Makalah MRI-1
Makalah MRI-1
Makalah MRI-1
Diajukan dalam Rangka Memenuhi Tugas Mata Kuliah Teknik MRI Dasar
Dosen Pengampu : Yusuf Iskandar,S.ST
Disusun Oleh :
Kelompok 3/TRO 12 B
ALIVIA ELENA PUTRI TRO/12/00826
ASTRI PARAMITA TRO/12/00830
DODY YUDHIANA TRO/12/00835
FIRMAN RISWANTO TRO/12/00839
IMAN ISMAIL JANUAR TRO/12/00843
PUTRA TRI HASAN TRO/12/00849
RITA CITRA TRO/12/00853
SRIE IMAS B TRO/12/00857
YOSSI ARFAH TRO/12/00862
Puji syukur kehadirat Allah SWT atas segala rahmat dan hidayahnya
sehingga kami dapat menyelesaikan makalah yang berjudul “Prinsip Dasar MRI”
dengan tujuan memenuhi tugas mata kuliah Teknik MRI Dasar semester 5 serta
meningkatkan pemahaman kami maupun pembaca mengenai Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (MRI).
Kami juga berharap semoga laporan yang dibuat ini dapat bermanfaat bagi
para pembaca baik di masa sekarang maupun dimasa yang akan datang.
Tentunya, kami menyadari bahwa pembuatan makalah ini belumlah
sempurna karena itu penulis mohon maaf bila masih banyak kekurangan dalam
penulisan dan mengharapkan kritik dan saran dari pembaca untuk perbaikan
makalah selanjutnya.
Akhir kata, semoga segala daya dan upaya, bimbingan dan pengorbanan
yang telah diberikan Bapak akan mendapat balasan yang setimpal dari Tuhan
Yang Maha Esa. Atas perhatian pembaca, penulis ucapkan terimakasih.
Tim Penyusun
DAFTAR ISI
BAB I PENDAHULUAN
BAB II PEMBAHASAN
PENDAHULUAN
1.3 Tujuan
a. Mengetahui dan mempelajari apa itu MRI
b. Mengetahui dan mempelajari prinsip dasar MRI
BAB II
ISI
Jika kita berpikir dalam hal vektor, vektor B dan E saling tegak
lurus, dan faktor propagasi C tegak lurus terhadap keduanya ( Gbr.
2-2 ). Komponen listrik dan magnetik keduanya memiliki frekuensi
yang sama ω. Jadi yang kita dapatkan adalah vektor yang berputar
(berosilasi) di sekitar titik pada frekuensi sudut ω. Ingat, frekuensi
sudut ω terkait dengan frekuensi linier f : ω = 2π f
Kami tertarik pada komponen medan magnet — komponen medan
listrik tidak diinginkan karena menghasilkan panas.
Gambar 2-2. Representasi vektor B , E , dan C.
Tabel 2-2
Panjang
Frekuensi Energi gelombang
Cahaya tampak
(ungu) 7,5 × 10 14 Hz 3.1 eV 400 nm
Cahaya tampak
(merah) 4.3 × 10 14 Hz 1,8 eV 700 nm
Hal lain yang kita ketahui dari teori kuantum adalah bahwa inti
atom masing-masing memiliki tingkat energi spesifik yang berkaitan
dengan sifat yang disebut spin quantum number S. Misalnya, inti
hydrogen (satu proton tunggal) memiliki jumlah kuantum spin S dari
1/2: S ( 1 H) = 1/2
Jumlah keadaan energi inti ditentukan oleh rumus:
Jumlah status energi = 2 S + 1
Untuk proton dengan putaran S = 1/2, kita punya
Jumlah status energi = 2 (1/2) + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2 Oleh karena itu,
proton hidrogen memiliki dua status energi yang dinyatakan sebagai -
1/2 dan + 1/2. Ini berarti bahwa proton hidrogen berputar pada porosnya
dan menciptakan medan magnet. Beberapa proton hidrogen berputar
dengan cara yang berlawanan dan memiliki medan magnet di arah yang
berlawanan. Representasi bergambar arah putaran proton pada Gambar
2-6 mewakili dua keadaan energi proton hidrogen. Masing-masing arah
putaran ini memiliki tingkat energi yang berbeda.
