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Windows Speech Recognition
Ishlab chiquvchiMicrosoft
Chiqarilgan sana30-noyabr, 2006-yil (18 yil avval) (2006-11-30)
Operatsion tizimWindows Vista va undan keyingi versiyalar
JanrNutqni aniqlash

Windows Speech Recognition (WSR) – Microsoft tomonidan Windows Vista uchun ishlab chiqilgan nutqni aniqlash tizimi boʻlib, u ovozli buyruqlar yordamida ish stoli foydalanuvchi interfeysini boshqarish, elektron hujjatlar va elektron pochta matnini oʻqib berish, veb-saytlarda navigatsiya qilish, klaviatura qisqa buyruqlarini bajarish hamda sichqoncha kursorini boshqarish imkonini beradi. Bundan tashqari, tizim qoʻshimcha yoki yordamchi vazifalarni bajarish uchun moslashtirilgan makroslarni qoʻllab-quvvatlaydi.

WSR – lokal tarzda ishlaydigan nutqni aniqlash platformasi; aniqlik, matnni oʻqib berish yoki nutqni tanib olish uchun internetga yoki bulutli texnologiyalarga bogʻliq emas. Tizim kontekstlar, grammatikalar, nutq namunalariga moslashish, oʻquv mashgʻulotlari va lugʻatlar asosida ishlaydi. Foydalanuvchilar oʻzlariga xos lugʻat yaratishlari, unda kerakli soʻz va iboralarni qoʻshish yoki olib tashlashlari, hamda talaffuzlarni yozib olib, aniqlikni oshirishlari mumkin. Shuningdek, moslashtirilgan til modellari bilan ishlash imkoniyati ham mavjud.

WSR Windows tizimining ajralmas qismiga aylanishi uchun Windows Vista bilan birgalikda ishlab chiqilgan, chunki avval nutqni aniqlash texnologiyasi faqat Windows Media Player kabi maxsus dasturlarda boʻlgan. WSR texnologiyasi Windows 7, Windows 8, Windows 8.1, Windows RT, Windows 10 va Windows 11 operatsion tizimlarida ham mavjud. Windows Vista Betaʼning „Startup“ deb ataladigan versiyasi aslida nutqni aniqlash qoʻllanmasining boshlanishi boʻlgan va Windows XP tovushlaridan foydalangan[1][2].

Tarixi

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Microsoft kompaniyasi WSR dan ancha avval nutqni aniqlash va ovozni sintez qilish sohasida koʻp yillik tadqiqotlar olib borgan. Microsoft 1993-yilda Carnegie Mellon Universitetidan Xuedong Huangni yollab, nutqni rivojlantirish loyihalarini boshqarishga tayinladi. Tadqiqotlar natijasida 1994-yilda Speech API (SAPI) ishlab chiqilgan va taqdim etilgan[3].

Masalan, Office XP va Office 2003 dasturlarida Internet Explorer va Microsoft Office ilovalari doirasida nutqni aniqlash funksiyalari mavjud edi[4]. Shuningdek, Windows 98, Windows Me, Windows NT 4.0 va Windows 2000 operatsion tizimlarida cheklangan darajadagi ovozli boshqaruv funksiyalari taqdim etilgan edi[5]. Windows XP Tablet PC Edition 2002 versiyasi nutqni aniqlash funksiyasini Tablet PC Input Panel orqali taqdim etdi[6][7] va Windows XP uchun Microsoft Plus! ovozli buyruqlar yordamida Windows Media Player dasturida ovozli buyruqlar yoqildi[8].

Biroq, ushbu texnologiyalar alohida komponent sifatida oʻrnatilishni talab qilgan, chunki Windows Vistaʼga qadar Windows tizimida nutqni aniqlash keng qamrovli yoki integratsiyalashgan shaklda mavjud boʻlmagan[7]. Office 2007 va undan keyingi versiyalar esa nutqni aniqlash uchun WSR’dan foydalanadi.

Windows Vista

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2002-yilda oʻtkazilgan WinHEC konferensiyasida Microsoft Windows Vista (kod nomi: „Longhorn“) tizimida nutqni aniqlashdagi yangi yutuqlar va mikrofon massivlarini[9] qoʻllab-quvvatlash kabi funksiyalarni joriy qilish rejasini eʼlon qildi. Bu yondashuv „tabiiy (uzluksiz) nutqni aniqlash va (diskret) buyruqlarni boshqarish uchun bir xil sifatli audio infratuzilmasini taʼminlash“ maqsadida amalga oshirilgan edi[10]. 2003-yilgi PDC konferensiyasida Bill Geyts Microsoft tizimga nutqni aniqlash va ovozni sintez qilish imkoniyatlarini chuqur integratsiya qilishni rejalashtirayotganini va „Longhornʼda tanib olish va sintez qilishning real vaqt rejimida sezilarli rivoji“ni taʼminlashni maqsad qilganini taʼkidladi[11][12]. Windows Vistaʼni ishlab chiqish jarayonida foydalanuvchini oʻqitish imkoniyatlariga ega nutq dvigateli dastlabki test versiyalarida mavjud edi[13]. Shuningdek, foydalanuvchilar uchun mikrofon fikr-mulohazalari va boshqaruvi, shuningdek, foydalanuvchi sozlamalari va oʻquv imkoniyatlarini oʻz ichiga oladigan interfeys joriy etilishi rejalashtirilgan edi. Microsoft dasturiy ta’minotni ishlab chiqish to‘plamining dastlabki versiyasida menyular va tugmalar kabi umumiy nutq ssenariylarining tizim darajasida qoʻllab-quvvatlanishini eʼlon qilib, nutqni aniqlash qanchalik keng integratsiyalashganini tasdiqlagan edi[14].

2004-yilda oʻtkazilgan WinHEC konferensiyasida Microsoft WSR’ni mobil kompyuterlarda unumdorlikni oshirish strategiyasining bir qismi sifatida taqdim etdi[15][16]. Keyinchalik, 2005-yilgi WinHEC konferensiyasida kompaniya nogironlik imkoniyatlarini kengaytirish, yangi mobil ssenariylarni qoʻllab-quvvatlash, qoʻshimcha tillar uchun yordam, va nutq bilan ishlash tajribasini yaxshilashni alohida taