 most cited studies was obtained (Table 2), of which we
analyzed the methods used and the characterization of the sample in relation to sexual
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Table 2.
Citation Report 1136 articles or review, title “gender identity”, from Web of Science Database (05-2016). List of the
10 studies most frequently cited.
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Of the 10 studies, 4 of them were of the experimental type referring to the study
intersexual individuals, where the differences between persons raised as girls, those
changing their gender identity to masculine, and those adopting a masculine gender role
were analyzed. The study by Ehrhardt, Epstein and Money (1968) also dealt with the
same subject and is one of the pioneering studies on the matter. Hines, Brook, &
women and 9 men, taking 15 women and 10 men as a control group. In this case,
analyses were performed differentially for men and women. The study by Imperato-
McGinley, Peterson, Gautier and Sturla (1979b) was a continuation of the first cited
study.
A sociological study was performed by Ely (1995), reporting the highest number
of citations per year (12.59), and consisting of a quantitative and qualitative study on
differences and gender identity of women in the work environment. The study by
Brandth (2002), also sociological, performed a review of the academic literature of the
and social factors, the study by Egan and Perry (2001) is the second most cited per year
(10.94), and it has been one of the most relevant studies in the evaluation of gender
assessment instrument are proposed. The quantitative analysis of the proposed self-
report was performed independently with the sample of boys (n = 81) and girls (n =
101), from the fourth and eighth grade of a school in Florida, 68% of them being white,
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18% African American, 13% Hispanic, and 1% Asian. The study by Weinraub,
Clemens, Sockloff, Ethridge, Gracely, and Myers (1984) focused on the behavioral
evaluation of gender classification of 71 children aged 2–3 years. Age groups were
established and differentiated analyses were performed for boys and girls. The
procedure for assessing gender identity consisted of presenting three photographs (one
boy and one girl of their age and a photograph of the subject under evaluation), asking
the subjects to place the photographs inside boxes (non-verbal identification), and to
label the photographs (verbal identification). The study by Stoller (1964) discussed the
follow-up of a study of the case of a person born with feminine genitals but who, since
childhood, expressed himself as a male, until 1961, when he received the genetic and
Gurin and Townsend (1986), the quantitative data from a national US survey of 214
women in 1979, and 715 women in 1983, were analyzed to compare the properties of
gender identity (perceiving being similar to other women, feeling a common destination
with the rest of women, and considering gender as something important in self-
definition).
results obtained for boys and girls in each case, and ethnicity was not registered, except
for one case (Egan & Perry, 2001), though this was not considered in the analyses. No
gender identity with other social categories was not analyzed in any case. In only one
study (Ely, 1995), different methods were used for data collection and analysis, and in
the other studies, a single method was used. Despite reflecting a variety of academic
disciplines and study areas, the methods used and the characteristics of the samples
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show a clear limitation in the objectives approached and the conclusions that may be
reached.
Finally, it seems relevant to discuss the sex of the principal researchers, as one
of the motives for the struggle of feminist movements in the academic world is the
search for visibility of the studies performed by women (Hesse-Biber, 2007). From this
author, which reflects the results of the effort to achieve the incorporation and greater
instrument for the critical analysis of the oppression suffered by women. It appears
progressively in studies and research (e.g., Oakley, 1972) making reference to the social
and cultural construction of sexual differences. Based on this epistemological and also
political approach, it is first established that sex is biologically determined and is not
subject to social-cultural construction, while gender does include social, cultural, and
political differences among women in a given context. From this point, the dialectics
Gayle Rubin (1975) defined the sex/gender system as the system of relations that
transforms biological sexuality into a product of human activity, such as sexual division
(1992) took this a step further when highlighting that, in relation to the conception of
“sex”, it is not just a physical and direct perception, but a construction that reinterprets
physical characteristics that are per se neutral (Wittig, 92). She argued that
where they are built as opposite, naturalized entities. Therefore, she even issued the
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statement “lesbians are not women” (Wittig, 1986), highlighting the need for re-drawing
since this term hides multiple vectors producing subjectivity (e.g., race, class, sexuality,
or age). For this author, gender is a representation, with social and subjective
implications, constructed from all the art and culture of our history, thanks to the mass
media, the school, the family, or the intellectual community (de Lauretis, 1990; p. 115).
Judith Butler, in line with the approaches mentioned by Wittig and Lauretis,
together with the study by Foucault (1976, 1980, 1984a, 1984b), highlighted the action,
involved and finally form us as men or women. The novelty of this approach is that it
does not assume, on the one hand, sex and, on the other hand, gender. Therefore, gender
is produced through the recurrence of acts creating the illusion of the truth of sex, the
idea that there is something previous, a more essential pre-existent substance. Not only
is gender built, but sex is also. The correlation between sex/gender/desire is only
For Butler (1990) the body is not a natural product but is produced as a network
purported to be. In this sense, gender is always a doing, though not a doing by a subject
who might be said to preexist the deed” (Butler, 1990; p. 25). We become women or
men when we follow gender rules. The sex/gender/desire system organizes and governs
the assigning of social positions in compliance with the logic of sexual division of work
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(e.g., care activities specific to women, activities related to the production of goods
than to men and vice versa. Social systems involve power relations, inequalities and
privileges that threaten coexistence. Power relations become more stable when the
rules. But these are not free ruptures: transsexuality, intersexuality, or non-normative
sexual practices can involve exclusions from the category of human. Butler sees the
subjectivation process (the process through which one becomes a subject) is subject to
gender norms without which the persona cannot become. Hence, the consideration of
precarious lives that are out of this normative framework is critical insofar as it is an
essential issue that involves recognition and survival (Butler, 2004). Previously, Sandra
Harding had already stated that it is necessary to include peripheral life points that have
been omitted and that destabilize the assumptions of totalizing hegemonic knowledge
racism and heterosexism are fundamental. Therefore, it is not identity, but the divided
and contradictory subject that can ask about the viewpoint of the owner.
technologies, a set of pharmacological and audiovisual techniques that fix and delimit
our somatic potentials working as filters that cause permanent distortions of the reality
surrounding us” (Preciado, 2008; p. 89). One of the results characteristic of this gender
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symbolic core around which a whole set of practices and discourses can be brought
together.
that think and act as individual bodies, that understand themselves as private spaces and
properties, with fixed gender identity and sexuality. Dismantling this programming, a
process already described by Butler (2004) as “undoing gender”, would involve a set of
collective nature, in front of the scientific community or the network” (Preciado, 2008;
p. 91).
when approaching its study (Naghosi, Naghosi, & Brzuzy, 2014): (1) The theories
based on social learning proposing that the perception of self-identity is the result of
learning behaviors associated with one or the other gender (gender roles); (2) The
theories based on cognitive development proposing that identity is the result of the
consider that there are other study lines on differentiated socialization and maintenance
and evolution of gender roles that have also made a majot contribution to our current
differentiated by gender and their impact on the development of identity and gender
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roles, the review by Jean Stockard (1999) is still in force, from which the following
headlines can be taken: (1) The development of gender roles and the perception of
belonging to a gender within a given social context result of the relationship between
biological and social factors; (2) The studies that have tried to demonstrate the influence
interaction of children with their relatives and their peers; (3) The analysis of the gender
socialization process, according to the adoption of gender roles and their evolution
along life stages; (4) The theory of gender schemes explaining how people organize and
The review of the most relevant studies defining these research lines shows that
feminist researchers feature in all of them. These researchers have made critical
contributions that are particularly relevant for the study of gender in Psychology. Our
proposed critical review is two-fold: to synthesize the different most relevant research
lines for the study of gender identity and to enhance the visibility of the careers of the
frustration in the review of the studies dealing with the differences in the capacities and
skills of boys and girls, one of the most relevant milestones in the study of gender was
the publication of the book, The Psychology of Sex Differences, in 1974. It consisted of
between men and women. Two of its conclusions can be highlighted and they are still
relevant in this area (Hyde & Frost, 1993): (1) The scientific studies evidence a number
of beliefs (e.g., women are more sociable, more suggestible, have lower self-esteem, or
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worse analytical skills) that have not achieved experimental support and their category
of myth is confirmed; (2) All the differences obtained enough empirical support were
related to cognitive processes (e.g., verbal skills or visuospatial abilities), and the
In 1998, Maccoby published her culminating work, The Two Sexes: Growing Up
Apart, Coming Together, the fruit of his research career and the review of multiple
gender in boys and girls, concluding that both biological factors and the socialization
process, subject to a given learning context, are necessary to explain the development of
gender roles in boys and girls. Therefore, gender identity would be defined as the result
of the interrelation between biological and social influences, such as relations with peers
(Maccoby, 2002a), school (Caspi, Lynam, Moffitt, & Silva, 1993), and the mass media
(Signorelli, 2001).
a review of the most relevant theories, with hypotheses helping to explain these gender
differences: the Social Exchange Theory (Emerson, 1976); the Power Status Theory
(Ridgeway, 1991; Thye, 2000); and the Social Role Theory of Gender (Eagly, 1987).
However, following the arguments of Maccoby (2002b), none of these theories could be
used to explain findings such as the degree of gender segregation that prevails in many
work places and in several social situations, the prediction of interactions between
same-sex couples, or the changes in behavioral patterns shown by men and women in
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contributions (Starr & Zurbriggen, 2016): the concept of androgyny and its
measurement by the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI; Bem, 1974), the development of
the Gender Schema Theory (Bem, 1981) and the publication of her culminating work in
The concept of androgynous personality (Bem, 1972) makes reference to the fact
that a person can develop behaviors or have traits which are more characteristic of
masculinity or femininity, irrespective of their biological sex. This broke with the old
conception that a high degree of sexual classification was synonymous with mental
health. For its evaluation, Bem proposed the BSRI instrument that included a
masculinity scale and a femininity scale. In these scales, Ben defined as a set of traits
most desirable according to culture for men and women, respectively. When the
feminine scale score is significantly higher than the masculine one, the person is defined
as “feminine”, and vice versa. When there are no significant differences but in both
scales and the score has been above the median, the person is classified as
“androgynous”, while if both scores are below the median, the person is called
“undifferentiated”.
After very extensive use of the BSRI in Western countries, Hoffman and
Borders (2001) performed a critical review of the past 25 years of use and reached the
markedly in recent years in terms of what feminine and masculine were considered to
be when the questionnaire was designed and, in spite of this, the list of items has not
been updated or reformulated. Many authors have used the BSRI for the purpose of
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(e.g., Spence, 1985) that masculinity and femininity are broader concepts than simply
the degree of adjustment to the traditional masculine (instrumental traits) and feminine
traits (expression traits). Factor analyses have shown inconsistent results (Choi & Fuqua,
2003), and, given the age of the instrument, caution is recommended in its use (Smiler
explain the acquisition of gender from an early age and its impact on cognitive
processing throughout life. According to this theory, from a young age we have
cognitive schemas (Huston, 1983; Martin & Halverson, 1983) about what is the result
of being masculine and feminine, and we use such schemas to classify the information
we receive, make decisions, and adjust our behavior to the environment. These schemas
would be incorporated into the gender identity of the child. The gender schema would
gather the gender roles and gender stereotypes in a cognitive structure from which
judgments and thoughts would be constructed and our behavior assessed. The
distinction considered by Bem (1981, 1983, 1985) was between schematic and non-
schematic or androgynous persons, that is, those that, even being aware of the
traditional gender roles and stereotypes, do not use them to relate to others. However,
the studies that have tried to analyze the application of the Gender Schema Theory have
found contradictory results (Hudak, 1993). In this regard, several studies stand out, that
have not found the expected differences between schematic and non-schematic persons
when using gender as a categorization strategy (Edwards & Spence, 1987; Kite &
Deaux, 1986). Several criticisms have been made of this theory as it does not explain
the differences between persons more intensely identifying themselves with their gender
or the influence of their social relations and structures in this identification (García-
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Leiva, 2005). The Gender Social Identity Theories, discussed below, arose as an attempt
Sexual Inequality (1993), Bem highlighted the three lenses of gender applied to
superiority of men and the assumption that their experience is considered to be the
established norm or standard and those people not identifying themselves with this
pattern are considered to be the “others”; (2) gender polarization: the trend to oppose
men and women in a continuum defined by two ends of masculine and feminine traits,
which involves defining a gender by the rejection of the other; (3) biological
essentialism with regard to the deterministic theories that argue the strong conditioning
to the sex/gender system. Through these three lenses, society reproduces male
dominance by means of the discourses and the institutions placing men and women in
different spaces, with different responsibilities, rights and duties, and also through the
socialization process where children internalize these cultural values, reinforcing the
advocated the freedom of children in the light of assuming a variable, flexible, and fluid
gender, where there can be different distortions and subversions to the established
with the practice of rearing her children while clearly challenging traditional gender
roles.
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C. The Social Role Theory of Gender: the explanation of the glass ceiling
Alice H. Eagly proposed the Social Role Theory of Gender (Eagly, 1987) and,
together with Wendy Wood, developed it throughout her academic career to date.
According to this theory, in all societies, tasks are divided by assigning roles and
responsibilities according to the gender of persons (Eagly & Wood, 1991, 1999; Eagly,
Wood, & Diekman, 2000; Wood & Eagly, 2002). This division of work would become
the backbone of the social structure of the community (Wood & Eagly, 2010, 2012),
thus generating social inequalities according to the privileges, rights, and obligations
assigned to each gender. The social roles would be created through interaction between
the different social actors forming the community (Mead, 1934). The expectations
generated of the roles that each person can hold according to the gender assigned would
form the cultural values governing the social interactions of the community (Geis, 1993).
The content of gender identity would be determined from the gender roles and
Wood & Eagly (2009) performed a critical review of the study of gender identity
and postulated that gender identity is the definition, per se, given to anyone as
belonging to one or the other gender. This study has been extended in a more recent
article (Wood & Eagly, 2015), where the main two perspectives of the study of gender
(2014): (1) The most traditional perspective arising from the research on the individual
differences with regard to personality traits and interests, most remarkably the studies
by Sandra Bem (1974) and Janet Spence and Robert Helmreich (1978) on the
(2) a new perspective arising from the continuation of the study of social identity from
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groups (Wood, Christensen, Hebl, & Rothgerber, 1997; Schmitt & Branscombe, 2001).
Wood & Eagly (2012) performed a major review of the studies on the role
division assigned to men and women in society. They concluded that the expectations of
the role that men and women must assume are interculturally consistent and are
mediated by the social pressure of the closest persons and the influence of biological
factors. With regard to the role of gender identity, they stated that it regulates behavior
1997). Both men and women show roles consistent with their identity (Witt & Wood,
2010).
Eagly & Wood (2013) also performed a significant historical review of the
debate on the capacity of biological and social factors to influence the development of
gender differences. They concluded stating the need for constructing theories that can
integrate the greatly proven influence of both factors (Wood & Eagly, 2002, 2012) and
suggest that the communication and publication methods of these studies should be
improved in order to fight the prejudices and bias that ultimately and tendentiously
Different cognitive, social, and psychodynamic theories have been applied with
the aim of explaining the development, evolution, and function of gender identity in the
different life stages. The integrating proposal of Kay Deaux and Daniela Martin (2003)
considers the more general level and the immediate context of the social interaction
defined by the Identity Theory of Stryker (1980), together with the explanation of
cognitive processes that occur in the different levels proposed by the Social Identity
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Theory (Tajfel, 1981; Tajfel & Turner, 1986). At the most general level, there are
same meanings, also facilitating a context for social comparison (endogroup favoritism).
In interpersonal interactions, specific roles are adopted which reproduce and reinforce
the socially definitive identity and it is also in this close context where the meanings of
by the search for a positive social identity. Therefore, social identity would be defined
dynamically and through the continuous construction process of the interactions at the
different levels of the social structure. However, though this proposal is innovative and
identities from the viewpoint of social constructivism, proposing a generic concept map
for collective identities (e.g., religion, gender, race). Based on a comprehensive review
of previous empirical studies that justified the relevance of some elements in the
definition of collective identities, this model brings together the following: self-
collective identities is based on the assumption that these involve not only belonging to
a social category, but also a set of beliefs associated with such a category (e.g.,
stereotyped traits) shared by the members and an ideological positioning defining the
different identities, and obtaining diverse profiles in the assessment of the different
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heteronormative schema. The term “queer” has generated a bond of solidarity within a
highly diverse collective; the use of the label has helped generate the idea of being
under a collective identity, but the individual experiences – so diverse – have not been
addressed under the same concept (Anzaldúa, 1991; Halperin, 1995; Hird, 2000;
Sullivan, 2003). The social movements that have used the strength brought up by the
advent of queer theory in the feminist fight have been criticized for their lack of
intersectionality by not recognizing the multiple identities and experiences that, though
transversally, cross the lives of people that can be grouped under this name (Diamond &
Butterworth, 2008; Shields, 2008). In this regard, Prosser (1998) advocated that
transsexual people do not need to be defined as queer since in many cases their demand
is a correction of a sex/gender assignment that they feel has failed. Therefore, this
physical transformation would not involve the subversion of the social constructions
Julia L. Nagoshi performed a remarkable job in the book Gender and Sexual
Identity: Transcending Feminist and Queer Theory (Nagoshi et al., 2014) where she
made a critical review of studies about sexual and gender diversity. Two aspects are
dependence, at least partial, on the life experiences focused on the own body for the
arousal of gender identity; and, on the other hand, the fluidity of such an identity. In this
regard, some transgender people have shown their unease toward queer discourses that
highlight the social construction of gender identity (Alcoff, 2006; Hird, 2002; Nagoshi,
Brzuzy, Terrell, & Nagoshi, 2012). The transgender theory defines the concept of
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identity assuming its fluidity, its dependence on the experience of the own sexualized
body and the influence of social pressure. Therefore, the intersection array of multiple
social identities under constant negotiation and change is assumed. The issue of the
language code requiring to talk about “masculine” and “feminine” when referring to
gender (Broad, 2002; Roen, 2001), or when we talk about sexual orientation to refer
and Brzuzy (2010) proposed the Trans-Identity theory raising an alternative that
influence of the elements fixed to the body experience that determine gender identity.