Tabel 2-4
1
H ½ 42.6
19
F ½ 40.0
23
Na 3/2 11.3
13
C ½ 10.7
17
O 5/2 5.8
https://radiologykey.com/basic-principles-of-mri/
Table 2-1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum Illustrating the Windows for Radio
waves, Microwaves, Visible Light, and X-Rays
103 (1
Ultraviolet 1017 keV) 10-9 (1 nm )
Electromagnetic Waves
To understand MRI, we first need to understand what an electromagnetic wave
is. Table 2-1 demonstrates the characteristics of a variety of electromagnetic
waves, including X-ray, visible light, microwaves, and radio waves. All
electromagnetic waves have certain fundamental properties in common:
They all travel at the speed of light c = 3 × 108 m/sec in a vacuum.
By Maxwell’s wave theory, they all have two components—an electric
field E and a magnetic field B—that are perpendicular to each other (Fig. 2-1).
We will designate the sinusoidal wave, which is drawn in the plane of the paper,
the electrical field E. Perpendicular to it is another sinusoidal wave, the
magnetic field B. They are perpendicular to each other and both are traveling at
the speed of light (c). The electric and magnetic fields have the same frequency
and are 90° out of phase with each other. (This is because the change in the
electric field generates the magnetic field, and the change in the magnetic field
generates the electric field. For this reason, electromagnetic waves are self-
propagating once started and continue out to infinity.)
Figure 2-1. Two components of an electromagnetic wave, the electric
component E and the magnetic component B. These two components are
perpendicular to each other, are 90° out of phase, and travel at the speed of light
(c).
Wave
Frequency Energy Length
1.7-3.6 ×
X-ray 1018 Hz 30-150 keV 80-400 pm
Visible light
(violet) 7.5 × 1014 Hz 3.1 eV 400 nm
20-200
MRI 3-100 MHz MeV 3-100 m
Table 2-3
This is why the electromagnetic pulse used in MRI to get a signal is called
an RF pulse—it is in the RF range. It belongs to the RF window of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
Spins and Electromagnetic Field
One of the pioneers of NMR theory was Felix Bloch of Stanford University, who
won the Nobel Prize in 1946 for his theories. He theorized that any spinning
charged particle (like the hydrogen nucleus) creates an electromagnetic
field (Fig. 2-3). The magnetic component of this field causes certain nuclei to act
like a bar magnet, that is, a magnetic field emanating from the south pole to the
north pole (Fig. 2-4). In MRI, we are interested in charged nuclei, like
the hydrogen nucleus, which is a single, positively charged proton (Fig. 2-5).
Figure 2-4. A bar magnet with its associated magnetic field.
The other thing that we know from quantum theory is that atomic nuclei each
have specific energy levels related to a property called spin quantum number
S. For example, the hydrogen nucleus (a single proton) has a spin quantum
number S of 1/2:
S (1H) = 1/2
The number of energy states of a nucleus is determined by the formula:
Number of energy states = 2S + 1
For a proton with a spin S = 1/2, we have
Number of energy states = 2 (1/2) + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2 Therefore, a hydrogen proton
has two energy states denoted as − 1/2 and + 1/2. This means that the hydrogen
protons are spinning about their axis and creating a magnetic field. Some
hydrogen protons spin the opposite way and have a magnetic field in just the
opposite direction. The pictorial representation of the direction of proton spins
in Figure 2-6 represents the two energy states of the hydrogen proton. Each one of
these directions of spin has a different energy state.
Figure 2-6. The direction of the generated magnetic field depends on the direction
of rotation of the spinning protons.
Other nuclei have different numbers of energy states. For example, 13Na has a
spin S = 3/2
Number of energy states of 13Na = 2 (3/2) + 1 = 4
The four energy states of 13Na are denoted as (−3/2, −1/2, 1/2, 3/2).
The important fact about all this is that in the hydrogen proton, we have one
proton with two energy states that are aligned in opposite directions, one pointing
north (parallel), and the other pointing south (antiparallel). (If there were
an even number of protons in the nucleus, then every proton would be paired: for
every proton spin with magnetic field pointing up, we’d have a paired proton spin
with magnetic field pointing down (Fig. 2-7). The magnetic fields of these paired
protons would then cancel each other out, and the net magnetic field would be
zero.) When there are an odd number of protons, then there always exists one
proton that is unpaired. That proton is pointing either north or south and gives a
net magnetic field (Fig. 2-8) or a magnetic dipole moment (MDM) to the
nucleus. Actually, an MDM is found in any nucleus with an odd number of
protons, neutrons, or both. Dipole-dipole interactions refer to interactions
between two protons or between a proton and an electron.
