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Pertempuran Khalkhin Gol

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Pertempuran Khalkhin Gol
(Pertempuran Nomonhan)
Sebahagian daripada Perang sempadan Soviet–Jepun

Pasukan Jepun berhampiran kenderaan perisai Tentera Merah yang hancur, Julai 1939
Tarikh11 Mei – 15 September 1939
Lokasi
Sungai Khalkha, Republik Rakyat Mongol
Keputusan

Kemenangan Soviet dan Mongolia

  • Serangan Jepun dipatahkan
  • Perjanjian gencatan senjata ditandatangani
Perubahan
wilayah		 Status quo ante; penguatkuasaan tuntutan sempadan sesuai dengan tafsiran Soviet dan Mongolia
Pihak yang terlibat
 Kesatuan Soviet
Mongolia Republik Rakyat Mongolia		  Empayar Jepun
 Manchukuo
Komandan dan pemimpin
Kesatuan Soviet Grigoriy Shtern
Kesatuan Soviet Georgy Zhukov
Kesatuan Soviet Yakov Smushkevich
Mongolia Khorloogiin Choibalsan		 Empayar Jepun Michitarō Komatsubara
Empayar Jepun Yasuoka Masaomi
Empayar Jepun Kōtoku Satō
Kekuatan

61,860–73,961[nb 1]
498–550 kereta kebal
385–450 Kereta berperisai[4][5]
900+ Pasawat tempur(berpasukan)

  • Kekuatan puncak: 580[6]
500[7]–634[2] Pasukan artilleri
4,000 lori[8]
1,921 kuda dan unta (hanya Mongolia)[9]

30,000[10][11]–38,000[12]
73 kereta kebal[5]
64 kereta berperisai
400+ pesawat tempur (berpasukan)

  • Kekuatan puncak: 200[6]
~300 pasukan artilleri[2]
1,000 lori[13]
2,708 kuda[14]
Kerugian dan korban
Kekuatan:
Kesatuan Soviet 27,880[nb 2]
Mongolia 556[16]-990[2]
Peralatan:
208 pesawat tempur[17]
253 kereta kebal musnah[18]
133 kereta berperisai musnah
96 mortars and artillery
49 traktor dan penggerak utama
652 lori dan motor lain utama[15][16]
haiwan kasualiti[19]		 Kekuatan:
Empayar Jepun 17,000–20,000
Manchukuo 2,895[nb 3]
Peralatan:
162 pesawat tempur[17]
42 kereta kebal musnah dan rosak[5]
Kebanyakan kereta kebal musnah
72 artilleri (hanya senjata padang)[21]
2,330 kuda dibunuh, cedera, atau sakit[14]
motor kenderaan hilang dan rosak[22]

Koordinat: 47°43′49″N 118°35′24″E / 47.73028°N 118.59000°E / 47.73028; 118.59000Pertempuran Khalkhin Gol merupakan pertempuran penentu dalam konflik sempadan Soviet-Jepun yang tidak diistiharkan, yang bertempur antara antara Kesatuan Soviet , Mongolia dan Empayar Jepun pada tahun 1939. Konflik ini telah dinamakan sempena sungai Khalkhyn Gol, yang melalui medan perang. Di Jepun, pertempuran penentu konflik ini dikenali sebagai Peristiwa Nomonhan (ノモンハン事件, Nomonhan jiken) sempena kampung berdekatan di sempadan antara Mongolia dan Manchuria. Pertempuran berakhir dengan kekalahan Tentera Keenam Jepun.

Latar belakang

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Selepas pendudukan Jepun di Manchuria pada tahun 1931, Jepun menukar kepentingan tentera pada wilayah Soviet yang bersempadan kawasan tersebut. Kejadian pertama utama sempadan Soviet-Jepun, Pertempuran Lake Khasan, berlaku pada tahun 1938 di Primorye. Pertempuran antara tentera Jepun dan Soviet sering berlaku di sepanjang sempadan Manchuria.

Pada tahun 1939, Manchuria merupakan negara boneka Jepun yang dikenali sebagai Manchukuo dan Mongolia adalah negara komunis bersekutu dengan Kesatuan Soviet, yang dikenali sebagai Republik Rakyat Mongolia. Jepun menegaskan bahawa sempadan antara Manchukuo dan Mongolia adalah Khalkhyn Gol (Inggeris "Sungai Khalkha") yang mengalir ke Tasik Buir. Sebaliknya, Mongolia dan sekutu Soviet mereka menegaskan bahawa sempadan terletak kira-kira 16 kilometer (9.9 batu) timur sungai, di timur kampung Nomonhan.[23]

Tentera penguasa utama Manchukuo adalah Tentera Kwantung Jepun, yang terdiri daripada beberapa unit terbaik Jepun pada tahun 1939. Walau bagaimanapun, rantau barat Manchukuo telah dikawal oleh Bahagian Infantri ke-23 yang agak baru ditubuhkan di daerah Hailar di bawah Jeneral Komatsubara dan termasuk beberapa tentera Manchukuoan dan unit pengawal sempadan yang kesemuanya di bawah arahan langsung Tentera Keenam Jepun.

Pasukan Soviet terdiri daripada Kor Khas ke-57, yang dikerahkan dari Daerah Tentera Trans-Baikal. Yakni untuk mempertahankan sempadan antara Siberia dan Manchuria. tentera Mongolia terutamanya terdiri daripada pasukan briged berkuda dan unit meriam ringan, dan terbukti berkesan dan tangkas, tetapi tidak memiliki kendaraan berperisai dan tenaga manusia dalam jumlah yang mencukupi.