Within the framework of the social categories imposed, gender identity is better
understood as a constant interaction between three sources: (1) The body experiences
(Salamon, 2010; Shotwell & Sangrey, 2009); (2) The personal and explicit construction
of some identity aspects, aspects related to the performance concept of the queer theory
(Butler, 1990); (3) The aspects built socially in terms of influence of social expectations
linked to the categories where we are involved. Finally, the need for integration has
been pointed out, a need visible only in an explicit narration process that actively relates
criticism on the positivism that had left women’s experiences out of the research
(Hesse-Biber, 2007). The first objective to be achieved was to consider women as study
subjects and the critical analysis of the conditions of production of scientific knowledge,
highlighting the absence of female authors. From this study perspective, it was evident
that the knowledge is derived from a given context and, therefore, the partiality and
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subjectivity of scientific production is assumed, with the subsequent need for including
assumed that some characteristics and traits were permanent and unchangeable.
Therefore, intersectionality was assumed, i.e., that the possible identities are multiple in
a complex context of social relationships (Gannon & Davies, 2007). From this point of
view, it is understood that gender identity refers not only to self-identification, but also
to the consideration of the social structure in which we are immersed and the power
three study perspectives (Eagly & Riger, 2014): (1) Empiricism: it is the perspective
criticisms stand out and highlight the androcentric bias of the studies and the
highlights the necessary link between the knowledge produced and the differences of
power embedded in all relations, including that established between the researcher and
production of knowledge.
The feminist methodologist Shulamit Reinharz (1992) argued that there is not a
single feminist methodology, but there is a feminist epistemological approach, that is, a
We must consider that no research method is neutral and that each of them somehow
limits scientific production (Crawford & Kimmel, 1999; Unger, 1983). Especially
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noteworthy is the proposal of Gergen (1988) who suggested that all feminist methods
should include the following principles: recognizing the interdependence between the
figures of the researcher and/or the participants; addressing the social-historic context
where the study is performed; recognizing and evidencing the values transmitted by the
viewpoint from which the researcher works; accepting the indissoluble link between the
language code (Foucault, 1970) and the interpretation of the facts gathered in the study;
between the researcher and the participant; being aware of the interdependence between
scientific production, the consumer(s) of said academic texts and their social impact.
A. Future Directions
Throughout this study we have discussed the social, scientific and theoretical
progress that has led us to the current situation. However, there are several challenges
and deficits that must be approached from a scientific and academic perspective.
evaluation, as the instruments used when conducting empirical studies in many cases
are not sufficiently supported methodologically or simply have not been duly updated
societies (e.g., Hoffman & Borders, 2001; Smiler & Epstein, 2010). An update or
around the characteristics of feminist epistemology (Eagly & Riger, 2014) pointed out
earlier, it is important to highlight the need for studies comprising the results derived
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more historic, holistic, procedural, and complex perception. The integral triangulation
generation and validation of narratives, models, and systemic and procedural theories
develop a unitary model of gender identity, that overcomes the limitations of the above
assumptions (e.g., Ashmore et al., 2004), considering gender not only as a collective
identity but also as a structural element that defines a system where the subjectivation
process is developed; a model that should specify the relationship of identity with the
rest of the factors or variables related to the subject of gender, such as sexist attitudes,
ideology, roles, and gender stereotypes. It should gather the complex diversity of
according to the experiences around the conflict lived by transsexual and transgender
persons.
commitment to the scientific production of studies that respect diversity and especially
the experiences of the most oppressed groups in our communities. The reality in which
we live is diverse and we assume our biases when studying, devising studies, collecting,
analyzing, and discussing data. We assume the impact this may involve on the lives of
many people that feel they are not included or duly addressed in the studies about
responsible scientific production and we wish to add this study to the efforts made over
many years to draw attention to, and to legitimize, sexual and gender diversity. We
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firmly believe that promoting science and participating in academic spaces also involve
a firm political and personal commitment to ethical and social responsibility values.
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4. ESTUDIO SEGUNDO: Round Gender Identity: Invariance
Scale
García-Sánchez, R., Almendros, C., Aramayona, B., Martín, M. J., & Martínez, J. M.
Psychology.
Estudio SEGUNDO
Abstract
This study applied MACS modeling to the data from a Spanish university sample
to examine the invariance of the factor structure of the Hoffman Gender Scale (HGS)
scores across gender. The findings indicated that the hypothesized second-order model
structure of the HGS was a reasonable representation of the data for males and females.
Invariance testing was performed for men and women and revealed non-invariance for
the items and subscales of the HGS. Women had significantly higher means on the two
men. The internal consistency estimates were satisfactory for all groups.
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Round Gender Identity: Invariance Across Gender of the Spanish Version of the
“The law of nature is constituted by the difference between words and things”
(Foucault, 1968, p. 106). In gender psychology, the evolution in the names of the study
concepts has been critical for the development of instruments and the theoretical
framework supporting them. Even today, we have a lot to investigate about the sex-
gender system, and in particular, about the stereotypes, roles, and identities of gender.
between men and women with regard to the intelligence levels shown by persons from
both sexes (Parker and Parker, 1979). Later, the study was extended to the evaluation of
the differences in other skills (Fagot, 1982). A consequence of these studies was the
the M-F Scale of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) (Hathaway
and McKinley, 1943). From this point, two opposite models were formed: the classic
model and the androgyny model (García-Mina, 2004). From the outset, it was accepted
that masculinity and femininity were a list of traits and interests based on statistical
Kaemmer, 1989; Gough, 1952; Guilford and Zimmerman, 1949; Hathaway and
McKinley, 1943; Strong, 1936; Terman and Miles, 1936). The change of conception
eradicated the view of a single dimension with two poles with the advent of the
questionnaires by Bem (BSRI; 1974) and Spence, Helmreich, and Stapp (PAQ; 1975). It
was then that the concept of androgyny was born (Bem, 1972), which makes reference
to the fact that persons can develop behaviors or have traits that are more characteristic
It has been asserted that the course of the investigations aimed at measuring
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masculinity and femininity has misinterpreted the concepts and contents since the
beginning (Ashmore, 1990; Constantinople, 1973; Deaux and Major, 1987; Lewin,
1984; Lewin and Wild, 1991; Marsh and Myers, 1986; McCreary, 1990; Morawski,
1987; Spence, 1984, 1985, 1991, 1993, 1999). Although Bem’s questionnaire and the
mentality through the concept of androgyny as paradigm of mental health, its own
instrument and subsequent use has only highlighted the stereotyped categorization,
leading us to consider that there are behaviors and traits that are characteristic of
masculinity and others of femininity. Therefore, though the original intention was to
The BSRI and PAQ have continued to be used pervasively, and many times, as a
measure of the characteristics of masculinity and femininity, despite the changes in the
definition of the construct considered by the authors. Masculinity and femininity were
woman, respectively, in the culture to which one belongs (García-Mina, 2004). On the
other hand, the concept of gender identity was used to refer to a subjective feeling of
masculinity or femininity (Spence and Sawin, 1985), and was defined as a basic,
existential conviction that one is a man or a woman. However, other authors linked it to
a feeling of confidence and comfort with being a man or a woman (Lewin, 1984) or
(Golombok and Fivush, 1994). In this regard, masculinity and femininity can be
Given the confusion in the literature about the theoretical approach to the gender
identity concept, some authors have advocated the creation of new terms, such as
gender role identity, which refer to the degree of agreement of a person with the social
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construction of masculinity and femininity (Basow, 1992; Mintz and O’Neil, 1990). In
this regard, they assured that it would be the object of analysis of instruments such as
the BSRI (Bem, 1974) and the PAQ (Spence et al., 1975), as these questionnaires
consider a number of traits and behaviors that are “typical” of men and women, that is,
they are a reflection of the social construct of what is expected from a man and a
woman.
questions such as the meaning, for a given person, of being a man/woman, whether this
is defined based on the gender role assigned or in other ways, how the person defines
identity of the individual would be part of the gender self-concept of this person. As
part of the new argument line (Basow, 1992), another concept emerged in relation to
gender self-concept.
woman, without being convinced or feeling sure of one’s own masculinity or femininity.
The gender self-concept reflects what is personally important for oneself about being a
man or a woman. It can include or not include a strong gender identity, in the same way
that gender identity can include or not include high gender self-confidence. In this line,
the work of the group research led by Rose Marie Hoffman was developed, resulting in
the construction of a scale: the Hoffman Gender Scale (HGS; Hoffman, 1996; Hoffman
et al., 2000). The purpose of this instrument was to measure gender self-confidence by
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two aspects that define it: gender self-definition (“how strong a component of one’s
identity one considers one’s femininity or masculinity to be”) and gender self-
(Hoffman et al., 2000, pp. 494-495). Therefore, a new approach was adopted for the
Gender Self-Concept
Gender Identity
Gender Self-Confidence
The development of the original scale was reported in two studies (Hoffman et
al., 2000). The first was a preliminary examination of a pilot version of the instrument,
in which the test was administered to 146 (54 men) undergraduate students. The second
was a review of the scale items and was a study of 371 (98 men) undergraduate students’
The Hoffman Gender Scale was a clear conceptual advance in the development
of new measures and theoretical approaches with innovative concepts that would
complement the less studied aspects related to gender. This instrumental study was
samples of men and women comparable to those used in the original study (Hoffman et
al., 2000). The primary focus of this study was to investigate the factor structure of the
Spanish version of the HGS through confirmatory factor analysis strategies and to
provide information on the internal consistency of the instrument for male and female
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samples. We conducted a mean and covariance structure analysis (MACS) of the HGS
in order to examine whether the theoretical constructs are equivalent across gender.
Finally, we investigated the relationship between the HGS scores and other relevant
variables.
4.2. Method
The participants included 398 undergraduate students (261 women, 137 men),
with ages ranging from 20 to 53 years (M = 22.09; SD = 3.96) for women, and from 20
to 64 years (M = 23.11; SD = 3.98) for men. All of the students were from Spain and
Madrid, the data for this study were solicited from third-year undergraduate students
academic years (2012-2014), the students could choose participation in this study
Those who agreed to participate in the study completed the instruments in group
sessions in the students’ classrooms. The anonymity of all participants was assured, as
well as the confidentiality of their e-mail addresses, if the students chose to receive a
B. Measures
Hoffman Gender Scale (HGS; Hoffman, 1996; Hoffman et al., 2000). Its purpose
is to measure two constructs that are part of gender self-confidence: Gender Self-
“completely agree.” There are two parallel versions of the instrument, one written for
women on femininity and the other for men asking about their masculinity.
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Bem Sex Role Inventory-12 (BSRI; Bem, 1974; Spanish 12-item version by
Mateo and Fernández, 1991). It was designed to assess the self-perceived possession of
expressive and instrumental attributes that are considered socially desirable for women
and men, respectively. The response format is based on a Likert scale from 1 (never or
almost never) to 7 (always or almost always). The short version used for this study
natural leader”) and the other six of “femininity” (i.e., “affective”). The Cronbach’s
alpha for the masculinity scale scores was .89 in the sample of men and .84 in the
sample of women in this study. For the femininity scale, it adopted values of .95 for the
Forns, and Pero, 2007). This test comprises 53 items measured in a 5-point Likert scale
(0-4). Indicators of nine symptomatic dimensions and a Global Severity Index (GSI) are
obtained. This study used the GSI as a general measure of psychological distress. The
Cronbach’s alpha was .96 for the men’s scores and .95 for the women’s scores in this
study.
The scale comprises five items with a response format of six points from 0 (never) to 5
(all the time). The Cronbach’s alpha was .84 for the men’s scores and .80 for the
adapt instruments from one culture to a new one (Hambleton, 1994, 1996; Muñiz,
Elosua, and Hambleton, 2013). Therefore, the first step was to design the research
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methods and evaluate the relevance of the construct for the target population and the
possible influence of the cultural and linguistic differences in the context of the study.
The second was to ask the original authors of the instrument for their consent, and
finally, to inform the Ethics Committee of the UAM. Advice was provided by a team of
five expert investigators. Then, two qualified translators, the first of Spanish origin and
the second of English origin, were individually trained on the constructs evaluated and
the construction of the tests. The HGS was translated and back-translated, and the
expert team evaluated the equivalence between the two versions, making the appropriate
D. Data Analyses
The program package EQS 6.1 (Multivariate Software, Inc.; Bentler, 1995) and
SPSS version 19.0 (IBM Corp., 2010) were used for the data analyses. The scores for
each item were compared between the samples of men and women using the Student’s t
test. An analysis of the effect power was also performed using the Cohen’s d statistics
(1988) as standardized means of the effect size to estimate the magnitude and relevance
of the results obtained (Wilkinson and APA-Task Force on Statistical Inference, 1999).
CFAs were conducted on the HGS items’ scores for the male and female
samples. Three different models were tested: (1) the two four-factor model (Hoffman,
1996; Hoffman et al., 2000), (2) a one-factor model that included all items of the HGS,
and (3) a second-order factor model that included the original two factors, following the
model fit was evaluated considering several fit indices: the comparative fit index (CFI;
Bentler, 1990), the non-normed fit index (NNFI; Bentler and Bonett, 1980), the root
mean square error of approximation (RMSEA; Steiger, 1990), and the standardized root
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mean square residual (SRMR; Jöreskog and Sörbom, 1996). Indicators of a good model
fit are evidenced by CFI and NNFI values greater than .90, RMSEA less than .06, and
SMRS less than .08 (Byrne, 1994; Cheung and Rensvold, 2002).
components of the measurement model and the underlying theoretical structure were
invariant across the male and female samples (Byrne, Shavelson, and Muthén, 1989).
We used the robust maximum likelihood estimation in EQS 6.1. to assess for
measurement invariance across the samples. Testing for equivalence based on the
analysis of mean and covariance structures (MACS) entails a hierarchical set of steps
(Byrne, 2008): (0) The determination of a good multigroup baseline model fit, (1)
Model 1: a configural model is the first and least restrictive model to be tested; only the
extent to which the same configuration of fixed and freely estimated parameters holds
across groups is imposed with no equality constraints, (2) Model 2: first-order factor
loadings invariant, (3) Model 3: first- and second-order factor loadings invariant, (4)
Model 4: first- and second-order factor loadings and first-order intercepts invariant, and
finally (5) Model 5: first- and second-order factor loadings and first- and second-order
intercepts invariant. We used two approaches to compare invariance models: (1) The
corrected scale S-B χ2 difference test developed by Satorra and Bentler (2001) was used
indicative that the constraints specified in the more restrictive model do not hold; (2)
The changes in CFI were used as a less vulnerable criterion for variations in sample size
and non-normality than S-B χ2 changes (Cheung, 2008; Cheung and Rensvold, 2002).
This difference in value should not exceed .01. At last, testing for latent mean
differences requires two conditions (Byrne and Stewart, 2006). First, in a higher order
model, equality constraints are placed on both the first- and second-order factor. Second,
the latent factor means for one group must be fixed to zero (Bentler, 2005). In this study,
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the male group was chosen as the reference group against which the latent mean for the
female group was compared. The statistical significance associated with the differences
between the latent means for the male group and those freely estimated for the female
group was determined on the basis of the z statistic (Byrne and Stewart, 2006).
In addition, both the men and the women samples were split into two groups,
masculine or feminine, based on their scores on the BSRI. For such, the mean of each
used as a cut-off point for their classification into either the “masculine” or the
= 4.21, femininity = 5.57). To obtain evidence of the criterion validity, t-tests and
Cohen’s d were used to compare among the “masculine” and “feminine” subgroups in
their scores on the HGS, for both women and men. Pearson correlations between the
subscales of the HGS and other relevant measures were also examined.
4.3. Results
The Cronbach’s alpha coefficients attained appropriate values for the subscale
scores: males GSD (α = .89), GSA (α = .86); Females GSD (α = .88), GSA (α = .87).
B. Item Analysis
The means, standard deviations, and item-total correlations are shown in Table 1.
The mean scores ranged from 3.00 (Item 1) to 5.46 (Item 11) for the group of men and
3.55 (Item 1) to 5.54 (Item 11) for the women. The item-total correlations of the
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Table 1.
Descriptive Statistics and Factor Loadings (CFA Second-Order Model) and Mean Scores Comparison of HGS for
Males Females
3.00 (1.43) .46 .488 3.55 (1.44) .52 .535 -3.612* 396 -.38
1. Describe
4.69 (1.23) .42 .439 5.07 (.97) .48 .529 -3.095* 226.117 -.36
4. Biology
3.33 (1.33) .78 .812 3.94 (1.18) .81 .864 -4.548* 249.524 -.49
6. Define
3.53 (1.24) .76 .840 4.07 (1.16) .78 .861 -4.262* 261.493 -.45
7. Identity
3.93 (1.38) .78 .841 4.44 (1.12) .72 .766 -3.734* 229.145 -.42
9. Critical
3.76 (1.28) .84 .896 4.29 (1.13) .77 .824 -4.247* 396 -.45
12. Self-conp
3.60 (1.31) .74 .800 4.20 (1.09) .63 .675 -4.893* 396 -.51
14. Contrib
2. Confid 4.99 (.98) .67 .697 4.88 (.95) .68 .704 1.031* 396 .11
3. Stand 4.82 (.91) .53 .566 4.68 (.96) .47 .493 1.402 396 .15
5. Secure 5.23 (.90) .63 .670 5.28 (.76) .69 .732 -.494 396 -.06
8. Regard 4.97 (.83) .68 .771 5.18 (.75) .70 .771 -2.492* 396 -.27
10. Happy 5.17 (.94) .70 .765 5.25 (.81) .72 .792 -.899 396 -.09
11. Comfort 5.46 (.69) .55 .592 5.54 (.68) .67 .746 -1.121 396 -.12
13. Sense 5.06 (.78) .70 .778 5.23 (.72) .61 .700 -2.182* 396 -.23
Note. *p<.01. **p<.05. rciX: item-total correlation. GSD = Gender Self-Definition; GSA = Gender Self-Acceptance.
Significant differences were found between men and women in the mean scores of
the GSD factor and all of its items, with a moderate effect size. However, in the
comparison of the means of the items and the global of factor GSA, no significant
differences were found, except in the case of items 2, 8, and 13, all of which had a small
effect size. In all of the comparisons, the women had higher scores, except for items 2
for masculinity/femininity”), both belonging to the GSA factor, for which men had
higher scores.