Figure 2-7. The magnetic fields of paired protons (rotating in opposite directions)
cancel each other out, leaving no net magnetic field.
The nuclei of certain elements, such as hydrogen (1H) and fluorine (19F), have
these properties (Table 2-4). Every one of these nuclei with an odd number of
protons or neutrons can be used for imaging in MR. However, there is a reason
why we stay with hydrogen. We use hydrogen for imaging because of
its abundance. Approximately 60% of the body is water. We find hydrogen
protons (1H), for example, in water (H2O) and fat (—CH2—). Later on we’ll find
out how we use the spin of the hydrogen proton and avoid the spins of all the
other nuclei with odd numbers of protons.
Figure 2-8. Unpaired protons yield a net magnetic field.
Table 2-4
1
H 1/2 42.6
19
F 1/2 40.0
23
Na 3/2 11.3
13
C 1/2 10.7
17
O 5/2 5.8
Magnetic Susceptibility
All substances get magnetized to a degree when placed in a magnetic field.
However, the degree of magnetization varies. The magnetic susceptibility of a
substance (denoted by the Greek symbol χ) is a measure of how magnetized they
get. In other words, χ is the measure of magnetizability of a substance.
To develop a mathematical relationship between the applied and induced
magnetic fields, we first need to address the confusing issue regarding the
differences between the two symbols encountered when dealing with magnetic
fields: B and H. We caution the reader that the following discussion is merely a
simplification; an advanced physics textbook will have details on the theory of
electromagnetism. The field B is referred to as the magnetic induction
field or magnetic flux density, which is the net magnetic field effect caused by
an external magnetic field. The field H is referred to as the magnetic field
intensity. These two magnetic fields are related by the following:
B = µH or µ = B/H
where µ represents the magnetic permeability, which is the ability of a substance
to concentrate magnetic fields. The magnetic susceptibility χ is defined as the
ratio of the induced magnetic field (M) to the applied magnetic field H:
M = χH or χ = M/H
Furthermore, χ and µ are related by the following:
µ=1+χ
making sure that the units used are consistent.
Three types of substances—each with a different magnetic susceptibility—are
commonly dealt with in MRI: paramagnetic, diamagnetic, and ferromagnetic.
These are described below.
Paramagnetism, Diamagnetism, and Ferromagnetism.
Diamagnetic substances have no unpaired orbital electrons. When such a
substance is placed in an external magnetic field B0, a weak magnetic field (M)
is induced in the opposite direction to B0. As a result, the effective magnetic
field is reduced. Thus, diamagnetic substances have a small, negative magnetic
susceptibility χ (i.e., χ < 0 and µ < 1). They are basically nonmagnetic. The vast
majority of tissues in the body have this property. An example of diamagnetic
effect is the distortion that occurs at an air-tissue interface (such as around
paranasal sinuses).
Paramagnetic substances have unpaired orbital electrons. They become
magnetized while the external magnetic field B0 is on and become
demagnetized once the field has been turned off. Their induced magnetic field
(M) is in the same direction as the external magnetic field. Consequently, their
presence causes an increase in the effective magnetic field. They, therefore,
have a small positive χ (i.e., χ > 0 and µ > 1) and are weakly attracted by the
external magnetic field. In such substances, dipole-dipole (i.e., proton-proton
and proton-electron) interactions cause T1 shortening (bright signal on T1-
weighted images). The element in the periodic table with the greatest number of
unpaired electrons is the rare earth element gadolinium (Gd) with seven
unpaired electrons, which is a strong paramagnetic substance. Gd is a member
of the lanthanide group in the periodic table. The rare earth
element dysprosium (Dy) is another strong paramagnetic substance that
belongs to this group. Certain breakdown products of hemoglobin are
paramagnetic: deoxyhemoglobin has four unpaired electrons, and
methemoglobin has five. Hemosiderin, the end stage of hemorrhage, contains,
in comparison, more than 10,000 unpaired electrons. Hemosiderin belongs to a
group of substances referred to as superparamagnetic, which have magnetic
susceptibilities 100 to 1000 times stronger than paramagnetic substances.