Pada tahun 1939, Kabinet Jepun menghantar arahan kepada Tentera Kwantung untuk menguatkan dan mengukuhkan sempadan Manchukuo dengan Mongolia dan Kesatuan Soviet. Selain itu, Tentera Kwantung, yang telah lama telah ditempatkan di Manchuria jauh dari pulau utama Jepun, telah menjadi sebahagian besarnya autonomi dan cenderung untuk bertindak tanpa kelulusan, atau bertentangan dengan kerajaan Jepun.[24]

Pertempuran

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Mei: Pertempuran kecil

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Pasukan berkuda Mongolia dalam Khalkhin Gol (1939)
Pasukan Mongolian bertempur menentang serang balas Jepun di pantai barat sungai Khalkhin Gol, 1939.
Tentera Jepun menyeberangi Khalkhyn Gol

Kejadian itu bermula pada 11 Mei 1939. Satu unit berkuda Mongolia sekitar 70-90 lelaki telah memasuki kawasan yang menjadi pertikaian dalam mencari padang ragut untuk kuda mereka. Pada hari itu, pasukan berkuda Manchukuoan menyerang unit Mongolia dan memaksa mereka kembali di seberang sungai Khalkhin Gol itu. Pada 13 Mei, tentera Mongolia kembali dalam bilangan yang lebih besar dan Manchukoans tidak mampu mengusir mereka.

Pada 14 Mei, Leftenan Kolonel Yaozo Azuma membawa rejimen peninjau Bahagian Infantri ke-23, yang disokong oleh Infantri Rejimen ke-64 bahagian yang sama, di bawah Kolonel Takemitsu Yamagata, ke dalam wilayah yang dipertikaikan dan pihak Mongolia mengundurkan diri. Tentera Soviet dan Mongolia kembali ke wilayah yang dipertikaikan, bagaimanapun, dan pasukan Azuma lagi bergerak untuk mengusir mereka. Kali ini perkara ternyata berbeza, kerana pasukan Soviet-Mongolia mengepung pasukan Azuma pada 28 Mei dan memusnahkannya.[25] Pasukan Azuma mengalami lapan pegawai dan 97 lelaki terbunuh dan seorang pegawai dan 33 orang cedera, bagi jumlah korban 63%.

Komander tentera Soviet dan Perbatasan Timur Jauh adalah Komandarm Grigori Shtern sejak Mei 1938. [12]

Jun: Peningkatan

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Kedua-dua pihak mula membesarkan tentera mereka di kawasan ini: tidak lama lagi, Jepun mempunyai 30,000 orang di medan. Pihak Soviet menghantar komander kor yang baru, Comcor Georgy Zhukov, yang tiba pada 5 Jun dan membawa lebih banyak pasukan bermotor dan perisai (Kumpulan Tentera I) ke zon pertempuran. [26] Mengiringi Zhukov adalah Comcor Yakov Smushkevich dengan unit penerbangan beliau. J. Lkhagvasuren, Kor komisar Tentera Revolusi Rakyat Mongolia, telah dilantik sebagai timbalan Zhukov.

On 27 June, the Japanese Army Air Force's 2nd Air Brigade struck the Soviet air base at Tamsak-Bulak in Mongolia. The Japanese won this engagement, but the strike had been ordered by the Kwantung Army without getting permission from Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) headquarters in Tokyo. In an effort to prevent the incident from escalating,[27] Tokyo promptly ordered the JAAF not to conduct any more air strikes against Soviet airbases.[28]

Destroyed Soviet BA-10 armored car
Destroyed Soviet aircraft

Throughout June, there were reports of Soviet and Mongolian activity on both sides of the river near Nomonhan and small-scale attacks on isolated Manchukoan units. At the end of the month, the commander of the 23rd Japanese Infantry Division, Lt. Gen. Komatsubara, was given permission to "expel the invaders".

July: Japanese assault

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The Japanese plan was for a two-pronged assault. The first attack would be made by three regiments plus part of a fourth: 71st and the 72nd Infantry Regiment (23rd Division), a battalion of the 64th Infantry Regiment and the 26th Infantry Regiment under Colonel Shinichiro Sumi (7th Infantry Division). This force would advance across the Khalkin Gol, destroy Soviet forces on Baintsagan Hill on the west bank, then make a left turn and advance south to the Kawatama Bridge. The second prong of the attack would be the task of the IJA 1st Tank Corps (1st TC) (Yasuoka Detachment), consisting of the 3rd and 4th Tank Regiments, plus a part of the 64th Infantry Regiment, a battalion from the 28th Infantry Regiment, detached from the 7th Infantry, 24th Engineer Regiment, and a battalion from the 13th Field Artillery Regiment, all under the overall command of Lieutenant General Yasuoka Masaomi.[29] This force would attack Soviet troops on the east bank of the Khalkhyn Gol and north of the Holsten River. The two Japanese thrusts were to join together on the wings.