C. Factorial Analysis
The fit indices for the competing models of the HGS in both samples are shown in
Table 2. The two-factor model and the second-order factor model reached appropriate
levels of fit in both samples. However, the second-order model yielded higher values of
CFI and NNFI, and a lower RMSEA and S-B χ2 value than the two-factor model. Factor
loadings of the HGS items on the second-order model are shown in Table 3. The results
of the LM test suggested a very interesting change in both models: Item 4 (“My
belonged to the GSD, was highly related to the other factor GSA (males p=.68; females
p=.65) in the two-factor model, while in the second-order model, it was related to the
Table 2.
Summary of Fit Indices for the CFAs of HGS for Males (n = 137) and Females (n = 261).
Males
One-Factor Model 343.5255 77 .617 .547 .210 .160 (CI: .142, .176)
Two-Factor Model 120.890 76 .936 .923 .082 .066 (CI: .043, .087)
Second-Order Model 117.952 75 .938 .925 .082 .065 (CI: .041, .086)
Females
One-Factor Model 389.038 77 548 .466 .110 .125 (CI: .112, .137)
Two-Factor Model 169.780 76 .864 .837 .080 .069 (CI: .055, .083)
Second-Order Model 119.806 75 .935 .921 .080 .048 (CI: .031, .063)
Note. S-B χ2 = Satorra-Bentler scaled chi-square; CFI = comparative fit index; NNFI = non-normed fit index;
RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; SRMR = standardized root mean square residual; CI = 90%
confidence interval.
D. Measurement Invariance
increasingly more restricted parameterization than its predecessor (see Table 3). The
excellent fit to the data. Models 2 and 3, in which all first- and second-order loadings
are constrained as equal, also represented an acceptable fit to the model. At this level of
constraint, the measurement equivalence was adequate, the ΔS-B χ2 was not significant,
and the ΔCFI was < 0.01, reflecting model invariance as compared to the configural
model (Cheung, 2008; Cheung and Rensvold, 2002). The results of the LM test
suggested only that the constraint of the factor loading of item 4 was noninvariant
Table 3.
Comparison
Model 1 .048
056)
Model 2 .047
15.937 (df=12,
First-order factor loadings 302.849 162 .898 (CI: .039, . 2 vs. 1 .003
p=.19)
invariant 055)
Model 3 .045
12.284 (df=14,
First- and second-order 292.770 164 .907 (CI: .036, . 3 vs. 1 .006
p=.58)
factor loadings invariant 053)
Model 4
.051
First- and second-order 80.174 (df=28,
358.803 178 .897 (CI: .043, . 4 vs. 1 .004
factor loadings; first-order p=.00)
058)
intercepts invariant
Model 5
invariant
Note. S-B χ2 = Satorra-Bentler scaled chi-square; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of
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Models 3 and 4, the ΔS-B χ2 was significant, indicating non-invariance at this point. In
these two models of equivalence, the LM test also suggested the change of Item 4,
These tests revealed statistically significant mean differences between men and
women on GSD and second-order factors, but not on GSA. Given that the estimated
difference values shown in Table 4 are reported for the female group, the positive
results suggested that the scores on GSD, GSA and the second-order factor were higher
Table 4.
Tests for Latent Mean Differences of HGS Factors between Males (n = 137) and Females (n = 261).
Estimate
GSD 343.767 178 .902 .048 (CI: .041, .056) .222 3.333**
Second-Order Factor 338.388 177 .902 .048 (CI: .040, .056) .583 4.375**
Note. **p<.05. GSD = Gender Self-Definition; GSA = Gender Self-Acceptance. S-B χ2 = Satorra-Bentler scaled chi-
square; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; CI = 90% confidence
interval.
In all samples, the HGS subscales were significantly related to each other (men:
r=.24; women: r=.58).The scores of the HGS subscales were compared between the
groups established for the BSRI (Bem, 1974), as “masculine” and “feminine” (see Table
5). Thus, in the samples of men (masculine: n=30, 21.9%; feminine: n=16, 11.68%) and
women (masculine: n=27, 10.34%; feminine: n=88, 33.72%), the differences were
analyzed between the two groups “masculine” and “feminine.” The “masculine” group
among the sample of men and the “feminine” group among the women tended to show
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higher scores for GSA and GSD, with only the latter being significant.
With regard to the Pearson correlations between the HGS subscales and the
relationship was found between GSI and GSA (r=-0.41), while the WHO-5 was
positively and significantly related to the same subscale (r=0.39). In the case of women,
though lower values, we found the same significant relationship between GSA and GSI
(r=-0.14) and the WHO-5 (r=0.13). GSD was not significantly related to any of such
variables.
Table 5.
Comparison of Means of HGS Subscales between Masculine and Feminine as Grouped through the BSRI-12.
Masculine Feminine
(BSRI-12) (BSRI-12)
Males
Females
4.4. Discussion
the confusion prevailing between the concepts in the study of gender (Ashmore, 1990;
Constantinople, 1973; Deaux, 1987; Lewin, 1984; Lewin and Wild, 1991; Marsh and
Myers, 1986; McCreary, 1990; Morawski, 1987; Spence, 1984, 1985, 1991, 1993,
1999), Hoffman had the merit of having proposed a new concise concept, with a robust
theoretical framework of high interest (Hoffman, 1996; Hoffman et al., 2000). It was
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aimed at specifying the composition of Gender Identity with the Gender Self-
Confidence aspect. In this line, the HGS intends to establish the solidity of the self-
definition and the strength of the self-acceptance of gender, both factors forming
Gender Self-Confidence. Our main goal was to make this measure available in Spanish
to potentiate the use of new measures and innovative approaches to the study of gender.
This is the first time that results using confirmatory analysis have been reported
on the factorial structure of HGS scores, also considering the differences between men
and women. The second-order model was more appropriate to describe the relations
between the observed variables and the latent factors, and fitted the data better than the
original two-factor solution (Hoffman et al., 2000). This finding is in line with the
theoretical model supporting the instrument that shows that the factor “Gender Self-
Confidence” comprises the two factors evaluated in the HGS: Gender Self-Definition
and Gender Self-Acceptance. In this regard, our data support the original theoretical
factor to explain the relationship between both factors. In addition, the findings of the
present study provide support for the reliability of the Spanish version of HGS scores in
originally belonging to GSD, was found to be significantly related to the other GSA
subscale, and in the second-order model, with the higher factor. Analyzing the content
of the item, we found that the term “positively” might have an undesired effect on
some kind of positive acceptance, thus going beyond the mere statement of a direct
This is the first study that applied a rigorous invariance testing strategy in the
form of a MACS analysis to the HGS in order to examine the comparability of its
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provides information as to whether participants from the two groups use the same
conceptual framework to answer a specific scale item. The metric invariance (Models 2
and 3) provides information on whether scale items are being interpreted in the same
way across gender groups. Scalar invariance (Models 4 and 5) is evaluated by assessing
the equivalence of item intercepts, that is, the contribution made by each item to
measuring the construct. In our samples, the factor structure of the HGS appears to be
equally robust across gender in the comparison of the factor loading, but no equivalence
is found between the intercepts. It is possible that the factor structure of the HGS is
affected by the impact of the differences of the culture of masculinity and femininity in
the construction of gender identity for each gender (Lewin, 1984; Hoffman et al., 2000).
However, researchers (Cheung and Rensvold, 2002) have argued that ΔS-B χ2 is very
sensitive to sample size and nonnormality, and thus, have recommended two alternative
criteria: (a) achieve an adequate fit to the data and (b) negligible ΔCFI values between
models. In this regard, in all of the equivalence models evaluated, the goodness of fit
indices are acceptable, and the ΔCFI value does not exceed .01. Therefore, according to
these specifications, it could be concluded that the models exhibit sufficient evidence of
between men and women on the GSD subscale and the higher order factor, but not on
the GSA subscale. Spanish women tended to have higher levels of gender self-definition
and self-acceptance than males. This finding might be interpreted as evidence that the
female gender culture leads women to define their gender identity with more accuracy
and robustness and that they feel more comfortable with their gender identity than men.
This might be related to the consideration that the construction of female subjectivity is
influenced by specific power dynamics established through the use of language and the
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way the female subject is represented in speech (Foucault, 1968, 1983), a set of values
and lifestyles as a reference framework for fixing the man/woman duality (Lagarde,
dominant social rules (Butler, 1990), the symbolic use of the woman’s body (Bourdieu,
2000), and the fixation on biological sex as a key element in building female identity
(Foucault, 2005).
Based on the relationship with BSRI, we found significant differences in the GSD
subscale when comparing the “masculine” to the “feminine” group in both samples,
separated by sex. In this regard, it could be expected that the firmness of the definition
each person. It is interesting to highlight that, in both subscales, the “masculine” group
of men and the “feminine” group of women obtained higher scores. Again, this finding
highlights the link between the definition and the acceptance of gender identity with the
biological sex and the factors traditionally associated with it (Bem, 1974; Spence et al.,
1975).
With regard to the relationship between HGS and the other instruments, the
expected relationships were found: a higher acceptance of gender identity was related to
greater wellbeing in the person and lower distress levels. The fact that there were no
significant relationships with the other subscale may be due to the fact that the content
of the gender self-definition mentions clarity and firmness in the concept of being a man
or a woman, with no other assessment for it. On the contrary, the gender self-acceptance
scale does contain a connotation of evaluation on the subscription of the gender identity
itself, and therefore, it may occur that non-acceptance is related to greater personal
distress.
The limitations of this study are mainly found in the extraction and the
students. In following investigations, a larger, more diverse sample, in both age and
origin, should be collected. Another limitation is the selection of the variables chosen in
the study. It would be interesting to investigate the relationship between gender self-
confidence and the arrangement of sexist attitudes and beliefs. One of the next steps to
be approached will be the analysis of the open question attached to the scale: “What do
analysis of the content by patterns to distribute the subjects according to their personal
description of said concepts. Based on this, the differences in the scores may be
relation to the rest of the measures of distress, well-being, and adjustment of the
masculinity/femininity could form the ideal complement to help us improve the content
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Mintz, L. B. and O’Neil, J. O. (1990). Gender roles, sex and the process of
Morawski, J. G. (1987). The troubled quest for masculinity, femininity, and androguny.
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Spence, J. T., Helmreich, R. L. and Stapp, J. T. (1975). Ratings of self and peers on sex
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Terman, L. and Miles, C. C. (1936). Sex and personality: Studies in masculinity and
Wilkinson, L., and Task Force on Statistical Inference, APA Board of Scientific Affairs
World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe (1998). Wellbeing measures in
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Appendix A
SI ERES MUJER Indica tu nivel de acuerdo con cada frase usando la escala del 1 al 6,
1. Cuando me piden que me describa personalmente, el ser una mujer es una de las
biológico.
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Appendix B
SI ERES HOMBRE Indica tu nivel de acuerdo con cada frase usando la escala del 1 al
biológico.
141
5. ESTUDIO TERCERO: Assessment of Conflicts Associated
García-Sánchez, R., Almendros, C., Gámez-Guadix, M., Martín, M. J., Aramayona, B.,
Masculine Gender Role in Spanish College Men and Women. Sex Roles. doi:
10.1007/s11199-017-0765-8
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Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to investigate the psychometric properties of
the Spanish version of the Gender Role Conflict Scale – Short Form (GRCS-SF; Wester,
Vogel, O’Neil, & Danforth, 2012) in a sample of men. In addition, we extend the
gender conflict paradigm by evaluating two samples of women with the same
sample of 281 Spanish undergraduate women using exploratory factor analysis, finding
properties in a college sample of 184 men and 255 women using confirmatory factor
analysis, and we explored differences between the two genders through a factor
invariance analysis and a comparison of group means. Sufficient equivalence was found,
allowing for comparisons among men’s and women’s scores. Overall, masculine gender
conflict was significantly associated with greater distress and less general subjective
well-being in both men and women. Our research extends the gender role conflict
paradigm to the Spanish context and enhances the study of women’s conflicts
associated with the adoption of behaviors traditionally attributed to the male gender role.
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O’Neil (2015), in his most recent book, Men’s Gender Role Conflict:
Psychological Costs, Consequences, and an Agenda for Change, discusses the course of
the gender role conflict paradigm from the 1980s to date. He points out research gaps in
the subject as well as new emerging lines in the development of this field of knowledge,
highlighting the need for applying more sophisticated and up-to-date statistical methods
of data analyses, as well as the relevance of extending the paradigm analyzing gender
differences through the application of the instrument in samples of men and women in
political and social advances have occurred in Spain in the past 40 years with the arrival
the Spanish cultural context upon the arrangement of gender roles in men and the
under the impetus of social movements, political achievements have been made that
were intended to ensure greater formal equality. However, social equality is far from
being reached. For example, women have joined the labor force, but they still have
primary responsibility for housework; their job positions are more insecure, less well
paid, and have a higher temporary employment rate; and it is still harder for women to
be promoted in the organizational hierarchy and to hold positions of power and decision
Second, women possess traits and behaviors that, although associated with the
masculine gender role, are shared by both men and women. With this in mind, it is
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advisable to evaluate the impact of these stereotypically incongruent behaviors upon the
well-being of women. Women have progressively adopted traits and behaviors that
were traditionally part of the masculine gender role; however, men have not shared to
the same degree the characteristics historically associated with women (Fernández,
Quiroga, del Olmo, & Rodríguez, 2007; López-Sáez, Morales, & Lisbona, 2008;
Spence & Helmreich, 1978). The care due for the health and well-being of women still
requires political and social efforts and commitments toward achieving greater justice
and equality. In the academic field, efforts must be also made to evaluate both gender
differences supported by social norms in our community and the impact upon health and
well-being arising from the social pressure to conform to masculinity and femininity
standards.
Several studies have reported that Spanish men and women score comparably in
the traits and role behaviors associated with masculinity, but the same does not occur
with the traits associated with femininity (López-Sáez et al., 2008; López-Zafra &
Sánchez-López and Cuéllar-Flores (2011) reported that Spanish women were less
traditonal than U.S. women were regarding social norms associated with femininity,
except in relation to household tasks wherein Spanish women expressed being more
traditional. These differences might be related to the impact of the recent political and
social achievements in matters of gender equality in Spain, on the one hand, and the
current persistence of sexist prejudice about the responsibility of women for housework
on the other hand (Lameiras-Fernández et al., 2002; López-Sáez et al., 2008; Moya,
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content of gender stereotypes in the Spanish context. They found that some stereotyped
competent, or active) were not included differentially in the composition of the new
stereotypes of men and women. However, other stereotyped traits remained assigned
differentially to one gender or the other (for women, caring of others, housework, and
emotional; for men, physically strong and brave). This composition of current gender
stereotypes could be reflecting two specific aspects of the current situation in Spain: on
the one hand, women joining the labor force may have contributed to modifying their
image in current society; on the other hand, despite these political and social
achievements, a social structure that gives men higher status than women still appears to
prevail, as, for instance, with the glass ceiling that prevents women from progressing in
In recent years, in Spain, gender equality has been the focus of political
been made, such as the approval of the “Ley Orgánica” [Spanish Law] 3/2007, of 22nd
March, for the effective equality of women and men and the “Ley Orgánica” 1/2004, of
However, real equality is a process still requiring major effort and firm social and
political responsibility because the current situation is far from being fair and egalitarian
for men and women in Spain. For example, women on average earn from 12% to 24%
less than men do depending on the type of job (National Statistics Institute, 2016), and
there is still a glass ceiling for professional women that prevents them from attaining
powerful positions (Barberá, Ramos, Sarrió, & Candela, 2002; Eagly, 2004, 2007).
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Furthermore, three of every four part-time workers are women (General Workers’
Union, 2015), and although women have joined the labor force, men have not started to
share household tasks to the same degree, thus causing women to maintain a double
workload outside and in the home. Women dedicate an average of 4:07 hours a day to
their homes and their family whereas men on average spend 1:54 hours (Spain’s
The problems derived from the adoption of a traditional gender role has been
extensively studied (David & Brannon, 1976; O’Neil, 2013; Pleck & Pleck, 1980).
O’Neil (1987, 2008) developed the theory of gender role conflict focusing on the degree
to which some attitudes, behaviors, and values enter into conflict with situational
demands (Wester, 2008; Wester & Vogel, 2002) and on the consequent problems
experienced by men due to the rigidity of their gender role. As a result, the Gender Role
Conflict Scale (GRCS; O’Neil, Helms, Gable, Davis, & Wrightsman, 1986) was
developed, becoming the most commonly used test for evaluating problems generated
by the male gender role (O’Neil, 2013). Several exploratory factor analyses (EFA;
O’Neil et al., 1986; Rogers & Rando, 1997) and confirmatory factor analyses (CFA;
Good et al., 1995; Faria, 2000; Norwalk, Vandiver, White, & Englar-Carlson, 2011)
have been performed on various samples of men. In all cases, these studies found
The four factors identified in the GRCS represent different aspects of situations
generating strain and distress as a result of the adopted socialized male role (O’Neil,
Good, & Holmes, 1995). The first pattern, Success, Power, and Competition, includes
the degree to which men are socialized to search for personal success through
competition. The second pattern, Restricted Emotionality, notes the degree to which
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men learn to avoid verbal expression of their emotions, which would involve showing
some vulnerability as well as similarity with aspects associated with femininity. The
third, Restricted Affectionate Behavior between Men, points to how men are socialized
to show a somewhat more rigid expression in their contact with other men. Finally, the
Wester et al. (2012) developed a shorter version of the GRCS for the purpose of
making its application easier when assessing people from diverse places; thus, a
measure to compare men from different origins and cultures was developed. The
Gender Role Conflict Scale – Short Form (GRCS-SF) has recently been adapted in
Chinese (Zhang et al., 2014), finding support for the equivalence of the instrument in a
male sample of heterosexual and gay Chinese participants. The psychometric properties
of GRCS-SF have been tested in men with different sexual orientations and of multiple
cultural origins, such as in samples from Australia, Portugal, Korea, Japan, Sweden,
Germany, Canada, and Indonesia (O’Neil, 2013). The GRCS-SF has been related to a
low self-esteem (Cournoyer & Mahalik, 1995; Davis, 1988), decreased ability for
intimacy in personal relationships (Cournoyer & Mahalik, 1995; Sharpe & Heppner,
1991), high anxiety and depression (Cournoyer & Mahalik, 1995; Davis, 1988; Good &
Mintz, 1990; Sharpe & Heppner, 1991; Simonsen, Blazina, & Watkins, 2000), alcohol
abuse (Blazina & Watkins, 1996), dominant and hostile behaviors (Mahalik, 2000),
psychological distress (Wester, Christianson, Vogel, & Wei, 2007), and the traditional
Since the appearance of the androgyny model (Bem, 1974) in the 1970s, it was
seen that men and women share behaviors and traits associated with masculine and
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evaluation of the distress caused by the imposition of traditional gender roles, very few
efforts have been based on the assumption that the social pressure on maintaining
behaviors and traits associated with masculine and feminine stereotypes could affect
both men and women in similar ways. Very few studies have been performed that
applied to women the gender role conflict (GRCS) and gender role stress (MGRS)
gender.
sample of men and women to evaluate the impact of the masculine stereotype upon
women and its relationship with depression and anxiety measures. The only subscale
where no gender differences were found was Conflicts between Work and Family
Relationships; on the other three subscales, men’s average scores were higher than
women’s. The correlations among these variables with depression and anxiety were
similar for men and women, including in relation to the management of household tasks
Herdman, Choi, Fuqua, and Newman (2012) evaluated the validity of GRCS
with a sample of gay men and lesbian women. They reported lower scores than those of
other samples of U.S. heterosexual men (Moradi, Tokar, Schaub, Jome, & Sema, 2000),
affective contact with a person from the same sex. In another study, Daltry (2013)
applied the GRCS instrument to a sample of women for the purpose of evaluating the
impact of gender role conflict in professional female athletes. The variables predicting
greater role conflict were having a personal identity focused on the role of athlete, low
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We studied two samples of only Spanish women in Study 1 and Spanish women
and men in Study 2 in order to examine the factor structure, internal consistency,
criterion-related validity, and measurement invariance across gender for the brief
version of the GRCS-SF. In our first study, our objective was to investigate the structure
of the Spanish version of the GRCS-SF in a sample of women in order to see the
possible extension of the gender conflict paradigm to women and investigate if the
internal structure of the GRCS-SF is similar to that found in men. In our second study,
we investigated the factor structure of the GRCS-SF in samples of men and women,
using confirmatory factor analysis, to: (a) investigate if the instrument is applicable and
valid for the study of role conflict in Spanish men and women by analyzing the factor
structure in samples of men and women and studying the factor invariance to ensure
equivalence and (b) establish the possible relationship between male gender role
conflict and indicators of psychological distress and well-being. We thus had four goals
wherein we expected to: (a) replicate the original four-factor model (O’Neil, 2013) for
the GRCS-SF among Spanish women (Study 1), (b) find factor invariance for the
GRCS-SF between women and men (Study 2), (c) find mean similarities between
women and men on three GRCS-SF subscales (Success, Power, and Competition;
women scoring higher than men do on Conflicts between Work and Family
and well-being with role conflict among both women and men.
Study 1
The objective of our first study was to analyze the factor structure of the Spanish
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consistency of the subscales scores was evaluated, and the data were analyzed on a
semi-confirmatory basis, identifying the factor solution with better fit indices for this
sample.
5.5. Method
The participants included 281 undergraduate female students who ranged in age
from 20 to 44 years (M = 21.53; SD = 3.64). All students were originally from Spain,
reported being heterosexual, and were enrolled in the third year of psychology studies.
data for our study were solicited from undergraduate students enrolled in Abnormal
Psychology at this same large public university. Within two different academic terms
(2012–2013) students could choose participation in this study, among other equivalently
sessions in the students’ classrooms. Anonymity of all participants was assured as well
as the confidentiality of their e-mail addresses, if the students chose to receive a full
report of their results. Each survey first requested demographic information and then
B. Measures
the Gender Role Conflict Scale (O’Neil et al., 1986). It comprises 16 items evaluated on
structure comprises four factors: (1) Success, Power, and Competition, (2) Restricted
Emotionality, (3) Restricted Affectionate Behavior between Same-sex Persons, and (4)
Conflict between Work and Family Relationships. For the purposes of our second study,
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all items were adapted in this first study so that women could respond to the same
version as men. Thus, while the original makes reference to Restricted Affectionate
between Same-sex Persons (e.g., Item 3: “Affection with other men makes me tense”
adapt instruments from one culture to another (Hambleton, 1994, 1996; Muñiz, Elosua,
& Hambleton, 2013). Therefore, the first step was to design the research methods and
evaluate the relevance of the construct for the target population and the possible
influence of the cultural and linguistic differences in the context of the study. The
second was to ask the original authors of the instrument for consent. Advice was
provided by a team of five expert investigators. Then two qualified translators, the first
of Spanish origin and the second of English origin, were individually trained on the
constructs evaluated and the construction of tests. The GRCS-SF was translated and
back-translated and the expert team evaluated the equivalence between the two versions,
D. Data analyses.
The program package FACTOR 9.2 (Lorenzo-Seva & Ferrando, 2006, 2013)
and SPSS version 19.0 (IBM Corp., 2010) were used for data analyses. The FACTOR
assessment instruments and its use has been recommended to improve EFA practices
(Baglin, 2014). Internal consistency of the subscales scores was examined by means of
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descriptive statistics, several items had values of absolute skewness, or kurtosis, greater
than 1, and so tests of multivariate kurtosis were significant. Thus, EFA used the matrix
of polychoric correlations. The method for factor extraction was unweighted least
squares (ULS) and promin rotation was used. Additionally, indications about the
number of underlying factors were obtained from a parallel analysis based on minimum
rank factor analysis (Timmerman & Lorenzo-Seva, 2011) and a minimum average
partial (MAP) test (Velicer, 1976). Other indicators provided by the program FACTOR
were examined, such as indices of factor simplicity, adequacy of the correlation matrix
Goodness of Fit Index (GFI), and Root Mean Square of Residuals (RMSR). We
considered GFI values appropriate if they were above .95 (Hu & Bentler, 1999) and, in
the case of RMSR, if they were lower than the Kelley criterion (Harman, 1962; Kelley,
5.6. Results
A. Item analysis.
The means, standard deviations and item-total correlations are shown in Table 1.
The mean scores for items ranged from 1.52 (Item 9) to 4.33 (Item 29). The item-total
correlations of items for the corresponding subscales were above .30 in all cases.
B. Factor analysis.
= .76) and Bartlett’s sphericity tests reached statistical significance (p < .001),
supporting the factorability of the data matrix. The parallel analysis suggested a three-
factor solution and the MAP suggested a two-factor solution. Because the original
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structure of the instrument is composed of four factors, the fit indices were evaluated for
two-, three-, and four-factor structures. The four-factor solution grouped the items
according to the original proposed scales (Wester et al., 2012). The four-factor model
evidenced better fitness indicators (GFI = .99; RMSR = .034; Kelley’s criterion = .060)
than those obtained by the 2-factor model (GFI = .92; RSMR = .097) and the three-
factor model (GFI = .97; RSMR = .061). These four factors explained 59.77% of the
total variance. The factor loadings for the four-factor solution were appropriate and are
shown in Table 1. The factor simplicity indices S (0.99) and LS (0.72) indicated high
simplicity of the four-factor solution. With respect to residues, the mean was close to
zero (.0001) and the variance was very low (.0011). Overall, all of these statistics
high (α = .75). The Cronbach alpha coefficients attained appropriate values for the
Study 2
The objective of our second study was to examine the factor structure of the
GRCS-SF for Spanish men and women and study the factor invariance across
between the mean scores of men and women, and the correlations of GRCS-SF with
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Table 1
Descriptive Statistics and Factor Loadings (EFA) of GRCS-SF for Females (n = 281).
Factors Item
M (SD) RE SPC RASS WFR
Items total r
8. I have difficulty expressing my tender feelings. 2.25 (1.30) .68 .706 .008 .051 -.050
12. I do not like to show my emotions to other people. 2.76 (1.38) .54 .576 .010 .020 .110
2. Winning is a measure of my value and personal worth. 4.33 (.95) .39 -.047 .419 -.090 .127
4. I like to feel superior to other people. 2.39 (1.22) .57 .024 .675 .059 -.144
11. I strive to be more successful than others. 3.38 (1.26) .57 -.069 .670 -.068 .151
1. Finding time to relax is difficult for me. 3.33 (1.42) .51 .028 -.089 .123 .548
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5.7. Method
Participants included 439 undergraduate students (255 women, 184 men), who
ranged in age from 20 to 53 years (M = 21.99, SD = 3.52) for women and from 20 to 64
years (M = 23.48, SD = 5.60) for men. A small but significant difference was found for
age between the gender groups, t’(273.73) = 3.12, p = .002, Cohen’s d = .32. All
students were from Spain and reported being heterosexual. New data for the present
study were solicited following equivalent procedures to those in Study 1 at the same
large public university during the 2014-15 academic term. After providing demographic
information, the survey first presented the GRCS-SF as described in Study 1 followed
B. Measures
Spanish version by Pereda, Forns, & Peró, 2007) comprises 53 items (i.e. “Feeling
sentir interés por las cosas”) measured on a 5-point Likert scale from 0 (not al all) to 4
(GSI) can be obtained. This study used the GSI as a general measure of psychological
distress. Pereda, Forns, and Pero (2007) reported using a back-translation design for the
Spanish adaptation and appropriate internal consistency reliability estimates for all
subscales scores and for overall GSI scores (α = .95), supporting the construct validity
of the BSI (n = 1033, 69.3% women). The internal consistency reliability estimates
were .96 for men and .95 for women in our study.
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well-being. The scale is composed of five items (i.e., “I have felt cheerful and in good
spirits”/“Me he sentido alegre y de buen humor”, “I have felt calm and relaxed”/“Me he
sentido tranquilo y relajado” ) with a response format from 1 (never) to 6 (all the time).
The scale was created by an international team for the DEPCARE project of the World
Health Organization (1998) in several languages and has been used in several countries,
finding adequate psychometric properties for all cases. A recent study using the Spanish
women) and support for the construct validity of scores of the Spanish version of WHO-
5. The internal consistency reliability estimates were .85 for men and 0.79 for women in
our study.
C. Data analyses
The program package EQS 6.1 (Multivariate Software, Inc.; Bentler, 1995) and
SPSS version 19.0 (IBM Corp., 2010) were used for data analyses. Independent samples
student’s t tests were calculated to examine potential differences in the GRCS-SF item
and subscale scores between men and women. Holm-Bonferroni corrections for
multiple comparisons (Gaetano, 2013) were performed for the four overall factors, as
well as within each of the factors when considering individual items. Cohen’s d statistic
(1988) was calculated as standardized means of the effect size to estimate the magnitude
and relevance of the results obtained (Wilkinson and the Task Force on Statistical
CFAs were conducted on the GRCS-SF items for the male and female samples.
Two different models were tested: (a) the original four-factor model (Wester et al.,
2012; Wester & Vogel, 2002), and (b) a one-factor model that included all items of the
GRCS-SF. The model fit was evaluated considering several fit indices: the comparative
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fit index (CFI; Bentler, 1990), the non-normed fit index (NNFI; Bentler & Bonett,
1980), the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA; Steiger, 1990), and the
standardized root mean square residual (SRMR; Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1996). Indicators
of a good model fit are evidenced by CFI and NNFI values greater than .90, RMSEA
less than .06 and SMRS less than .08 (Byrne, 1994; Cheung & Rensvold, 2002).
components of the measurement model and the underlying theoretical structure were
invariant across the male and female samples scores for GRCS-SF (Byrne, Shavelson,
& Muthén, 1989). We used the robust maximum likelihood estimation in EQS 6.1. to
assess for measurement invariance across the samples. Testing for equivalence based on
the analysis of means and covariance structures entails a hierarchical set of steps (Byrne,
2008): (Model 0) Determination of a good multi-group baseline model fit; (a) Model 1
is the first and least restrictive model to be tested—only the extent to which the same
configuration of fixed and freely estimated parameters hold across groups are imposed
with no equality constraints; (b) Model ) involves the constraints of observed variables
(directly measurable) and their links to the latent variables—these parameters include
the factor loadings; (c) Model 3 focuses on the unobserved variables and is concerned
with the equality of relations among factors (i.e., factor covariances); (d) Model 4
includes factor loadings, covariances, and intercepts invariant,; and finally (e) Model 5
tests for latent means differences between groups. We used two approaches to compare
invariance models. (a) The corrected scale S-B χ2 difference test developed by Satorra
and Bentler (2001) was used to compare nested models. If this difference value is
statistically significant, it suggests that the constraints specified in the more restrictive
model do not hold. (b) The change in CFI was used as a less vulnerable criterion to
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variations in sample size and non-normality than S-B χ2 changes (Cheung, 2008;
Cheung & Rensvold, 2002). This difference in value should not exceed .01.
product-moment correlations between the subscales scores and other relevant measures
5.8. Results
A. Factor analysis
The fit indices for the competing models of the GRCS-SF in both samples are
shown in Table 2. The four-factor model reached appropriate levels of fit in both
samples, with higher values of CFI and NNFI and a lower S-B χ2 value than the one-
factor model. Factor loadings of the GRCS-SF items on the four-factor model are
shown in Table 3.
Table 2.
Summary of Fit Indices for the CFAs of GRCS-SF for Males (n = 184) and Females (n = 255).
Males
One-Factor Model 477.650 .544 .474 .13 .140 (CI: .127, .152)
Four-Factor Model 184.186 .915 .895 .074 .062 (CI: .046, .078)
Females
One-Factor Model 849.385 .388 .294 .155 .168 (CI: .157, .178
Four-Factor Model 205.704 .912 .892 .057 .066 (CI: .053, .078)
Note. S-B χ2 = Satorra-Bentler scaled chi-square; CFI = comparative fit index; NNFI = non-normed fit index;
RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; SRMR = standardized root mean square residual; CI = 90%
confidence interval.
B. Measurement invariance.
The configural model (Model 1) indicated that the hypothesized multi-group model fits
well across the male and female samples. The fit of the Model 2 to the data was
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acceptable and very similar to the configural model. The Model 3 equivalence was
adequate, the ΔS-B χ2 was not significant and the ΔCFI was < .01, reflecting model
invariance compared to the configural model (Cheung, 2008; Cheung & Rensvold,
2002). However, the results of the LM test suggested that Items 10 and 2 are non-
invariant across the groups at this level of equivalence. In the comparison of Model 4
and the configural model, ΔS-B χ2 was significant, despite ΔCFI being < .01. The
results of the LM test suggested modifications for most of the intercept constraints. So,
we may conclude that the intercept equivalence was not achieved, preventing
comparison of the latent means. Overall, there was evidence of enough equivalence so
as to enable the comparisons among the direct scores of men and women. However,
some items were found to be variant at a more strict level, which is relevant information
to take into account when deriving conclusions about the meaning of such items for
each of the groups. The fit indices for the measurement invariance are shown in Table 4.
C. Item analysis
The means, standard deviations and item-total correlations are shown in Table 3.
The mean scores ranged from 1.86 (Item 9) to 4.36 (Item 2) for the sample of men and
1.50 (Item 9) to 4.58 (Item 2) for women. The item-total correlations of the
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Table 3.
Descriptive Statistics and Factor Loadings (CFA Four-Factor Model) and Mean Scores Comparison of GRCS-SF for
Males Females
RE 2.44 (.03) .81 2.38 (1.07) .81 .609 437 .543 .07
Item 5 2.02 (1.14) .60 .710 2.42 (1.41) .51 .530 -3.34** 430.82 .004 -.31
Item 6 2.35 (1.30) .71 .832 2.21 (1.32) .69 .714 1.11 437 .538 .11
Item 8 2.24 (1.28) .68 .761 2.19 (1.32) .71 .871 .405 437 .686 .04
Item 12 3.16 (1.38) .53 .599 2.70 (1.35) .59 .739 3.44** 437 .004 .34
SPC 3.49 (1.01) .75 3.36 (.90) .79 1.48 366.24 .280 .14
Item 2 4.36 (1.08) .41 .440 4.58 (.87) .46 .476 -2.28* 339.81 .046 -.23
Item 4 2.97 (1.43) .63 .756 2.64 (1.20) .66 .801 2.54** 350.06 .036 .25
Item 11 3.58 (1.33) .57 .638 3.51 (1.23) .63 .681 .57 437 .569 .05
Item 15 3.07 (1.44) .59 .770 2.70 (1.35) .67 .805 2.82** 359.6 .020 .27
RASS 2.16 (.87) .75 1.76 (.72) .71 5.19** 346.34 .000 .51
Item 3 2.23 (1.10) .65 .820 1.80 (.93) .61 .787 4.37** 351.8 .000 .43
Item 7 2.32 (1.32) .45 .522 1.78 (.99) .34 .350 4.65** 324.65 .000 .47
Item 9 1.86 (.99) .60 .732 1.50 (.90) .57 .813 3.94** 437 .000 .38
Item 14 2.24 (1.16) .54 .614 1.95 (1.10) .49 .522 2.72** 437 .007 .34
WFR 3.14 (1.03) .75 3.57 (1.05) .75 -4.15** 437 .000 -.41
Item 1 2.86 (1.23) .55 .622 3.38 (1.33) .45 .492 -4.22** 411.14 .000 -.40
Item 10 3.37 (1.55) .61 .744 3.81 (1.47) .64 .789 -3.02** 380.66 .006 -.29
Item 13 3.63 (1.38) .63 .770 3.92 (1.29) .69 .837 -2.26* 378.86 .025 -.22
Item 16 2.73 (1.28) .42 .507 3.15 (135) .54 .611 -3.28** 437 .003 -.32
Note. *p<.05; **p<.01. SPC = Success, Power, and Competition; RE = Restricted Emotionality; RASS =
Restricted Affectionate Behavior between Same Sex Persons; WFR = Conflict between Work and Family
Relationships.
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Table 4.