The northern task force succeeded in crossing the Khalkhyn Gol, driving the Soviets from Baintsagan Hill, and advancing south along the west bank. However, Zhukov, perceiving the threat, launched a counterattack with 450 tanks and armored cars. The tanks consisted of primarily BTs with a handful of T-26s, while the armored cars were BA-10s and BA-3/6s, which were similar in armor (6-15mm) and armament (main: 45mm gun 20K mod, secondary: x2 7.62 machine guns) to the Soviet light tanks. The Soviet armored force, despite being unsupported by infantry, attacked the Japanese on three sides and nearly encircled them. The Japanese force, further handicapped by having only one pontoon bridge across the river for supplies, was forced to withdraw, recrossing the river on 5 July. Meanwhile, the 1st Tank Corps of the Yasuoka Detachment (the southern task force) attacked on the night of 2 July, moving in the darkness to avoid the Soviet artillery on the high ground of the river's west bank. A pitched battle ensued in which the Yasuoka Detachment lost over half its armor, but still could not break through the Soviet forces on the east bank and reach the Kawatama Bridge.[32][33] After a Soviet counterattack on 9 July threw the battered, depleted Yasuoka Detachment back, it was dissolved and Yasuoka was relieved.[34] Overall, the Japanese lost 42 tanks in these encounters, primarily to 45mm gunfire, which outranged the Japanese weapons.[35] In return, on July 3 alone the Soviet-Mongolian side lost a total of 77 tanks and 45 armored cars out of a total of 133 and 59 committed to the fight, respectively.[36]

The commander of the 149th Rifle Regiment before offensive
Japanese pilots pictured on a Toyota KC starter truck

The two armies continued to spar with each other over the next two weeks along a 4-kilometer (2.5 bt) front running along the east bank of the Khalkhyn Gol to its junction with the Holsten River.[37] Zhukov, whose army was 748 km (465 bt) away from its base of supply, assembled a fleet of 2,600 trucks to supply his troops, while the Japanese suffered severe supply problems due to a lack of similar motor transport.[28] On 23 July, the Japanese launched another large-scale assault, sending the 64th and 72nd Infantry Regiments against Soviet forces defending the Kawatama Bridge. Japanese artillery supported the attack with a massive barrage that consumed more than half of their ammunition stores over a period of two days.[38] The attack made some progress but failed to break through Soviet lines and reach the bridge. The Japanese disengaged from the attack on 25 July due to mounting casualties and depleted artillery stores. By this point they had suffered over 5,000 casualties between late May and July 25, with Soviet losses being much higher but more easily replaced.[28][39] The battle drifted into a stalemate.

August: Soviet counterattack

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With war apparently imminent in Europe, Zhukov planned a major offensive on 20 August to clear the Japanese from the Khalkhin Gol region and end the fighting.[40] Zhukov, using a fleet of at least 4,000 trucks (IJA officers with hindsight dispute this, saying he instead used 10,000 to 20,000 motor vehicles) transporting supplies from the nearest base in Chita (600 kilometres away)[8] assembled a powerful armored force of three tank brigades (the 4th, 6th and 11th), and two mechanized brigades (the 7th and 8th, which were armored car units with attached infantry support). This force was allocated to the Soviet left and right wings. The entire Soviet force consisted of three rifle divisions, two tank divisions and two more tank brigades (in all, some 498 BT-5 and BT-7 tanks[41]), two motorized infantry divisions, and over 550 fighters and bombers.[42] The Mongolians committed two cavalry divisions.[43][44][45]

In comparison, at the point of contact the Kwantung Army had only General Komatsubara's 23rd Infantry Division, which with various attached forces was equivalent to two light infantry divisions. Its headquarters had been at Hailar, over 150 km (93 bt) from the fighting. Japanese intelligence, despite demonstrating an ability to accurately track the build-up of Zhukov's force, failed to precipitate an appropriate response from below.[46] Thus, when the Soviets finally did launch their offensive, Komatsubara was caught off guard.[46][47] To test the Japanese defences prior to their main assault on the 20th, the Soviets launched three aggressive probing assaults, one on the 3rd and the others on the 7/8th. All three were disastrously thrown back, with around 1,000 combined dead and several tanks knocked out on the Soviet side compared to just 85 Japanese casualties.[48] Moreover, the Japanese counter-attacked and routed elements of the Mongolian 8th Cavalry Division, seizing a hilly sector of the battlefront.[49] Despite the fact that no more major fighting would take place until the 20th, Japanese casualties continued to mount at a rate of 40 wounded per day.[50] Kwantung Army staff officers were becoming increasingly worried over the disorganized state of the 6th Army's headquarters and supply elements. In addition, the growing casualty count meant that the already green 23rd Division would have to take train and assimilate new replacements 'on the job.'[51] By contrast, Tokyo's oft-stated desire that it would not escalate the fighting at Khalkhin-Gol proved immensely relieving to the Soviets, who were free to hand-pick select units from across their entire military to be concentrated for a local offensive without fear of Japanese retaliation elsewhere.[52]

Soviet tanks cross Khalkhyn Gol river

Zhukov decided it was time to break the stalemate.[42] At 05:45 on 20 August 1939, Soviet artillery and 557 aircraft[42] attacked Japanese positions, the first fighter–bomber offensive in Soviet Air Force history.[53] Approximately 50,000 Soviet and Mongolian soldiers of the 57th Special Corps defended the east bank of the Khalkhyn Gol. Three infantry divisions and a tank brigade crossed the river, supported by massed artillery and the Soviet Air Force. Once the Japanese were pinned down by the attack of Soviet center units, Soviet armored units swept around the flanks and attacked the Japanese in the rear, achieving a classic double envelopment. When the Soviet wings linked up at Nomonhan village on 25 August, the Japanese 23rd Infantry Division was trapped.[28][54][55] On 26 August, a Japanese counterattack to relieve the 23rd Division failed. On 27 August, the 23rd Division attempted to break out of the encirclement, but also failed. When the surrounded forces refused to surrender, they were again hit with artillery and air attacks. By 31 August, Japanese forces on the Mongolian side of the border were destroyed, leaving remnants of the 23rd Division on the Manchurian side. The Soviets had achieved their objective.[56]

Captured Japanese soldiers

Komatsubara refused to accept the outcome and prepared a counteroffensive. This was canceled when a cease-fire was signed in Moscow.[meragukan – bincang] While Zhukov defeated the Japanese forces on Soviet territory, Joseph Stalin had made a deal with Nazi Germany.[42] After the Soviet success at Nomonhan, Stalin decided to proceed with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, which was announced on 24 August.