Configural, no constraints
Model 2 386.847 .912 .898 .069 .044 (CI: .037, .051) 14.706 (df=12, .001
Model 3 394.494 .911 .900 .082 .044 (CI: .037, .051) 22.427 (df=18, .002
invariant
Model 4 527.316 .911 .894 .084 .054 (CI: .048, .060) 254.388 .002
intercepts invariant
Note. S-B χ2 = Satorra-Bentler scaled chi-square; CFI = comparative fit index; NNFI = non-normed fit index;
Mean comparisons of GRCS-SF item and subscale scores between men and
women showed expected significant differences in the Conflicts between Work and
Family Relationships subscale, with women obtaining higher scores, ranging from
Persons subscale, wherein men reporting higher scores with close to moderate effect
sizes (Restricted Affection overall and Item 7). Although no significant differences
were found for the Restricted Emotionality and the Success, Power, and Competition
subscales, some items did show significant gender differences (Restricted Emotion:
Internal consistency for the scores of the overall scale was high for both male (α
= .83) and female (α = .77) samples. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficients attained
appropriate values for the all subscales scores for both men and women (see Table 3). In
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the male sample, all GRCS-SF subscales scores were significantly related to each other
(see Table 5). In the case of women, significant relationships were found between all
subscales, except for Work/Family not being significantly related to Restricted Emotion
or Restricted Affection.
Table 5.
Correlations for GRSC-SF subscales, BSI Global Severity Index and WHO-5 scores for Males (n = 184) and
Females (n = 255).
SPC 3.49 (1.01) 3.36 (.90) .203** 1 .336** .292** .168 -.167 SPC
RASS 2.16 (.87) 1.76 (.72) .356** .301** 1 .224** .293** -.187* RASS
WFR 3.14 (1.03) 3.57 (1.05) -.035 .199** .08 1 .349** -.410** WFR
GSI .55 (.46) .60 (.47) .327** .161* .231** .300** 1 -.603** GSI
WHO-5 4.07 (.94) 4.14 (.88) -.233** -.019 -.141* -.289** -.560** 1 WI
Note: *p<.05; **p<.01. SPC = Success, Power, and Competition; RE = Restricted Emotionality; RASS = Restricted
Affectionate Behavior between Same Sex Persons; WFR = Conflict between Work and Family Relationships; GSI =
Global Severity Index; WHO-5 = WHO-five Well-being Index. The correlations of sample of males are shown in the
upper right corner and the sample of females in the lower left corner.
With regard to other measures, the GRCS-SF subscales scores correlated with
strength in both men and women (see Table 5). The only exception was the
Success/Power subscale, which was only significantly correlated with distress scores for
women but not for men and which was not significantly related to well-being scores for
5.9. Discussion
Ours is the first known study to analyze the psychometric properties of GRCS-
SF in a Spanish sample of college students. Our results support the validity of the
construct regarding the experiences of college men in Spain and add a new research line
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highlighting the importance of analyzing the traditional Spanish male role vis-à-vis the
daily living experiences of college women and the subsequent distress that can be
caused in different areas of life. Appropriate internal consistency estimates were found
for the GRCS-SF subscales scores for both genders and exploratory factor analyses
(EFA) performed with data from women, as well as confirmatory analyses (CFA) with
data from both men and women, found support in all cases for the original four-factor
structure. Our findings support the cross-cultural adequacy of the construct, according
to the conflict reported in the daily life experiences of men from different cultures and
constructs are being assessed in each group (Chen, 2008). In our study, we have tested
the equivalence of the factor structure (i.e., number of factors), factor loadings (i.e., unit
of a scale), and intercepts (i.e., origin of a scale) for women and men. At Model 1, the
factor structure invariance was supported (Cheung & Rensvold, 2002, indicating that
similar factors are measured in the two groups (Widaman & Reise, 1997). Models 2 and
3 tested that factor loadings were equal, so the units of the measurement can be
presumed identical, and thus predictive relationships can be compared across groups
(Hypothesis 2).
However, at Model 3, two items (10: “My needs to work or study keep me from
my family or leisure more than I would like”; 2: “Winning is a measure of my value and
personal worth”) showed values in the LM test that called for modification. In these two
items, women had a higher factor loading than men did. The finding on item 10 might
be related to the fact that in Spain, women still spend, on average, twice the time spent
by men in caring for their family (Spain’s Institute for Women, 2016). With regard to
success, it is very interesting that the women’s group reported a higher factor loading
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because success is a characteristic associated very particularly with the male role, that is,
2013; O’Neil et al., 1986). It might be that the concept of “success” is not understood in
the same way by college men and women, because the term itself can refer to
professional and work fields, as well as be globally understood to include other aspects
of personal and private life (e.g., family situation and relationship with partner, friends,
types of success to improve the assessment of attitudes and beliefs regarding successes.
Finally, Model 4 tests whether an item has the same point of origin across
different groups. In our samples, we may conclude that intercept invariance is not
achieved, indicating that scores from men and women may not have the same origin.
We expected the intercept scores to be different because various factors can affect the
origin of a scale (Chen, 2008), including social desirability and cultural reference
framework. One limitation of our study is that we did not address these possibilities,
thus raising questions about when women and men share beliefs about the importance
The comparisons among the scores exhibited by men and women in the items of
the Spanish version of the GRCS-SF provided interesting results. As expected, the
greatest differences were found in men showing higher scores for Restrictive
with other people of my same sex makes me tense”) and 7 (“Men who touch other men
make me uncomfortable”). Herdman et al. (2012) already found that heterosexual men
obtained higher scores in this scale compared to scores from lesbians and gay men. On
the other hand, women showed higher scores for Conflict between Work and Family
Relationships, most remarkably for item 1 (“Finding time to relax is difficult for me”).
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Even if previous studies including U.S. women found no significant differences for this
scale (Zamarripa et al., 2003), we expected such differences in our study, given that it is
one of the areas where gender inequality persists most flagrantly in Spain (Hypothesis
3). As we noted previously, in Spanish society women currently spend more time caring
for their family than do men; however, they spend a similar number of hours engaged in
paid work outside the home (Spain’s Institute for Women, 2016). In addition to time,
women still experience more difficulties with access to positions of power and
responsibility and currently receive an average remuneration 17.8% times lower for the
same hours worked in the same positions (European Commission, 2014). Overall, our
results might relate to the fact that women are playing a role traditionally attributed to
men and currently report conflicts and associated distress similar and even higher than
The limitations of our study are mainly the extraction and characteristics of the
Future investigations should collect larger, diverse samples in terms of age, educational
level, and occupation and, in this way, check that findings can be extrapolated to the
rest of the Spanish population. Future studies would also benefit from including a
Our study suggests that a masculine traditional gender role is currently shared by
both genders and can produce distress and conflict in men and women. Future
the role conflict generated by behaviors and attitudes traditionally associated with
women. This addition could extend the gender role conflict paradigm to both genders,
so there could be a study in different contexts and cultures on the extent to which
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conflicts arise in the daily lives of men and women as a result of the stress generated by
the different gender roles. We also suggest that future researchers explore structural
equation models that might further model relationships among the GRCS and other
outcome measures.
Additional research is required to extend our findings to men and women from
different countries (Zhang et al., 2014). For these studies, we recommend the use of the
short GRCS version, because its format is the most refined and concise for the study of
the masculine gender role conflict (Wester et al., 2012). Another important
historical data that can contribute information on contextualized gender equality in each
the GRCS-SF, suggesting that this is an adequate measure of gender role conflict for
men. A valid and reliable measure of gender role conflict is provided for Spanish
Also, to the best of our knowledge, this was the first study to test the psychometric
properties of the GRCS-SF among heterosexual women and examine factor invariance
among men’s and women’s scores, providing new evidence of the applicability of the
gender role paradigm to women. Additional research is required to extend and replicate
these findings to other cultures. Support was found for the original four-factor structure
of the GRCS-SF for men and women in the Spanish version of the GRCS-SF.
subscale was not related significantly to Restricted Emotion and Restricted Affection in
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the sample of women, indicating that the conflict between housework and work
conciliation is independent from the rest of conflict areas evaluated in Spanish women.
Second, the Success/Power subscale did not keep the expected relationships with the
Although these findings might reveal a cultural issue, future studies might seek to
improve the evaluation of attitudes and beliefs about success, power, and competition
Based on the extensive trajectory in the research on gender role conflict (O’Neil,
2015), precise knowledge can be obtained about distress in men and women with regard
to a set of traits that, even though linked to masculinity, are shared and that affect both
men and women, although with different intensity depending on the specific area being
assessed. The Spanish version of the GRCS-SF could be very useful as an assessment
restriction, search for competitiveness, and difficulties conciliating work and home.
5.12. Conclusion
using in the research and clinical areas evaluate the same construct in women and men
and, therefore, we can make comparisons of the scores between the two groups. Our
study highlights the relevance of evaluating in women the conflict of gender role
traditionally associated with values inherent to masculinity. The use of this instrument
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fighting for equality and asserting their rights in daily life (Bourdieu, 2000; Lagarde,
1990).
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Appendix
compaginar las diferentes áreas de tu vida. Indica tu nivel de acuerdo con cada frase
“absolutamente de acuerdo”.
3. Las demostraciones de afecto con otras personas de mi mismo sexo me hacen sentir
tenso/a.
5. Es difícil para mí decirle a mi pareja mis sentimientos hacia él/ella durante una
relación sexual.
10. La necesidad de trabajar o estudiar me impide estar con mi familia o de ocio más
de lo que quisiera.
13. A menudo, mi trabajo o mis estudios interfieren con otros aspectos de mi vida
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15. Es importante para mí ser más listo/a o más fuerte físicamente que otras personas
de mi mismo sexo.
16. El exceso de trabajo y el estrés causados por una necesidad de tener éxito en el
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6. ESTUDIO CUARTO: Are Sexist Attitudes and Gender
García-Sánchez, R., Almendros, C., Gámez-Guadix, M., Martín, M. J., Aramayona, B.,
& Martínez, J. M. (2017). Are Sexist Attitudes and Gender Stereotypes Linked?
Psychology.
Estudio CUARTO
Abstract
The present study aims to verify the psychometric properties of the Spanish
versions of the Social Roles Questionnaire (SRQ; Baber & Tucker, 2006), Modern
Sexism scale (MS) and Old-fashioned Sexism scale (OFS; Swim et al. Swim & Cohen,
1997). Enough support was found to maintain the original factor structure of all
instruments in their Spanish version. Differences between men and women in the scores
are commented on, mainly because certain sexist attitudes have been overcome with
greater success in the current Spanish society, while other issues, such as distribution of
traditional unequal positions are still maintained. In all cases, it was found that men
showed greater support for sexist attitudes. The correlations between the three
instruments were as expected in assessing sexist attitudes that tend to relate to each
other. Eventually, we found no empirical evidence for the postulated link between sexist
attitudes and traditional gender stereotypes. Our results call for the validity and
theories (Well, 1981; Markus et al., 1982) and the notion of a gender belief system
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Are Sexist Attitudes and Gender Stereotypes Linked? A Feminist Critical Analysis of
Spanish Data
6.1. Introduction
examining gender differences; however, it does not include any guidance on how to
interpret such differences in empirical studies. This situation has resulted in confusion
of the terms ‘sex’ and ‘gender’ in academic and scientific texts (Cowan, 2005;
Hammartrom & Annandale, 2012; Pryzgoda & Chrisler, 2000; Wickes & Emmison,
2007). Westbrook and Saperstein (2016) showed that in social science investigations
there is a lack of sensitivity in the handling of sexual and gender diversity and that this
not only results in lack of recognition of persons not conforming to the binary
sex/gender/sexuality system (Butler, 1990, 2004) but also in serious bias in the
and Leavy (2008) described some methodological approaches that can be used to
counteract these deficiencies; they are very helpful when designing a study from a
technique which improve the analysis of empirical data, ranging from the inclusion of
sex as a moderator variable in regression analyses (e.g. Baron & Kenny, 1986; Orue,
Calvete & Gámez-Guadix, 2016) to the application of structural equation models (e.g.
factorial invariance) which allow for a more sophisticated analysis of gender differences
(Byrne, 2008).
We take a feminist critical approach and so our aim was to analyze the
Spanish women and men. We based our analysis on social role theory (Eagly 1987),
gender schema theories (Bem, 1981; Markus, Crane, Berstein, & Siladi, 1982; Spence,
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1985), and the concept of gender belief systems (Deaux & Kite, 1987; Kite, 2001). We
chose these theories because in Gender Psychology they are the main theoretical
accounts of the relationships between the social changes in women’s position in society,
the adoption of traditional gender roles and stereotypes and the maintenance of sexist
attitudes. Our analysis was intended to contribute to the study of gender in Spain, by
applying the most appropriate procedures for the analysis of gender differences in sexist
6.2. Exploring the relationship between gender role attitudes and gender
Social role theory is based on the assumption that in every community tasks and
responsibilities are divided according to sex/gender (Eagly & Wood, 1991, 1999; Eagly,
Wood, & Diekman, 2000; Wood & Eagly, 2002). This division of labor becomes the
backbone for the social structure of the community (Wood & Eagly, 2010, 2012), thus
generating social inequalities with respect to the privileges, rights and obligations
associated with each sex/gender. Thus gender stereotypes acquire content and define
expectations about the behaviors, traits and attitudes appropriate for men and women
(Eagly et al., 2000) and gender identity emerges from these gender role norms (Wood &
Eagly, 2009).
men are linked to higher status than those associated with women (Guimond, 2008;
Ridgeway & Bourg, 2004). Political and legislative changes should produce significant
changes in gender roles (Eagly & Wood, 1991, 1999; Eagly et al., 2000; Wood & Eagly,
2002) and these changes should also induce modification in the attitudes towards these
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Bem’s (1981) gender schema theory proposes that gender identity stems from
the schemata the individual has for the roles assigned to men and women. These
schemata are the stereotypes which organize knowledge about men and women,
including the physical characteristics and personality traits of prototypical men and
women.
Bem’s theory posits that persons identifying with their traditional gender role
(women with feminine characteristics and male with masculine characteristics) tend to
Bernstein, and Siladi (1982) revised this idea and suggested that, irrespective of
associated with the masculine stereotype from their own scheme, feminine persons
would use their scheme with the information associated with the feminine condition,
masculinity scales as predictors of behavior shows that the data do not support these
theories (i.e. Beauvais & Spence, 1987; Deaux, Kite & Lewis, 1985; Frable & Bem,
1985; Payne, Connor & Colletti, 1987). This led Spence (1985) to propose an
in the creation of new instruments to assess the various dimensions of the constructs
posited (i.e. Attitudes Toward Women Scale, Spence & Helmreich, 1972; Male-Female
Relations Questionnaire, Spence, Helmreich, & Sawin, 1980). From this perspective,
the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) and Personnel Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ)
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attitudes, traits, interests, preferences and behaviors associated with men and women in
society. However, the relationships among these elements are not necessarily stable or
The gender belief system model (Deaux & Kite, 1987; Kite, 2001) proposes that
our views about men and women are conditioned by social expectations. The gender
belief system includes gender stereotypes, beliefs about the roles appropriate to each
gender and views about persons breaching these norms. The concepts of masculinity
and femininity are bipolar i.e. someone with stereotypical masculine behavioral traits is
role (Berndt & Heller, 1986; Deaux & Lewis, 1984). In other words, roles, traits and
appearance form a coherent system according to which men have traits associated with
competence (e.g., confidence, independence and control) whereas women have traits
associated with emotional expressiveness (e.g., warmness, kindness and concern for
others) (Spence & Helmreich, 1978; Williams & Best, 1990) and men are expected to
be stronger and have broader shoulders whereas women are expected to be gentle and
elegant; when it comes to gender roles men are responsible for economic aspects and
for making decisions, whereas women are assigned household tasks and care for others
The study of gender stereotypes and attitudes to gender roles is a research area
which has expanded significantly in recent decades. It should be noted that self-reports
are the preferred assessment method in the studies of gender stereotypes and attitudes to
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gender roles (Smiler & Epstein, 2010). A number of different instruments have been
used; the most widely used are described herein according to the construct they assess.
Attitudes toward Women Scale (AWS; Spence & Helmreich, 1978). The original
version consisted of 55 items (Spence & Helmreich, 1972); this was later reduced to 25
items (Spence, Helmreich & Stapp, 1973) and then to 15 items (Spence & Helmreich,
1978). Respondents are asked to express their agreement or disagreement with a number
of items (e.g. ‘Under modern economic conditions with women being active outside the
home, men should share in household tasks such as washing dishes and doing laundry’).
This is one of the most commonly used instruments for evaluating sexist attitudes and in
recent decades the 15-item version has been the most commonly used (Spence & Hahn,
1997). Despite reports that it has good psychometric properties, researchers are advised
to exercise caution in interpreting AWS data as it has not been updated (Smiler &
Epstein, 2010). In general, women appear to hold more egalitarian attitudes than men.
However, over years both men and women appear to show a greater support to these
attitudes evaluated with this instrument and other similar (Spence & Hahn, 1997;
Twenge, 1997).
B. Internalization of stereotypes
Bem Sex Role Inventory (Bem, 1974). Together with the PAQ (Spence,
Helmreich, & Stapp, 1975) the BSRI is the most commonly used instrument for the
assessment of gender stereotypes (Smiler & Epstein, 2010). Bem’s stated purpose in
developing gender schema theory was, in line with the US feminist movement of the
1970s, to promote a more liberal view of sexuality that recognized that men and women
could have both masculine and feminine characteristics; this resulted in the
establishment of the concept of the androgynous personality (Bem, 1972). In its original
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form the BSRI included 60 personality characteristics: 20 associated with the feminine
individual has a higher score on the feminine scale he or she is defined as ‘feminine’
and vice versa; an individual with above the median scores on both scales is classified
as ‘androgynous’ and an individual with below the median scores on both scales is
considered to have an ‘undifferentiated’ personality. Most studies have found that the
‘masculinity’ and ‘femininity’ scales are not correlated (Aguíñiga, Sebastián & Moreno,
1987; Lenney, 1991), and that men and women score higher on the scale measuring
characteristics associated with their sex (Lenney, 1991). A critical review of the last 25
years of use of the BSRI (Hoffman & Borders, 2001) concluded that in recent years the
time at which the questionnaire was designed with respect to what characteristics are
considered feminine and masculine. The list of items has not, however, been updated or
reformulated. Furthermore, many authors have used the BSRI for the purpose of
demonstrated that masculinity and femininity are broader concepts than the degree of
conformity to masculine roles (instrumental roles) and feminine roles (expressive traits)
(e.g. Spence, 1985). Factor analyses of the BSRI have produced inconsistent results
(Choi & Fuqua, 2003) and this, together with the possible obsolescence of the items,
means that caution should be used when interpreting BSRI data or results based on
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Old-Fashioned Sexism (OFS) and Modern Sexism scales (MS) (Swim, Aikin,
Hall, & Hunter, 1995; Swim & Cohen, 1997). Both instruments arose out of an earlier
study of racist attitudes. The OFS was designed to evaluate the most evident forms of
sexism and the MS to detect the more subtle aspects, such as resentment of policies and
practices designed to tackle inequalities between men and women. Respondents are
asked to indicate of the extent to which they agree with a number of statements that
represent sexist attitudes. Both scales have been used extensively and have good
Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (ASI; Glick & Fiske, 1996). The ASI was designed
to evaluate two types of sexism: hostile and benevolent. Based on Allport’s (1954)
approach to sexism the authors defined hostile sexism as a prejudice based on viewing
women on the grounds of their presumed incompetence outside the areas of intimacy
and care for others. The instrument comprises 22 items organized into two scales,
‘Hostile Sexism’ and ‘Benevolent Sexism’ and includes items dealing with protective
Social Roles Questionnaire (SRQ; Baber & Tucker, 2006). As this questionnaire
was developed much more recently it has been used less frequently in empirical studies.
It was intended to represent an advance on previous instruments and to enrich the study
of gender roles and sexist attitudes. The authors pointed to flaws in previous
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with men and women, as well as other items intending to gather more subtle or hidden
support for gender inequality. The original version of the instrument comprised 52
Transcendent’. The first two were later combined to produce a two-factor scale.
Subsequently the authors developed a brief version consisting of only 13 items to make
legislative effort promoted by several associations and social movements that have
fought hard for the rights of women. This has produced important achievements, such as
the approval of the ‘Ley Organica’ (Spanish Law) 3/2007, of 22nd March, for the
effective equality of men and women and the ‘Ley Organica’ 1/2004, of 28th December,
achievement of real equality for women and men in Spain is still a long way off and will
Based on the most recent data provided by the Spanish Instituto de la Mujer
(2016), we provide a list of the indicators that we consider best reflect the position of
A. Educational system
remained stable, at around 48%, over the past 20 years. However, the number of women
enrolled in high school has decreased by two percentage points from the 1998-99
Intermediate Level and Advanced Level Vocational Training courses are offered, with
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different specialties. In both educational routes, women are more heavily represented in
the branches ‘Personal Image’ (about 94% of students are women), ‘Social Services to
the Community’ (about 86% women) and ‘Textiles, Clothing Production and Leather’
(about 88% women). The sex distribution across the various specialisms has remained
14 academic year and this figure has been stable for the past 10 years. According to the
field of education, from higher to lower, in ‘Health Sciences’ 69.64% are women, in
‘Arts and Humanities’ 61.49%, in ‘Social and Legal Sciences’ we find 60.35%, in
B. Labor market
The 2016 data show that the fields of activity in which women were best
(88.92%), ‘Human health and social work activities’ (77.05%) and ‘Education’
(66.63%). The fields with the lowest representation of women were ‘Building’ (7%),
‘Extraction industries’ (10.5%) and ‘Water supplies and sanitation activities’ (16.25%).
In all these fields the percentage of women has been very stable over the past 10 years.
Women still dominate the part-time employment sector according to date from
the past year. In 2015 72.5% of the part-time workforce was women whereas 40.3%
full-time workforce was women. There has been a small shift in the distribution of
working habits over the past ten years: in 2005 78.1% of the part-time workforce and
The type of contract under which women typically work has also changed
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contracts and 44.73% of employees on temporary contracts but by 2015 both these
The negative pay gap present in 2004 is still present, with women earning
around 18.8% less per hour than men. The average gender pay gap in the European
Union is 16.1%.
The percentage of women requesting leaves of absence for caring for their
relatives has remained unchanged since 2005, around 84%. The picture is similar with
respect to absence to care for children: in 2005 96.67% of those take leave for childcare
The survey on use of time (2009-10) indicated that women dedicated 247 mins
per day to ‘home and family’ compared with men’s 114 minutes. The tasks to which
women devoted most time are: 84 mins to ‘cooking activities’, 49 mins to ‘home
maintenance’ and 32 mins to ‘childcare’; the tasks to which men dedicated most time
were ‘cooking activities’ (26 mins) and ‘purchases and services’ (17 mins).
D. Leading positions
secretaries of the courts and members of the judiciary) in 1995 and 58.84% in
2014;
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attitudes: the SRQ (Baber & Tucker, 2006) and the OFS and MS scales (Swim et al.,
1995; Swim & Cohen, 1997). First, we used confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to
determine whether the Spanish versions of the scales had a similar internal structure to
the original versions. We expected to find that the Spanish SRQ had a two-factor
structure and that the OFS and MS scales had one-factor structures, as originally
OFS scale and MS scale. We expected to replicate the finding that men have higher
scores than women (Baber & Tucker, 2006; Swim et al., 1995; Swim & Cohen, 1997),
reflecting more sexist attitudes. We explored sex differences in the factorial structures
and whether upholding traditional gender stereotypes was empirically related to SRQ,
OFS and MS scores. We used the BSRI (Bem, 1974) to evaluate internalization of
gender. We expected to find high positive correlations between SRQ, OFS and MS
scores in both men and women, given that both the SRQ (Baber & Tucker, 2006) and
MS and OFS scales (Swim et al., 1995) have been shown to be associated with other
instruments that evaluate sexist attitudes, such as AWS and ASI (Ogletree, 2015). We
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classified the sample according to gender stereotypes evaluated by the BSRI and tested
the following hypotheses. (1) Based on gender social role theory (Eagly, 1987) we
predicted that men and women would endorse the sexist attitudes evaluated with by the
instruments used to a similar extent. Despite social progress towards gender equality
there are several factors (e.g. disproportionate representation of women in jobs with less
responses to the items dealing with the distribution of household tasks and equality in
the work environment. (2) Bem (1981) and Markus et al. (1982) argued that sex and
gender stereotypes are directly related to sexist attitudes, such that masculine men and
feminine women would have higher scores or, independent of sex, scores on the
masculinity and femininity scales would be positively correlated with indices of sexism.
Spence (1985) argued, however, that one would not expect there to be a direct
relationship between sexist attitudes and masculinity or femininity. (3) Finally, based on
the notion of the gender belief system we predicted that the measures of stereotypes and
6.6. Method
The sample consisted of 700 undergraduate students (176 men; 524 women),
who ranged in age from 20 to 54 years (M = 21.38; SD = 4.91). All students were
originally from Spain, reported being heterosexual and were enrolled in the third year of
(2012-2014) students were offered the choice of participating in this study or other
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who agreed to participate in the study completed the instruments in collective sessions
in the classroom. All participants were assured of anonymity. Those students who opted
to receive a full report of their results were also assured that their e-mail address would
be treated as confidential.
B. Measures
Bem Sex Role Inventory-12 (BSRI; Bem, 1974, 1981; 12-item Spanish version,
Mateo & Fernández, 1991). This measures self-reported expressive and instrumental
attributes, considered socially desirable for women and men, respectively. Responses
are given using a Likert scale ranging from 1 (never or almost never) to 7 (always or
almost always). The short version comprises 12 attributes; six represent ‘masculinity’
(M) (e.g. ‘a natural leader’) and other six represent ‘femininity’ (F) (e.g. ‘affective’).
The Spanish version (Mateo & Fernández, 1991) was produced by translation and back-
translation of the original scale. In a more recent study, Fernández and Coello (2010)
reported the internal consistency of the BSRI-12 as Cronbach’s alpha = .73 for the
‘masculinity’ Cronbach’s alpha = .77 for the ‘femininity’ scale. In this study
Cronbach’s alpha for the masculinity scale was .80 in both men and women whilst the
corresponding values for the femininity scale were .79 in men and .82 in women.
Modern Sexism scale (MS; Swim et al., 1995). This was designed to evaluate
subtle or hidden beliefs consistent with support for gender inequality. It comprises 8
items (e.g. ‘Women often miss out on good jobs due to sexual discrimination’) that, in
this study, were evaluated using a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 =
strongly agree). In the English version the coding of the response choices is reversed,
but we decided to align the scoring of this scale with that of the other instruments we
were using, i.e. lower scores indicate greater support for traditional attitudes.
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Cronbach’s alpha for the original version of the scale ranged from .84 to .75 in different
evaluates openly sexist attitudes toward women. It comprises five items (e.g. ‘I would
be as comfortable having a woman for a boss as a man’) that are evaluated using a five-
point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). As with the above
instrument, in our study low scores indicated greater support for sexist attitudes.
Cronbach’s alpha for the original version ranged from .66 to .65 in different studies
(Swim et al., 1995; Swim & Cohen, 1997). Both scales were translated into Spanish as
part of the research for a PhD dissertation (Rodríguez, 2006, cited in Rodríguez,
Lameiras, Carrera & Faílde, 2010); however, no psychometric data for the Spanish
Social Roles Questionnaire (SRQ; Baber & Tucker, 2006). This comprises 13
items related to expectations about how women and men should behave in society.
Items are evaluated using a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly
agree). The SRQ is structured as two subscales: ‘Gender Transcendent’ (GT; five items,
e.g. ‘People should be treated the same regardless of their sex’) evaluates support for a
non-dichotomous view of gender view and ‘Gender Linked’ (GL; eight items, e.g.
‘Mothers should work only if necessary’) evaluates beliefs about the association of
particular activities with a certain gender. The original study reported Cronbach’s alpha
values of .65 for GT and .77 for GL. We recoded the GT items so that high scores
indicate greater support for sexist attitudes. CFA of a Spanish version (López-Cepero,
structure, but the GT factor had poor internal consistency (α < .47) in both men and
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women although the GL factor had an internal consistency of α = .77. These data led the
instruments from one culture for use in another (Hambleton, 1994, 1996; Muñiz, Elosua,
of the SRQ, MS and OFS. The first step was to design the research methods and
evaluate the relevance of the constructs to the target population and the possible
influence of cultural and linguistic factors. Advice was provided by a team of five
expert investigators. Two qualified translators, one of Spanish origin and one of English
origin, were taught about the construction of the tests and the constructs they were
designed to evaluate. The scales were translated and back-translated and the translators
and the expert team compared the two versions and made appropriate changes to the
Spanish versions.
D. Data analysis
Data analysis was carried out using EQS 6.1 (Multivariate Software, Inc.;
Bentler, 1995) and SPSS version 19.0 (IBM Corp., 2010). Student’s t test was used to
assess sex differences in item scores. Cohen’s d (1988) was used as a standardized
measure of effect size in order to estimate the magnitude and relevance of results
(Wilkinson and APA-Task Force on Statistical Inference, 1999). The criteria for d were
as follows: .2 represents a small effect, .5 a moderate effect and .8 a large effect (Cohen,
1988).
We carried out separate CFAs of SRQ data from men and women. Two different
models were tested: (1) the original two-factor model (Baber & Tucker, 2006); (2) a
one-factor model that included all of the items of the SRQ. We also tested two models
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of the MS and OFS scales: (1) the original one-factor models for both scales (Swim et
al., 1995; Swim & Cohen, 1997); (2) a joint model with two related factors representing
the two contributing scales. In all cases model fit was evaluated using several fit
indices: the comparative fit index (CFI; Bentler, 1990), the non-normed fit index
(NNFI; Bentler & Bonett, 1980), the root mean square error of approximation
(RMSEA; Steiger, 1990), and the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR;
Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1996). Indicators of a good model fit were CFI and NNFI values
greater than .90, RMSEA less than .06 and SRMR less than .08 (Byrne, 1994; Cheung
the measurement model and the underlying theoretical structure were invariant across
the male and female samples scores on the three scales (Byrne, Shavelson & Muthén,
1989). We used the robust maximum likelihood estimation method in EQS 6.1 to assess
measurement invariance across the samples. Testing for equivalence based on the
analysis of means and covariance structures entails a hierarchical set of steps (Byrne,
2008): (1) Determination of good multigroup baseline model fit. (2) Model 1: a
configural model is the first and least restrictive model to be tested; it only assesses
whether the same configuration of fixed and freely estimated parameters holds across
groups and no equality constraints are imposed. (3) Model 2: tests constraints on
observed variables (directly measurable) and their links to the latent variables; these
parameters include the factor loadings. (4) Model 3: focuses on the unobserved
variables and tests the equality of relations among factors (i.e. factor covariances), (5)
Model 4: factor loadings, covariances and intercepts are invariant. (6) Testing for group
differences in latent means. We used two approaches to compare invariance models. (1)
The corrected scale S-B χ2 difference test developed by Satorra and Bentler (2001) was
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suggests that the constraints specified in the more restrictive model do not hold; (2)
Change in CFI, which is less vulnerable to variations in sample size and non-normality
than changes in S-B χ2 (Cheung, 2008; Cheung & Rensvold, 2002); CFI should not
exceed .01.
The following analyses were used to assess the empirical relationships between
the SRQ, MS and OFS measures and the BSRI instrument. (1) Separate pairwise
correlations between scales for men and women. (2) The sample was split into four
‘feminine’ and ‘androgynous’), using the median as the threshold for ‘high’ scores
(men: M mdn = 4.67, F mdn = 5.5; women: M mdn = 4.42, F mdn = 5.66). Because the
data were not normally distributed and the groups were different sizes Kruskal-Wallis
tests were used to test for BSRI group differences in SRQ, MS and OFS scores.
6.7. Results
Values of Cronbach’s alpha were low but sufficient for the SRQ subscales (men:
acceptable Cronbach’s alpha values in men (α = .77) and women (α = .79), but OFS
scale had low values in both men (α = .49) and women (α = .45).
B. Item analysis
The means, standard deviations and item-total correlations of the SRQ items are
shown in Table 1. Several items had item-total correlations under .30: item 1 (men and
women) and items 6 and 10 (women). There were moderate sex differences in GL and
GT scores; in both cases men had higher scores. The difference was in the same
direction in the case of individual items for which there was a group difference: there
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were small sex differences in scores on all GT items and most GL items, although the
Table 1.
Descriptive statistics and factor loadings (two-factor CFA model) and comparison of SRQ scores in men (n = 176)
Men Women
Item 1 1.43 (.81) .25 .382 1.42 (.76) .24 .305 .121 698 .01
Item 2 1.37 (.82) .34 .427 1.19 (.46) .44 .487 2.755** 212,756 .31
Item 3 1.34 (.65) .49 .646 1.27 (.58) .47 .708 1,237 273,940 .12
Item 4 1.20 (.54) .52 .701 1.08 (.37) .31 .416 2.818** 234,930 .29
Item 5 1.51 (.81) .47 .544 1.37 (.67) .41 .596 2.046* 260,525 .20
Item 6 2.22 (1.09) .33 .355 1.93 (.94) .29 .300 3.200** 267,372 .30
Item 7 2.30 (1.23) .40 .433 2.12 (1.12) .39 .452 1,730 279,735 .16
Item 8 2.39 (1.30) .51 .621 1.84 (1.01) .56 .722 5.125** 248,845 .50
Item 9 1.45 (.71) .34 .399 1.44 (.70) .46 .479 .193 698 .01
Item 10 1.31 (.68) .42 .536 1.13 (.44) .29 .317 3.298** 225,041 .35
Item 11 1.89 (1.06) .50 .578 1.63 (.88) .36 .469 2.992** 260,921 .28
Item 12 1.75 (1.05) .58 .719 1.42 (.79) .51 .687 3.796** 245,542 .38
Item 13 1.42 (.78) .53 .592 1.17 (.49) .30 .370 3.994** 223,873 .43
Note: **p<.01; *p<.05. rciX: item-total correlation. GT = Gender Transcendent; GL= Gender Linked.
The same descriptive statistics for the MS and OFS instruments are shown in
Table 2. The MS items had item-total correlations above .40, except for item 8. The
OFS items had item-total correlations between .24 and .31 in men and between .16
and .33 in women. There were moderate sex differences in global MS and OFS scores;
women’s scores were higher on all items of both scales, indicating lower support for
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sexist attitudes. Effect sizes were generally small, but in the case of MS item 7 the
Table 2.
Descriptive statistics and factor loadings (two-factor CFA merge model) and comparison on MS and OFS scores in
Males Females
Item 1 4.02 (.96) .64 .816 4.24 (.80) .57 .659 -2.762** 695 .26
Item 2 3.99 (.89) .44 .510 4.06 (.93) .39 .455 -.809 696 .08
Item 3 4.05 (1.01) .45 .551 4.12 (1.01) .46 .523 -.809 696 .07
Item 4 4.11 (.88) .49 .610 4.11 (.88) .57 .639 .033 696 .00
Item 5 3.54 (1.03) .49 .608 3.73 (.96) .53 .604 -2.182* 696 .19
Item 6 3.26 (1.11) .45 .458 3.72 (.98) .52 .612 -4.923** 271,750 .45
Item 7 3.59 (1.07) .49 .493 4.06 (.81) .58 .669 -5.311** 246,721 .53
Item 8 3.17 (1.12) .31 .324 3.46 (1.05) .35 .398 -3.062** 696 .27
Item 1 4.70 (.83) .24 .308 4.83 (.69) .20 .279 -1.948* 261,137 .18
Item 2 4.58 (.81) .31 .414 4.73 (.67) .16 .261 -2.247* 260,563 .21
Item 3 4.69 (.85) .29 .493 4.78 (.70) .32 .500 -1,275 261,452 .12
Item 4 4.48 (1.00) .26 .373 4.67 (.90) .20 .282 -2.256* 276,778 .21
Item 5 4.52 (.81) .24 .407 4.71 (.61) .33 .610 -2.839** 243,967 .29
Note: **p<.01; *p<.05. rciX: item-total correlation. MS = Modern Sexism; OFS= Old-Fashioned Sexism.