With no further threat of a second front from Japan, Stalin was free to concentrate on war in Europe[57] and the Soviet Union and Japan agreed to a cease-fire on 15 September, which took effect the following day 1:10 pm.[28][58][59] Free from a threat in the Far East, Stalin proceeded with the Soviet invasion of Poland on 17 September.[60]

Aftermath

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Japanese tank Type 95 Ha-Go captured by Soviet troops after battle of Khalkhin Gol
Captured Japanese guns

Japanese records report losses for this battle as 8,440 killed, 8,766 wounded, 162 aircraft lost, and 42 tanks lost (of which 29 were later repaired and redeployed). Roughly 3,000 Manchukuoan and Japanese troops were taken prisoner during the battles. Due to a cultural obsession with never surrendering, the Japanese listed most of these men as killed in action, for the benefit of their families.[61] Some sources put the Japanese casualties at 45,000 or more killed, with Soviet casualties of at least 17,000.[28] However, these estimates for Japanese casualties are considered inaccurate as they exceed the total strength of the Japanese forces involved in the battle (estimated at 28,000–38,000 troops, despite Soviet claims that they were facing 75,000).[62] According to the records of the Bureau 6A hospital, the Japanese casualties amounted to 7,696 killed, 8,647 wounded, 1,021 missing, and 2,350 sick, for a total of 19,714 personnel losses, including 2,895 Manchukuoan casualties. The Kwantung Army headquarters and their records give a slightly different figure of 8,629 killed and 9,087 injured. The Soviets initially claimed to have inflicted 29,085 casualties on the Japanese, but later increased this to 61,000 for the official histories.[2]

The Soviets initially claimed 9,284 total casualties, which was almost certainly reduced for propaganda purposes. In recent years, with the opening of the Soviet archives, a more accurate assessment of Soviet casualties has emerged from the work of Grigoriy Krivosheev, citing 7,974 killed and 15,251 wounded.[63] In the newer, 2001 edition, the Soviet losses are given as 9703 killed and missing (6472 killed and died of wounds during evacuation, 1152 died of wounds in hospitals, 8 died of disease, 2028 missing, 43 non-combat dead), 15,952 wounded and sick, and a further 2225 hospitalizations due to disease, a total of 27,880 casualties.[64] In addition to their personnel losses the Soviets lost a large amount of materiel including 253 tanks, 250 aircraft, 96 artillery pieces, and 133 armored cars. Of the Soviet tank losses, 75-80%% were destroyed by anti-tank guns, 15-20% by field artillery, 5-10% by infantry-thrown incendiary bombs, 2-3% by aircraft, and 2-3% by hand grenades and mines.[16] The large number of Soviet armor casualties are reflected in the manpower losses for Soviet tank crews. A total of 1,559 Soviet "Tank Troops" were killed or wounded during the battles.[65]

Mongolian casualties were 556-990, with at least 11 armored cars destroyed and 1,921 horses/camels lost.[66]

Nomonhan was the first use of airpower on a massive scale in a high intensity battle to obtain a specific military objective.[67] The combatants remained at peace until August 1945, when the Soviet Union declared war on Japan and invaded Manchukuo and other territory after the atomic bombing of Hiroshima.

Nakajima Ki-27b of Kenji Shimada, commander of the 1st Chutai of the 11th Sentai, battle of Khalkhyn Gol June 1939

Air combat

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Soviet aircraft losses[17]

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I-16 fighter I-152 biplane fighter I-153 biplane fighter SB high-speed bomber TB-3 heavy bomber R-5 reconnaissance aircraft Total:
Combat losses 87 60 16 44 0 1 208
Non-Combat losses 22 5 6 8 1 0 42
Total losses 109 65 22 52 1 1 250

Japanese aircraft losses[17]

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Ki-4 reconnaissance aircraft Ki-10 biplane fighter Ki-15 reconnaissance Ki-21 high speed bomber Ki-27 fighter Ki-30 light bomber Ki-36 utility aircraft Fiat BR.20 medium bomber Transport aircraft Total
Aerial combat losses 1 1 7 3 62 11 3 0 0 88
Write-offs due to combat damage 14 0 6 3 34 7 3 1 6 74
Total combat losses 15 1 13 6 96 18 6 1 6 162
Combat damage 7 4 23 1 124 33 6 20 2 220

Aircraft losses summary and notes

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Combat losses include aircraft shot down during aerial combat, written off due to combat damage or destroyed on the ground.

Non-combat losses include aircraft that were lost due to accidents, as well as write-offs of warplanes due to the end of their service life. Thus Soviet combat losses amount to 163 fighters, 44 bombers and a reconnaissance aircraft, with further 385 fighters and 51 bombers requiring repairs due to combat damage. VVS (Soviet Air Forces) personnel losses were 88 killed in aerial combat, 11 killed by anti-aircraft artillery, 65 missing, six killed in air-strikes and four dead of wounds (174 total) and 113 wounded. The Japanese combat losses were 97 fighters, 25 bombers and 41 other (mostly reconnaissance), while 128 fighters, 54 bombers and 38 other required repairs due to combat damage. The Japanese air-force suffered 152 dead and 66 seriously wounded.

Aircraft ordnance expenditures

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USSR: Bomber sorties 2,015, Fighter sorties 18,509; 7.62mm machine gun rounds fired 1,065,323; 20mm cannon rounds expended 57,979; bombs dropped 78,360 (1200 tons).

Japan: Fighter/bomber sorties 10,000 (estimated); 7.7mm machine gun rounds fired 1,600,000; bombs dropped 970 tons.[68]

Summary

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While this engagement is little-known in the West, it played an important part in subsequent Japanese conduct in World War II. The battle earned the Kwantung Army the displeasure of officials in Tokyo, not so much due to its defeat, but because it was initiated and escalated without direct authorization from the Japanese government. This defeat combined with the Chinese resistance in Second Sino-Japanese War,[69] together with the signing of the Nazi-Soviet non-aggression pact (which deprived the Army of the basis of its war policy against the USSR), moved the Imperial General Staff in Tokyo away from the policy of the North Strike Group favored by the Army, which wanted to seize Siberia for its resources as far as Lake Baikal.

North Strike Group plans

Instead, support shifted to the South Strike Group, favored by the Navy, which wanted to seize the resources of Southeast Asia, especially the petroleum and mineral-rich Dutch East Indies. Masanobu Tsuji, the Japanese colonel who had helped instigate the Nomonhan incident, was one of the strongest proponents of the attack on Pearl Harbor. General Ryukichi Tanaka, Chief of the Army Ministry’s Military Service Bureau in 1941, testified after the war that, "the most determined single protagonist in favor of war with the United States was Tsuji Masanobu." Tsuji later wrote that his experience of Soviet fire-power at Nomonhan convinced him not to attack the Soviet Union in 1941.[70] On June 24, 1941, two days after the war on the Eastern Front broke out, the Japanese army and navy leaders adopted a resolution "not intervening in German Soviet war for the time being". In August 1941, Japan and the Soviet Union reaffirmed their neutrality pact.[71] The United States and Britain had imposed an oil embargo on Japan, threatening to stop the Japanese war effort, but the European colonial powers were weakening and suffering early defeats in the war with Germany; only the US Pacific Fleet stood in the way of seizing the oil-rich Dutch East Indies.[70] Because of this, Japan's focus was ultimately directed to the south, leading to its decision to launch the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December of that year. Despite plans being carried out for a potential war against the USSR (particularly contingent on German advances towards Moscow), the Japanese would never launch an offensive against the Soviet Union. In 1941, the two countries signed agreements respecting the borders of Mongolia and Manchukuo[72] and pledging neutrality towards each other.[73] In the closing months of World War II, the Soviet Union would annul the Neutrality Pact and invade the Japanese territories in Manchuria, Korea, and the southern part of Sakhalin island.

Russian President Dmitry Medvedev and Mongolian President Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj standing in front of a statue of Zhukov at a ceremony in Ulaanbaatar in August 2009, commemorating the 70th anniversary of the battle.

Soviet assessment

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The battle was the first victory for the soon-to-be-famous Soviet general Georgy Zhukov, earning him the first of his four Hero of the Soviet Union awards. The two other generals, Grigoriy Shtern and Yakov Smushkevich had important roles and were also awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union. They would, however, both be executed in the 1941 Purges. Zhukov himself was promoted and transferred west to the Kiev district. The battle experience gained by Zhukov was put to good use in December 1941 at the Battle of Moscow. Zhukov was able to use this experience to launch the first successful Soviet counteroffensive against the German invasion of 1941. Many units of the Siberian and other trans-Ural armies were part of this attack, and the decision to move these divisions from Siberia was aided by the Soviet spy Richard Sorge in Tokyo, who was able to alert the Soviet government that the Japanese were looking south and were unlikely to launch another attack against Siberia in the immediate future. A year after defending Moscow against the advancing Germans, Zhukov planned and executed the Red Army's offensive at the Battle of Stalingrad, using a technique very similar to Khalkhin Gol, in which the Soviet forces held the enemy fixed in the center, built up an undetected mass force in the immediate rear area, and launched a pincer attack on the wings to trap the enemy army.

Following the battle, the Soviets generally found the results unsatisfactory, despite their victory. Though the Soviet forces in the Far East in 1939 were not plagued by fundamental issues to the same extent as those in Europe during the 1941 campaigns, their generals were still unimpressed by their army's performance. As noted by Pyotr Grigorenko, the Red Army went in with a very large advantage in technology, numbers, and firepower, yet still suffered huge losses, which he blamed on poor leadership.[12]

Although their victory and the subsequent negotiation of the Soviet-Japanese Neutrality Pact secured the Far East for the duration of the Soviet-German War, the Red Army always remained cautious about the possibility of another, larger Japanese incursion as late as early 1944. In December 1943, when the American military mission proposed a logistics base be set up east of Lake Baikal, the Red Army authorities were according to Coox, "shocked by the idea and literally turned white."[74] Due to this caution, the Red Army kept a large force in the Far East even during the bleakest days of the war in Europe. For example, on July 1, 1942, Soviet forces in the Far East consisted of 1,446,012 troops, 11,759 artillery pieces, 2,589 tanks and self-propelled guns, and 3,178 combat aircraft.[75] Despite this, the Soviet operations chief of the Far Eastern Front, General A. K. Kazakovtsev, was not confident in his army group's ability to stop an invasion if the Japanese committed to it (at least in 1941-1942), commenting: “If the Japanese enter the war on Hitler’s side… our cause is hopeless.”[76]