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C. Factor analysis
The fit indices for the competing SRQ models for both men and women are
shown in Table 3. The two-factor model was an acceptable fit to both men’s and
women’s data yielded higher values of CFI and NNFI and a lower S-B χ2 value than the
one-factor model. Factor loadings of the SRQ items for the two-factor model are shown
in Table 1.
Table 3.
Summary of fit indices for the CFA models of SRQ data from men (n = 176) and women (n = 524).
Males
One-factor model 115,128 .827 .793 .074 .066 (CI: .046, .086)
Two-factor model 90,258 .909 .890 .064 .048 (CI: .021, .070)
Females
One-factor model 184,024 .806 .768 .060 .059 (CI: .049, .069)
Two-factor model 112,055 .922 .905 .046 .034 (CI: .026, .049)
Note. S-B χ2 = Satorra-Bentler scaled chi-square; CFI = comparative fit index; NNFI = non-normed fit index;
RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; SRMR = standardized root mean square residual; CI = 90%
confidence interval.
A two-step approach was taken to CFA of the MS and OFS scales (Table 4). First,
we tested separate one-factor models for each scale in men and women; the one-factor
MS models were a poor fit to both men’s and women’s data (low CFI and NNFI and
high RMSEA values) and the OFS model was a poor fit to men’s data but an acceptable
fit to the women’s data (CFI and NNFI close to 1; low RMSEA). Second, given the
disparity found in both sexes and the high correlation between the scales, we also tested
a two-factor model with the items of each scale grouped as correlated factors was
examined (two-factor merge model). This model was an acceptable fit for both sexes, so
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Table 4.
Summary of fit indices for the CFA models of MS and OFS data from men (n = 176) and women (n = 524).
Males
One-factor MS model 51,903 .860 .804 .072 .096 (CI: .064, .128)
One-factor OFS model 9,786 .813 .627 .048 .074 (CI: .000, .142)
Two-factor merge model 95,440 .891 .867 .067 .053 (CI: .029, .074)
Females
One-factor MS model 134,646 .864 .810 .058 .105 (CI: .088, .122)
One-factor OFS model 5,930 .978 .956 .029 .019 (CI: .000, .066)
Two-factor merge model 194,149 .854 .823 .054 .062 (CI: .052, .072)
Note. S-B χ2 = Satorra-Bentler scaled chi-square; CFI = comparative fit index; NNFI = non-normed fit index;
RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; SRMR = standardized root mean square residual; CI = 90%
confidence interval.
D. Measurement invariance
In the case of the SRQ, analysis of the configural model (Model 1) indicated that
the hypothesized multigroup model fit well across the men and women samples (Table
5). The comparison of Model 2 and configural model was shown to be non-invariant, so
the modification indices offered by the Lagrange Multiplier test were followed and thus
released non-invariant items 4 (p = .00) and 13 (p = .01). The modified Model 2 was
then compared with the configural model and indicators suggested their equivalence.
For the following models both items were left free, so that the assessment of the partial
invariance of the instrument was continued. Model 3 equivalence was adequate, ΔS-B
χ2 was not significant and ΔCFI was < .01, indicating partial invariance relative to the
configural model. In the comparison of Model 4 and the configural model, ΔS-B χ2 was
significant, although ΔCFI was < .01. The results of the LM test suggested that
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modifications to several intercept constraints were required. We conclude from this that
intercept equivalence was not achieved and we did not proceed to comparison of latent
means.
Table 5.
Configural
Model 2 322,536 .896 .917 .083 .031 (CI: .024, .038) 29.026 (df=11, .023
Model 2 modified 294,275 .913 .901 .041 .029 (CI: .021, .036) 14.442 (df=9, .006
Model 3 298,179 .912 .900 .078 .029 (CI: .021, .036) 19.081 (df=10, .007
Covariances p=.10)
Model 4 341,824 .912 .895 .076 .033 (CI: .026, .039) 57.778 (df=19; .007
Intercepts p=.00)
Note. S-B χ2 = Satorra-Bentler scaled chi-square; CFI = comparative fit index; NNFI = non-normed fit index;
RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; SRMR = standardized root mean square residual; CI = 90%
confidence interval.
(Table 6) found adequate equivalence of the factor loadings and covariances (Model 3),
but analysis of Model 4, as in the case of SRQ, indicated the lack of equivalence of the
intercepts: ΔS-B χ2 was significant, despite ΔCFI being < .01. Again we concluded that
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Table 6.
Sex invariance in measurement of MS and OFS (two-factor merge model)(men: n = 176; women: n = 524).
Configural
Model 2 307,743 .861 .844 .065 .042 (CI: .024, .038) 11.013 (df=11, .000
Model 3 308,822 .861 .845 .065 .042 (CI: .035, .048) 11.601 (df=12, .000
Covariances p=.48)
Model 4 372,798 .865 .839 .068 .046 (CI: .040, .052) 79.523 (df=23; .004
Intercepts p=.00)
Note. S-B χ2 = Satorra-Bentler scaled chi-square; CFI = comparative fit index; NNFI = non-normed fit index;
RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; SRMR = standardized root mean square residual; CI = 90%
confidence interval.
E. Bivariate correlations
Like the MS and OFS scales, the SRQ subscales were correlated in both sexes
(Table 7). The SRQ subscales were negatively correlated with MS and OFS scores in
both sexes, with the exception of GL subscale which was not correlated with MS in men.
The GT subscale was correlated with BSRI Masculine subscale scores; the correlation
was positive and small-to-moderate in men and negative and small in women.
First, the median-split method was used for to classify the sample into the four
test indicated no sex difference in the distribution of gender stereotypes (2 = 1.617; p
= .656).
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Table 7.
Correlations for SRQ, MS, OFS & BSRI for Males (n = 176) and Females (n = 524).
Note: **p<.01; *p<.05. SRQ – GT = Social Role Questionnaire - Gender Transcendent subscale; SRQ – GL = Social
Role Questionnaire - Gender Linked subscale; OFS = Old-Fashioned Sexism; MS = Modern Sexism; BSRI – MASC
= Bem Sexual Role Inventory - Masculine scale; BSRI – FEM = Bem Sexual Role Inventory - Feminine scale.
Correlations in men and women are shown in the upper right and lower left corners respectively.
Table 8.
Note. Percentages are over the total number of men and women.
Second, several Kruskal-Wallis tests were used to compare SRQ, MS and OFS
scores among the sex-gender stereotype groups; there were group differences in scores
on the SRQ GL subscale (p = .00) and in OFS (p = .001) and MS ( p = .021) scores.
Table 9 shows the means and the standard deviations. Differences between pairs of
1. SRQ GL subscale: masculine men were different from all groups of women:
women (p = .003).
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Table 9.
Descriptive statistics for gender stereotypes organized by sex (men: n = 176; women: n = 524).
Men Women
SRQ – GT 1.41 (.50) 1.46 (.51) 1.19 (.25) 1.36 (.50) 1.30 (.40) 1.24 (.35) 1.24 (.34) 1.25 (.33)
SRQ – GL 1.85 (.62) 2.01 (.58) 1.71 (.63) 1.78 (.58) 1.63 (.46) 1.60 (.48) 1.50 (.45) 1.56 (.48)
OFS 4.54 (.45) 4.56 (.57) 4.67 (.47) 4.64 (.51) 4.74 (.43) 4.79 (.30) 4.78 (.30) 4.66 (.50)
MS 3.76 (.56) 3.64 (.70) 3.81 (.52) 3.65 (.72) 3.95 (.59) 3.92 (.60) 3.99 (.59) 3.86 (.57)
Note: SRQ – GT = Social Role Questionnaire - Gender Transcendent subscale; SRQ – GL = Social Role
6.8. Discussion
This study has provided additional evidence of the reliability, validity, and cross-
cultural adequacy of the SRQ and the OFS and MS scales. Analysis of the factorial
structure of the instruments, provided support for the validity of the original two-factor
structure of the Spanish version of the SRQ in both sexes (Baber & Tucker, 2006) as
expected. However, in the case of the MS and OFS scales, the one-factor MS model
exhibited a less than ideal fit to the data, but the one-factor OFS was a good fit to the
women’s data. Given the high correlation between the scales in both sexes, we decided
to assess the fit of a two-correlated-factors model including all the items from both
scales (two-factor merge model); this was an acceptable fit to the data, in line with the
proposal of the scales’ original authors (Swim et al, 1995; Swim & Cohen, 1997).
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With regard to the internal consistency of the Spanish versions of the instruments,
the SRQ exhibited moderate internal consistency in both sexes, although higher in this
study than in an earlier study by Lopez-Cepero et al. (2013). The consistently less than
ideal internal consistency for the GT subscale in Spanish samples might be due the
reduced number of items and the fact that the wording of all items is reversed relative to
the original version. It should be noted that there was a low correlation between item 1
(‘Persons can be both aggressive and affectionate, regardless of their sex’) and the rest
of GT items in both men and women. This is the only item that makes reference to
violent behavior, maybe relating to a very specific issue, which is the justification of
violence in some contexts and its relationship with the gender differences in partner
relations (Corral & Calvete, 2006; Garaigordobil, Martínez-Valderrey & Aliri, 2013).
This may set the content of item one apart from the rest of the GT items. The Spanish
version of the OFS had poor internal consistency in both sexes, whereas other studies
have reported moderate internal consistency (Swim et al., 1995; Swim & Cohen, 1997).
Again, this may be due to the brevity of the scale, and the fact that three of its five items
are inverted. In women item 2 (‘I would be as comfortable having a woman for a boss
as a man’) had the lowest correlation with the other OFS items. Item 2 describes a
prejudice that has perhaps not been overcome to the same extent as the other old-
that men and women have the same intellectual capacity). Several studies have reported
that female leaders usually receive worse satisfaction ratings from their subordinates
than male leaders in certain organizational contexts (Eagly, Karau, & Makhijani, 1995;
Cuadrado, 2003).
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Analysis of sex differences in scores on items of the Spanish versions of the SRQ
and OFS and MS scales, and the assessment of invariance, provided interesting results.
In all cases men expressed greater support for sexist attitudes, a finding which is
consistent with earlier research using the same or similar instruments (Baber & Tucker,
2006; Campbell, Schellenberg, & Senn, 1997; Glick & Fiske, 1996; Swim et al., 1995;
Swim & Cohen, 1997). In the case of the SRQ, the greatest sex difference was in scores
on item 8 (‘Some jobs are not appropriate for women’). This item may describe one of
the most deeply entrenched sexist attitudes in Spanish society where, in fact, there are
very striking differences in the representation of men and women in some occupational
domains (Bonilla, 2010; Gino, Wilmuth & Brooks, 2015; Heilman & Eagly, 2008).
These differences are always more marked in the upper echelons of an organizational
hierarchy. As mentioned above, the most recent reports of the Spanish Institute for
Women noted that women are more likely than men to be in jobs which are temporary
or part-time and more likely to be working in poor conditions and have fewer
employment rights. It should be noted that men expressed greater support for the sexist
attitude - assessed by the SRQ - that gender is as an essential factor when distributing
tasks at home and at work. These data are consistent with other studies in which men
also expressed more overtly sexist attitudes than women (Moya, Glick, Expósito, de
Lemus & Hart, 2007; Sibley, Wilson & Duckitt, 2007). In the case of the MS and OFS
items, women expressed more egalitarian attitudes, especially in the case of item 7 (‘It
is easy to understand why feminist groups are still concerned about social limitations on
opportunities for women’). Women’s higher scores (indicative of a less sexist attitude in
our study) are consistent with the evidence that they adhere to a feminist identity to a
higher degree (Parry, 2014; Zucker & Bay-Cheng, 2010), have a greater understanding
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of the claims of feminist groups and are more supportive of them (hooks, 2000). In the
case of OFS, though a small size effect was found, outstand Item 5 (‘When both parents
work and their child gets sick, the school should call the mother rather than the father’),
which content is related to assigning household and care tasks in the family
environment, finding in this a very marked sexist trend in Spain and in the rest of the
Western countries (United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2016; Instituto de la Mujer,
2016).
We tested the sex invariance of the factor structure (i.e. number of factors), factor
loadings (i.e. unit of a scale) and intercepts (i.e. origin of a scale) of the SRQ, MS and
OFS. At Model 1, we found evidence that the factor structures of the SRQ, MS and
OFS were sex-invariant (Cheung & Rensvold, 2002) and hence these scales may be
considered to be measuring similar factors in men and women (Widaman & Reise,
1997). Models 2 and 3 tested the sex invariance of factor loadings, i.e. whether the units
of measurement of the scales can be considered similar in men and women and hence
whether predictive relationships can be compared in men and women. The joint model
for MS and OFS had adequate fit at this comparison level; however, in the case of the
SRQ Model 2 indicated a lack of equivalence suggesting the release of two items that
were not invariant across sex (item 4: ‘Household chores should not be assigned by
sexes’; item 13: ‘In many important jobs it is better to contract men than women’). A
modified Model 2 (after release of these two items) displayed adequate equivalence
values as did Model 3. There were sex differences in scores for items 4 and 13, with
men attaining higher scores. These items deal with subjects related to the evolution of
gender roles in Spain. Item 4 deals with housework, and as we have already discussed
household chores are still distributed very unequally in Spanish society - as a general
rule women undertake them almost single-handedly, despite their entry into the labor
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market (Silván-Ferrero & Bustillos, 2007). Item 13 deals with the acceptability of
women in important jobs and there is evidence that male and female leaders in senior
posts do not receive equivalent ratings (Eagly, Karau, & Makhijani, 1995; Cuadrado,
2003). In conclusion, these items describe sexist prejudices that are still reflected in
Spanish society and this may explain why men and women report different attitudes to
their content.
Finally, Model 4 tests whether an item has the same point of origin across
different groups. Our data indicate that the Spanish versions of the instruments do not
exhibit intercept invariance i.e. men’s and women’s do have not the same origin.
Several factors can affect the origin of a scale (Chen, 2008): social desirability; the
trend to show a strong desire for values involving a defect or deficit for the group to
which one belongs; one’s cultural frame of reference on which one’s self-judgments are
based. We did not assess social desirability bias, so we have no evidence as to whether
there are sex differences in how social desirability bias influences responses to the
instruments we investigated. However, the lack of sex invariance at the intercept level
prompts a number of questions: Does the Spanish cultural framework endorse gender
overcome sexist attitudes? Do Spanish men and women show similar patterns of
endorsement of overt and subtle sexist attitudes? Before we consider these questions we
will briefly discuss some sociological data that shed light on how gender differences are
viewed in the Spanish sociocultural framework. Several studies have noted that sexist
attitudes that denigrate women and treat them as unequal persist in Spain. One of the
clearest illustration of this is the unequal access to the labor market; even today there
are occupations with a highly polarized sex distribution (women make up just 7.6% and
25.1% of workers in the building and industry sectors respectively; Instituto de la Mujer,
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2016), inequality in salaries (women with permanent contracts are paid 25.66% less
than men and women on temporary contracts are paid 10.38% less than their male
peers; Instituto de la Mujer, 2016). Women also have much less chance of rising to the
women and only 20.73% of the governing boards of Ibex-35 companies; Instituto de la
Mujer, 2016). All of this leads us to the conclusion that in Spain a great effort is still
needed to overcome the inequalities in opportunity, rights and freedoms based on sex
(García-Dauder, 2005).
The correlations between the three instruments were as expected, given that
higher MF and OFS scores indicate lower support for sexist attitudes, whereas higher
scores on the two SRQ subscales indicate greater support for sexist attitudes.
However, given the lack of sex invariance in the three instruments at the
intercept level (Model 4), we question whether these instruments adequately capture the
persistence of sexist attitudes in men and women in today’s society. On the one hand,
the validity of the instruments used to measure gender stereotypes and attitudes on
the degree to which behavior is consistent with stereotypes (Zosuls, Millier, Ruble,
Martin & Faber, 2011). Those are clearly different contents on which the necessary
effort has not been made to distinguish the multidimensional composition of the gender
stereotypes and their characterization with the appropriate sensitivity to the differences
There is also a need for qualitative research on the social representation of the
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developed (Baber & Tucker, 2006; García-Cueto et al., 2015) they show a clear
continuity with existing instruments in terms of the content and wording of items.
gathering various thematic areas where sexist attitudes are shown, such as the work
environment, at home and within interpersonal relations, as well as traits and personal
skills attributed to each sex. The social and political achievements of recent years (e.g.
Laws on Gender Equality, 2007, and Same Sex Marriage, 2005) have led to notable
progress in overcoming certain sexist attitudes, but there are other areas in which sexist
attitudes persist.
attitudes to gender roles in two different ways: (1) by analyzing correlations between
the BSRI scales and instruments evaluating sexist attitudes; (2) by classifying
participants according to BSRI stereotype and comparing the scores of these groups on
the various instruments used to measure sexism. Contrary to hypotheses derived from
gender schema theories (Bem, 1981; Markus et al., 1982) and the notion of a gender
belief system (Deaux & Kite, 1987; Kite, 2001), we did not find a direct relationship
only correlations we found were between the BSRI and sexist attitude scales were
between the BBSRI M scale and the SRQ GT subscale, these scales were positively
We should note that, contrary to expectations, the most frequent category in both sexes
was undifferentiated. These results are consistent with other similar investigations
carried out in recent decades (Carver, Vafaei, Guerra, Freire, & Phillips, 2013;
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Hernández, 2009; Twenge, 1997), which also found no consistent relationship between
As expected, masculine men had higher GT scores than all the women’s groups,
but we failed to find the other anticipated sex-gender stereotype group differences in
scores on the sexism instruments. We conclude from this that subscribing to a gender
stereotype is not associated with exhibiting a sexist attitude; however in view of the
question marks over the validity of the instruments these findings should be treated with
designed to measure sexism to take account of the social changes that have occurred
with respect to the position of women in society and the evolution of sexist attitudes in
Western cultures has implications for their validity (Twenge, 1997; Hoffman & Borders,
2001). We consider that there is an urgent need for a critical analysis of the
psychometric properties of instruments that are more than three decades old and
developments and observable changes in the social roles of men and women and gender
stereotypes.