Japanese assessment and reforms

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The Japanese similarly considered the result not a failing of tactics, but one that simply highlighted a need to address the material disparity between themselves and their neighbours.[77][78] They made several reforms as a result of this battle: Tank production was increased from 500 annually in 1939 to 1,200 [in what year?], a mechanized headquarters was established in early 1941, and the new Type 1 47 mm Anti-Tank Gun was introduced as a response to the Soviet 45mm. These cannons were mounted on Type 97 Chi-Ha tanks, resulting in the Type 97 ShinHoTo Chi-Ha ("New Turret") variant, which became the IJA's standard medium tank by 1942. IGHQ also dispatched General Tomoyuki Yamashita to Nazi Germany in order to learn more about tank tactics following the crushingly one-sided Battle of France and the signing of the Tripartite Pact. He returned with a report where he stressed the need for mechanization and more medium tanks. Accordingly, plans were put underway for the formation of 10 new armoured divisions in the near future.[79]

Despite all of the above, Japanese industry was not powerful enough to keep up with either the United States or the Soviet Union, and Yamashita warned against going to war with them for this reason. His recommendations were not taken to heart, and Japanese militarists eventually successfully pushed for war with the United States. In spite of their recent experience and military improvements, the Japanese would generally continue to underestimate their adversaries, emphasizing the courage and determination of the individual soldier as a way to make up for their lack of numbers and smaller industrial base. To varying degrees, the basic problems that faced them at Khalkhin Gol would haunt them again when the Americans and British recovered from their defeats of late 1941 and early 1942 and turned to the conquest of the Japanese Empire.[28][80]

Also, severe problem with lacking emergency blood staunching was detected. The original Japanese indoctrination explicitly forbade first aid to fellow soldiers without order from officer, and first-aid training was lacking. As result, large proportion of Japanese dead was due to hemorrhage from the untreated wounds. Furthermore, up to 30% of the total casualties were due the dysentery which Japanese believed was delivered by Soviet biological-warfare aerial bombs, as confirmed by laboratory testing. To reduce susceptibility to this form of biological warfare and to wage the biological warfare on their own, future Japanese divisions will commonly include a specialized Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Departments.[81] Finally, the Japanese food rations were found to be less than satisfactory, both in packing and nutritional value.[82]

Legacy

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After the war, at the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, fourteen Japanese were charged by delegates of the conquering Soviet Union, with having "initiated a war of aggression ... against the Mongolian People's Republic in the area of the Khalkhin-Gol River" and also with having waged a war "in violation of international law" against the USSR.[83] Kenji Doihara, Hiranuma Kiichirō, and Seishirō Itagaki were convicted on these charges.

The Mongolian town of Choibalsan, in the Dornod Province where the battle was fought, is the location of the "G.K. Zhukov Museum", dedicated to Zhukov and the 1939 battle.[84] Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia also has a "G.K. Zhukov Museum" with information about the battle.[85]

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The Battles of Khalkhin Gol were depicted in the 2011 South Korean war film My Way. The film was inspired by the true tale of a Korean named Yang Kyoungjong who was captured by the Americans on D-Day. Yang Kyoungjong was conscripted in the Japanese Imperial Army, fought in the Battles of Khalkhin Gol against the Red Army, then was enlisted to the Red Army, fought against the Germans and after being taken prisoner he joined the Wehrmacht.

The Nomonhan Incident casts a shadow over the whole of Haruki Murakami's The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle, although there is little detail about the main battle itself. Two characters who were in the Japanese Army during the war, relate their experiences in the Mongolian border area at a much later date to the hero, which seems to profoundly affect his later adventures.

See also

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Nota

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  1. ^ Kotelnikov p. 109 (2002)
  2. ^ a b c d e Khalkhin Gol Battle: the Revision of Statistics. Retrieved 21 June 2015.
  3. ^ [1] Retrieved 15 Oct. 2015.
  4. ^ "The Chief Culprit", by Viktor Suvorov,
  5. ^ a b c Zaloga, p. 13.
  6. ^ a b V. Kondratiev, "Khalkhin Gol: War in the Air" retrieved 3 Jan. 2016
  7. ^ "The Chief Culprit", by Viktor Suvorov, p.[halaman diperlukan].
  8. ^ a b Coox, p. 580
  9. ^ "The Khalkhin Gol Battle, 1939" Retrieved 3 Jan. 2016
  10. ^ Bellamy and Lahnstein (1990) The New Soviet Defensive Policy: Khalkhin Gol 1939 as Case Study Diarkibkan 2016-12-11 di Wayback Machine p. 24
  11. ^ The cited source here describes Japanese forces after the assault on the Soviets as numbering 28,000 men, and includes Manchukuoan forces. For more information, see the "Aftermath" section.
  12. ^ a b c "Áèîãðàôèÿ Ãðèãîðèé Øòåðí". Dicapai pada 4 Mac 2015.
  13. ^ Coox, p. 563
  14. ^ a b Coox, p. 1168
  15. ^ a b M. Kolomiets "Boi u reki Khalkhin-Gol" Frontovaya Illyustratsia (2002)
  16. ^ a b c Soviet Losses in the Khalkhin Gol Battle. Retrieved 21 July 2015.
  17. ^ a b c d Кондратьев В. Халхин-Гол: Война в воздухе. — М.: Библиотека журнала "Техники – Молодежи". Серия "Авиация", 2002. — 64 с. Тираж 1000 экз.ISBN 5-88573-009-1.
  18. ^ According to "Soviet Losses in the Khalkhin Gol Battle", these losses break down as: 30 BT-7s, 27 BT-7RTs,2 BT-7As, 127 BT-5s, 30 BT-5RTs, 8 T-26s, 10 KhT-26S, 2 KhT-130S, and 17 T-37s. This does not include tanks that only sustained light to moderate damage, or ones lost due to mechanical failure.
  19. ^ Coox, p. 576. During one Japanese counterattack alone on the 12/13th of August the MPR 8th cavalry division lost 100 horses captured
  20. ^ Glantz, David M.; and House, Jonathan. When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army Stopped Hitler. Lawrence, KS: UP of Kansas, 1995. ISBN 0-7006-0899-0 p. 14.
  21. ^ Coox, p. 987. Includes 28 120mm-150mm guns and 44 75mm guns.
  22. ^ Coox, "Nomonhan: Japan against Russia" There are multiple accounts of Japanese trucks being knocked out by Soviet artillery and aviation, as well as losses due to mechanical failures or environmental hazards.
  23. ^ Drea, Edward J. "Leavenworth Papers No. 2 Nomonhan: Japanese Soviet Tactical Combat, 1939 – MAPS" Diarkibkan 2011-05-07 di Wayback Machine – Retrieved: 13 May 2007.
  24. ^ Baabar (1999), p. 384-6.
  25. ^ Drea, Edward J. "Leavenworth Papers No. 2 Nomonhan: Japanese Soviet Tactical Combat, 1939 – BIG MAPS – Map 3" Diarkibkan 13 November 2011 di Wayback Machine – Retrieved: 13 May 2007.
  26. ^ Baabar (1999), pp. 386-387.
  27. ^ Coox, p. 271
  28. ^ a b c d e f g Timothy Neeno, M.A. Nomonhan: The Second Russo-Japanese War, 2005. – Retrieved: 12 May 2007.
  29. ^ a b Coox, p. 1119
  30. ^ Coox, p. 349
  31. ^ Coox, p. 350
  32. ^ "Combined Arms Research Library". Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 5 Mei 2011. Dicapai pada 4 Mac 2017.
  33. ^ Drea, Edward J. "Leavenworth Papers No. 2 Nomonhan: Japanese Soviet Tactical Combat, 1939 – BIG MAPS – Map 4" Diarkibkan 2011-11-13 di Wayback Machine – Retrieved: 13 May 2007.
  34. ^ "Combined Arms Research Library: Redeployment". Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 5 Mei 2011. Dicapai pada 4 Mac 2017.
  35. ^ Zaloga, p. 13
  36. ^ Khalkhin Gol Battle: Brief Description and Data Retrieved 20 Jan. 2017
  37. ^ "Combined Arms Research Library: Japanese Initiatives". Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 5 Mei 2011. Dicapai pada 4 Mac 2017.
  38. ^ "Combined Arms Research Library: Hills 742 and 754". Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 5 Mei 2011. Dicapai pada 4 Mac 2017.
  39. ^ Drea, Nomhoman, p. 7
  40. ^ Coox, pp. 578-579
  41. ^ Coox, p. 579 & p. 641 note 23
  42. ^ a b c d Coox, p. 590
  43. ^ "Combined Arms Research Library: The Soviet Offensive". Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 5 Mei 2011. Dicapai pada 4 Mac 2017.
  44. ^ Drea, Edward J. "Leavenworth Papers No. 2 Nomonhan: Japanese Soviet Tactical Combat, 1939 – BIG MAPS – Map 6" Diarkibkan 2011-11-13 di Wayback Machine – Retrieved: 13 May 2007.
  45. ^ "Leavenworth Papers No. 2 Nomonhan: Japanese-Soviet Tactical Combat, 1939; MAPS". Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 7 Mei 2011. Dicapai pada 4 Mac 2017.
  46. ^ a b Coox, pg. 578
  47. ^ "Combined Arms Research Library:Japanese Intelligence Failures". Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 5 Mei 2011. Dicapai pada 4 Mac 2017.
  48. ^ Coox, pgs. 575-576
  49. ^ Coox, pg. 576
  50. ^ Coox, page 577
  51. ^ Coox, pg. 577
  52. ^ Coox, pgs. 573-574
  53. ^ Coox, p. 663
  54. ^ "Combined Arms Research Library: Outcome". Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 5 Mei 2011. Dicapai pada 4 Mac 2017.
  55. ^ "Combined Arms Research Library: Encirclement of the 2/28th Infantry". Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 5 Mei 2011. Dicapai pada 4 Mac 2017.
  56. ^ Coox, p. 841
  57. ^ Coox p. 590
  58. ^ Goldman p. 163, 164
  59. ^ Nomonhan: Japan Against Russia, 1939, p. 911
  60. ^ Steven J. Zaloga, Howard Gerrard, Poland 1939: the birth of Blitzkrieg, Osprey Publishing, 2002, ISBN 1-84176-408-6, p. 80
  61. ^ Coox, p. 1176
  62. ^ Drea, p. 9 [p.22 on the linked PDF]
  63. ^ "Grif sekretnosti sniat': poteri Vooruzhennykh Sil SSSR v voynakh, boevykh deystviyakh i voennykh konfliktakh", pod oshchey redaktsiey G. F. Krivosheeva. (Moskva: Voennoe izd-vo, 1993, ISBN 5-203-01400-0). pp. 77–85.
  64. ^ Россия и СССР в войнах ХХ века. Книга потерь. Москва, Вече, 2010 ISBN 978-5-9533-4672-6 pp.158,159,162
  65. ^ General-Lieutenant G.F.KRIVOSHEYEV (1993). "SOVIET ARMED FORCES LOSSES IN WARS,COMBAT OPERATIONS MILITARY CONFLICTS" (PDF). MOSCOW MILITARY PUBLISHING HOUSE. m/s. 83. Dicapai pada 21 Jun 2015.
  66. ^ Khalkhin Gol Battle: Brief Description and Data Retrieved 20 Jan. 2017. Pages 5, 6, and 13.
  67. ^ Nedialkov p. 144
  68. ^ Nedialkov p. 141
  69. ^ Beevor, Antony (2012). "16". The Second World War. Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
  70. ^ a b Goldman, Stuart (28 Ogos 2012). "The Forgotten Soviet-Japanese War of 1939". The Diplomat.
  71. ^ Snyder p. 166
  72. ^ "Declaration Regarding Mongolia" Diarkibkan 2007-03-11 di Wayback Machine, 14 April 1941. – Retrieved: 13 May 2007.
  73. ^ "The Avalon Project : Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy". Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 2 Mac 2015. Dicapai pada 4 Mac 2015.
  74. ^ Alvin D. Coox, “The Myth of the Kwantung Army,” Marine Corps Gazette, 42, no. 7 (July 1958), pp.43
  75. ^ Glantz, David. "The Soviet Strategic Offensive in Manchuria, 1945: 'August Storm'". Routledge, Aug 2, 2004. Page 8.
  76. ^ Coox, Nomonhan, p. 1079
  77. ^ 「"ノモンハン" は日本軍の一方的敗北ではない」三代史研究会『明治・大正・昭和30 の"真実"』文春新書、2003 年、pp. 122
  78. ^ 福井雄三『坂の上の雲に隠された歴史の真実 明治と昭和の歴史の虚像と実像』
  79. ^ Zaloga, p. 14
  80. ^ "Combined Arms Research Library". Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 5 Mei 2011. Dicapai pada 4 Mac 2017.
  81. ^ Nomonhan: Japan Against Russia, 1939., By Alvin D. Coox, p. 1167
  82. ^ Nomonhan: Japan Against Russia, 1939., By Alvin D. Coox, p. 1019
  83. ^ See counts 26 and 36 of the IMTFE indictment, available at http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/nuremberg/documents/index.php?documentdate=0000-00-00&documentid=18-2&pagenumber=1
  84. ^ "Cultological Culture". Dicapai pada 4 Mac 2015.
  85. ^ "Embassy of the Russian Federation in Mongolia". Diarkibkan daripada yang asal pada 8 Oktober 2011. Dicapai pada 4 Mac 2017.