Finally, whilst we are aware of the limitations of our study (the origin and age
range of the sample; the reliance on self-report instruments), our results call into
question the validity and effectiveness of the classic theories of gender psychology,
such as gender schema theories (Bem, 1981; Markus et al., 1982) and the notion of a
gender belief system (Deaux & Kite, 1987; Kite, 2001). We found no empirical
evidence for the postulated link between sexist attitudes and traditional gender
stereotypes. Spence (1985) has already suggested that one should not expect
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consistency between role, stereotype and identity and this idea is recognized in recent
accounts of the fluidity of gender in queer theory (Butler, 1990, 2004; Preciado, 2008)
and transgender theory (Nagoshi, Nagoshi, & Brzuzy, 2014). These theorists argue that
to the components thereof, but needs not affect all in the same way. Therefore, we could
homophobic or male chauvinist attitudes. The influence of the social and political
attitudes or behaviors are the grounds of a major process of change in Western societies
(Nagoshi, Brzuzy, & Terrell, 2012). In conclusion, given the changing sociocultural
or theories which do not take into account social changes or the fluidity of gender in
today’s society.
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Appendix A
Nos interesa la forma de pensar de la gente sobre los diferentes roles sociales. Las
siguientes afirmaciones describen actitudes que distintas personas muestran sobre los
roles del hombre y la mujer. No hay respuestas correctas o incorrectas, tan solo
opiniones. Por favor, exprese su opinión personal sobre cada afirmación. Piensa sobre
tus opiniones ahora e indica cómo de acuerdo estás con cada afirmación.
1. Las personas pueden ser tanto agresivas como cariñosas con independencia de su
sexo.
3. A los niños se les debería dar libertad en función de su edad y nivel de madurez, y
no por su sexo.
9. Las madres deberían tomar la mayor parte de decisiones sobre cómo educar a los/as
hijos/as.
11. Se debería proteger y vigilar a las chicas más que a los chicos.
12. Sólo algunos tipos de trabajo son apropiados tanto para hombres como para
mujeres (p. ej.: es una tontería que una mujer trabaje en la construcción y un hombre
trabaje cosiendo).
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Appendix B
Te presentamos una serie de frases sobre las diferencias de género en España sobre la
que te pedimos opines con total sinceridad. Indica tu nivel de acuerdo con cada frase
4. Estaría igualmente cómodo/a teniendo a una mujer como jefe que a un hombre.
mujeres.
8. Las mujeres son tan capaces de pensar de manera lógica como los hombres.
10. Cuando ambos padres trabajan y su hijo/a enferma en el colegio, el colegio debería
12. Es facil de entender por qué las agrupaciones feministas están todavía preocupadas
13. En los últimos años, el gobierno y la prensa han mostrado más preocupación sobre
el trato a las mujeres de lo que se justifica por las experiencias reales de las mujeres.
235
7. Discusión general: principales hallazgos, limitaciones y
conclusiones
Discusión General: Principales Hallazgos, Limitaciones y Líneas Futuras
expuestos. Cabe abordar los mismos atendiendo a los apartados que a continuación se
detallan:
actuales
La revisión de las páginas web más visitadas que ofrecían una definición
conocimiento aún muy reducido sobre la materia. Por un lado, eran nociones sin
conexión con los avances académicos o científicos y, por otro, tampoco albergaban el
avances en los discursos teóricos feministas y, por otro, los logros alcanzados por los
de género en la sociedad.
Por otro lado, la totalidad de los estudios más citados con el término “identidad
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separado los resultados obtenidos por chicos y chicas en cada caso, sin quedar
registrado su origen racial salvo en un caso (Egan y Perry, 2001), aunque este último
dato no se tuvo en cuenta para los análisis. En ningún trabajo se recogieron muestras
género con otras categorías sociales no se analizó en ningún caso. Solo en un estudio
apostando el resto por el empleo una única aproximación metodológica para su estudio.
las metodologías utilizadas y las características de las muestras reflejan una clara
limitación en los objetivos planteados y en las conclusiones que cabe alcanzar a partir
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Discusión General: Principales Hallazgos, Limitaciones y Líneas Futuras
Fruto del estudio segundo “Round Gender Identity: Invariance Across Gender of
the Spanish Version of the Hoffman Gender Scale”, se pone a disposición la versión
española de la Hoffman Gender Scale. Se trata de una nueva medida que introduce un
desarrollo teórico del género (Ahsmore, 1990; Constantinople, 1973; Deaux y Major,
1987; Lewin, 1984; Lewin y Wild, 1991; Marsh y Myers, 1986; McCreary, 1990;
Morawski, 1987; Spence, 1984a, 1984b, 1985, 1991, 1993, 1999), Hoffman tiene el
mérito de haber propuesto un nuevo concepto conciso y con un marco teórico sólido
omega para ambos sexos. Los análisis factoriales exploratorios revelaron la existencia
de dos factores, de forma consonante a la estructura original, que explicaban más del
pesos factoriales para todos los ítems en la escala a la que se asignaban originalmente.
Ello, a excepción del ítem 4 (“La percepción que tengo de mi misma/o está relacionada
escala de “Aceptación del propio género” aún cuando pertenece teóricamente a la escala.
Analizando el contenido del propio ítem en su versión española, consideramos que este
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Evaluación Psicológica del Género: Una Aproximación Crítica Feminista
como una aceptación positiva, aun cuando en su redacción original en inglés (“My
perception of myself is positively associated with my biological sex”) hace mención más
bien a una “correlación positiva” entre el sexo biológico y la propia percepción de uno/a
mismo. Esto podría explicar que en este estudio hayamos encontrado que este ítem
Masculine Gender Role in Spanish College Men and Women” es el primer trabajo en
analizar las propiedades psicométricas de la Gender Role Conflict Scale – Short Form
estabilidad del constructo en las experiencias de los hombres en España y añadieron una
nueva línea de investigación que refiere la importancia de analizar también los roles
malestar que pueda producir su adopción en las diferentes áreas de su vida. Se observó
una alta consistencia interna en las puntuaciones al instrumento en ambos sexos y los
La versión breve del instrumento en español había demostrado ser fiable y válida
2012; Zangh et al., 2014). Nuestros hallazgos suman apoyo a la universalidad del
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Discusión General: Principales Hallazgos, Limitaciones y Líneas Futuras
extender y replicar estos hallazgos en otras muestras de mujeres con otras características
rasgos que, si bien están asociados al rol de género masculino tradicional, resultan
distintos grados de intensidad según el área específica del que se trate. La versión
motivación de logro, y también las dificultades en la conciliación del trabajo con las
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evaluación
tres instrumentos que evalúan, desde diferentes perspectivas, las actitudes sexistas e
Baber y Tucker, 2006), Modern Sexism scale (MS) y Old-fashioned Sexism scale (OFS;
empírico para la estructura bifactorial original del SRQ en ambos sexos (Baber &
buenos indicadores de ajuste para la solución factorial por separado de MS pero sí para
la escala OFS en el grupo de mujeres. Dada la alta correlación entre las escalas en
ambos sexos, se examinó el ajuste de un modelo bifactorial con el conjunto de los ítems
propuesta de los autores originales (Swim et al, 1995; Swim y Cohen, 1997).
menores de .70 en ambos sexos, lo cual pudo deberse a que la totalidad de sus ítems son
inversos. Destacó el ítem 1 (“Las personas pueden ser tanto agresivas como cariñosas
con independencia de su sexo”) que tiene una correlación item-total por debajo de .30
para hombres y mujeres. El contenido del mismo hace referencia a la conducta violenta,
a diferencia del resto, por lo que quizá este item tiene relación con un tema muy
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Discusión General: Principales Hallazgos, Limitaciones y Líneas Futuras
relación con las diferencias de género en las relaciones de pareja (Corral y Calvete,
Cronbach por debajo de .50 en ambos sexos. De nuevo, en este caso 3 de los 5 ítems
que la componen son inversos y la mayoría de los mismos muestran una baja
correlación con el conjunto (< .30). El ítem 2 (“Estaría igualmente cómodo/a teniendo a
una mujer como jefe que a un hombre”) mostró la correlación item-total más baja, en el
grupo de mujeres. Esto pudo deberse a que este prejuicio aún no se haya superado de
igual manera que el resto de actitudes old-fashioned recogidas por el instrumento (p.ej.,
a esto, varios estudios han encontrado que las mujeres líderes suelen recibir peores
los roles de género, como estos tres instrumentos. En ninguno de ellos se distingue la
Martin y Faber, 2011). Se trata de contenidos claramente diferentes sobre los que no se
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redacción de los ítems. En este sentido, consideramos necesario discutir si no sería más
áreas temáticas en las que se manifiesten las actitudes sexistas, como el ámbito laboral,
rasgos y habilidades personales que se atribuyen a cada sexo. En este sentido, en nuestra
sociedad hay actitudes que se han superado gracias a los logros políticos y sociales en
los últimos años (ej., la ley de Igualdad de Género o ley del Matrimonio entre personas
del mismo sexo), pero hay otras áreas en las que aún se manifiestan y justifican graves
inferior.
7.3. Las diferencias encontradas entre hombres y mujeres en los estudios empíricos
análisis clave para atender de una manera sensible a las diferencias entre hombres y
utilizadas en cada estudio (Byrne, Shavelson y Muthén, 1989). En todos los casos
estadístico EQS 6.1. para evaluar la invarianza factorial en las muestras. La medición de
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Discusión General: Principales Hallazgos, Limitaciones y Líneas Futuras
serie de pasos consecutivos cada vez más exigentes (Byrne, 2008), a saber: (1)
resulta el menos restrictivo, tan solo evalúa si la configuración de los parámetros libres
o fijos es la misma en ambos grupos sin ningún tipo de constricción, (3) Modelo 2:
latentes, incluyendo los pesos factoriales, (4) Modelo 3: se centra en las variables no
observables y las relaciones con los factores (covarianzas), (5) Modelo 4: invarianza de
diferencia entre las medias latentes en ambos grupos. Para la comparación de los
invarianza; (2) Cambios en el CFI, siendo éste un criterio menos vulnerable al tamaño
muestral con falta de normalidad (Cheung, 2008; Cheung y Rensvold, 2002). En este
de las t de Student para determinar las diferencias estadísticas y las d de Cohen para
A. Las mujeres mostraron mayores niveles de aceptación y definición del propio género
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Evaluación Psicológica del Género: Una Aproximación Crítica Feminista
de género subyacente relativa a cada grupo, esto es, que la cultura de la masculinidad y
medida se dispone de una definición robusta de propio género o una aceptación firme
del mismo (Lewin, 1984; Hoffman et al., 2000). No obstante, en este caso, los
invarianza, dado que ΔS-B χ2 indicaba falta de equivalencia, mientras que la diferencia
del CFI no lo hacía. De esta manera se consideró oportuno continuar con la evaluación
lo que se puede interpretar como una evidencia de que la cultura de género femenina
hace que las mujeres definan su identidad de género con mayor precisión y firmeza y,
por lo tanto, éstas se sientan más cómodas con dicha construcción identitaria que los
varones con la suya propia. Esto puede estar relacionado con la consideración de que la
establecidas a través del uso del lenguaje y la manera en la que el sujeto femenino está
asunción de los roles preestablecidos para cada género (Butler, 1990) y el uso simbólico
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Discusión General: Principales Hallazgos, Limitaciones y Líneas Futuras
informan de conflictos derivados de este rol en igual o mayor medida que los hombres
la estructura factorial resultó equivalente entre hombres y mujeres (Modelo 1) y que los
destacaron los ítems 10 (“La necesidad de trabajar o estudiar me impide estar con mi
importancia y valía personal”) que no resultaron equivalentes entre ambos grupos. Las
diferencias encontradas con respecto al ítem 10 podrían estar relacionadas con el hecho
de que en España, las mujeres ocupan el doble de tiempo de media que los hombres en
el cuidado de la familia (Instituto de la Mujer, 2016). Con respecto al éxito, resulta muy
interesante que el grupo de mujeres mostrara un mayor peso factorial, dado que el éxito
el rol de género masculino tradicional (O’Neil, 2013; O’Neil et al., 1986). En este
sentido, cabe pensar que el concepto de “éxito” no se entiende de la misma manera por
exclusiva, o ser entendido de una manera más global que incluya otros aspectos de la
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que los varones heterosexuales mostraron puntuaciones más altas en esta escala en
comparación con otras muestra de varones gays y mujeres lesbianas. Por otro lado, las
encontrar tiempo para relajarme”). Ésta era una de nuestras hipótesis de partida al
considerar que ésta es una de las áreas donde reside una mayor desigualdad de género
en el contexto español. No sólo las mujeres dedican más tiempo al cuidado de la familia
que los hombres, sino que, además, las mujeres dedican un número similar de horas al
trabajo remunerado fuera del hogar (Instituto de la Mujer, 2016). Además de esto, las
número de horas dedicadas en el mismo puesto de trabajo que sus compañeros varones:
podemos concluir que las mujeres disponen de un rol atribuido tradicionalmente a los
hombres y que informan de un conflicto y malestar similar, o incluso mayor, que sus
“Las tareas domésticas no deberían asignarse por sexos”; 13: “En muchos trabajos
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Discusión General: Principales Hallazgos, Limitaciones y Líneas Futuras
importantes es mejor contratar a hombres que a mujeres”). Una vez liberados ambos
medias, siendo superior la obtenida por los hombres en ambos casos. El contenido de
los ítems hace mención a dos temas muy significativos en relación a evolución de los
roles de género en España, que ya hemos comentado: Por un lado, las tareas domésticas
siguen estando repartidas de manera muy desigual en nuestra sociedad, siendo las
mujeres las que se ocupan de estas tareas, casi en solitario, de manera mayoritaria, aún a
otro lado, la evaluación desigual que reciben los líderes hombres y mujeres en cargos
2003). En definitiva, se trata de dos prejuicios sexistas que aún no están superados de
Para las versiones españolas del SRQ, MS y OFS, no se obtuvo suficiente apoyo
para la invarianza al nivel de los interceptos, siendo varios los factores que pudieron
tendencia a mostrar un apoyo mayor por aquellos valores que se consideran un defecto
sentido cabe preguntarse si el marco cultural español justifica las diferencias de género
mantienen aún dichas actitudes de igual manera por hombres y mujeres en nuestra
sociedad. Son varios los trabajos que han señalado que en el contexto español se
justifican y mantienen actitudes sexistas que denigran y sitúan en una posición de clara
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desigualdad a las mujeres. Uno de los ejemplos más claros es el acceso al mercado
laboral tan desigual, encontrándose hoy día disciplinas totalmente polarizadas en cuanto
a la distribución del sexo (en el sector Construcción solo ocupan a un 7.6% de mujeres y
salarios (las mujeres con contratos indefinidos cobran un 25.66% menos que los
Instituto de la Mujer, 2016). Todo ello nos lleva a la conclusión de que en nuestro país
libertades que son asignadas a las personas por razón del sexo (García-Dauder, 2005).
psicológica.
estudios. En los estudios segundo y tercero se han utilizado otras medidas de malestar
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original en inglés. Por un lado, sería muy relevante examinar la relación que hay entre la
como son las actitudes sexistas e igualitarias. En relación al conflicto de rol de género,
tradicionalmente asociadas a las mujeres. Esto podría ampliar el paradigma del rol de
producidos por los diferentes roles de género tradicional que hoy día cada vez son más
compartidos y diversificados.
Por último, una limitación esencial inherente a los tres estudios empíricos resulta
asimila el sexo al género, esto es, el sujeto varón lo tomamos como masculino, y
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Evaluación Psicológica del Género: Una Aproximación Crítica Feminista
femenino como rasgos esenciales, y por otro, a enmascarar las desigualdades. Además
al sexo de cada sujeto, por lo que finalmente se olvidan las trayectorias diversas y
sexo/género/deseo.
Ciencias Sociales de los avances en las teorías e investigación sobre género (Anderson,
2005), obviando de esta manera que estamos inmersos en un sistema que se basa en el
mantenimiento de las jerarquías de género (Butler, 1990; Biglia, 2011). De esta forma,
2004) desde una consideración dicotómica del género como rasgo individual que
antinómica de los géneros y de las relaciones generizadas (Butler, 1990, 2004). Fruto de
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como un proceso en constante devenir, que como una tarea que debe ser completada y
los procesos identitarios (Ricoeur, 2000; Riessman, 2008). Las narrativas personales se
componen de experiencias que, de una manera coherente e integrada, dan sentido a los
eventos vitales (Bruner, 1991) y dan unidad y significado a la propia trayectoria vital
(Cohler, 1982; McAdams, 1997, 1999, 2001). Las narrativas personales no pueden
individuos construyen sus propias vidas, dan significado a sus propias trayectorias
estudio del género, es que permite analizar el imaginario cultural, histórico y social en
el que está inmerso el sujeto, así como su propia perspectiva personal que da sentido al
propio discurso, aunando de esta manera un análisis crítico del discurso en su dimensión
narrativa puede ofrecer un medio para desafiar los discursos dominantes sobre el sexo,
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una confrontación en la práctica cotidiana, donde está inmerso el propio lenguaje, dando
sentido así al posicionamiento clave para el feminismo que enunció Kate Millet “lo
En este sentido, González y Pérez-Sedeño (2002) resume los dos proyectos que
(Harding, 2004, pág. 7). De esta forma, “si todo conocimiento necesariamente está
256
Discusión General: Principales Hallazgos, Limitaciones y Líneas Futuras
clara línea con los planteamientos realizados por Barbara Biglia y Jordi Bonet-Martí
difractiva en investigación no produce una imagen objetiva del proceso, sino diferentes
narrativas subjetivas, parciales y situadas, que pueden ser objeto de múltiples lecturas.
con otras desigualdades (Platero, 2014). En esta línea, surge la teoría queer
Sedgwick, 1998; Turner, 2000; Butler, 2004). La teoría queer plantea una
257
Evaluación Psicológica del Género: Una Aproximación Crítica Feminista
examinar críticamente las categorías analíticas con las que interrogamos los
258
Discusión General: Principales Hallazgos, Limitaciones y Líneas Futuras
discurso como “un conjunto de acciones del habla que se producen dentro
Crítico del Discurso no tiene carácter feminista de por sí, sino que se trata
existente para aplicarla con una mirada crítica sobre las relaciones
consideraciones básicas que deberían componer las líneas de investigación futura que
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