Nota kaki

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  1. ^ Includes at least 57,000 Soviet[1] and 4,860 MPR personnel.[2] Combined Soviet-MPR strength was possibly as high as 74,000.[3]
  2. ^ 9,703 dead and missing,[15]
    15,952 wounded
    2,225 hospitalized due to disease
  3. ^ Japanese military record:
    8,440 dibunuh,
    8,766 cedera
    klaim Soviet:
    60,000 dibunuh dan cedera,
    3,000 captured[20]
    See the "Aftermath" section.

Rujukan

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  • Baabar, B. (1999). From world power to Soviet satellite: History of Mongolia. University of Cambridge Press. OCLC 318985384
  • Coox, Alvin D.: Nomonhan: Japan Against Russia, 1939. Two volumes; 1985, Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-1160-7
  • Drea, Edward: Nomonhan: Japanese-Soviet Tactical Combat, 1939. Leavenworth Papers study for the Combat Studies Institute of the U.S. Army.
  • Drea, Edward J. (1998). "Tradition and Circumstances: The Imperial Japanese Army's Tactical Response to Khalkhin-Gol, 1939". In the Service of the Emperor: Essays on the Imperial Japanese Army. Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-1708-0.
  • Erickson, John: The Soviet High Command: A Military-Political History, 1918–1941. Routledge, 2001. ISBN 0-7146-5178-8.
  • Goldman, Stuart D. Nomonhan, 1939; The Red Army's Victory That Shaped World War II. 2012, Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-59114-329-1. online review
  • Kotelnikov, Vladimir R. Air War Over Khalkhin Gol, The Nomonhan Incident. 2010; SAM publications. ISBN 978-1-906959-23-4.
  • Kuromiya, Hiroaki. "The Mystery of Nomonhan, 1939," Journal of Slavic Military Studies (2011) 24#4 pp. 659–677
  • Moses, Larry W. "Soviet-Japanese Confrontation in Outer Mongolia: The Battle of Nomonhan-Khalkin Gol," Journal of Asian History (1967) 1#1 pp. 64–85.
  • Nedialkov, Dimitar. In The Skies of Nomonhan, Japan vs Russia, May–September 1939. (2nd edition, 2011) Crecy Publishing Limited. ISBN 978-0-859791-52-6.
  • Neeno, Timothy: Nomonhan: The Second Russo-Japanese War. MilitaryHistoryOnline.com essay. Uses the Coox book and Drea paper as sources.
  • Sella, Amnon. "Khalkhin-Gol: The Forgotten War," Journal of Contemporary History (1983) 18#4 pp. 651–687 in JSTOR
  • Snow, Philip. "Nomonhan – the unknown victory," History Today (1990) 40#7 pp. 22–28
  • Snyder, Timothy (2010). "Final Solution". Bloodlands: Europe between Hitler and Stalin. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 9780465002399.
  • Young, Katsu H. "The Nomonhan Incident: Imperial Japan and the Soviet Union," Monumenta Nipponica (1967) Vol. 22, No. 1/2 (1967), pp. 82–102 in JSTOR
  • Zaloga, Steven J. Japanese Tanks 1939–45. (2007) Osprey. ISBN 978-1-84603-091-8.

Pautan luar

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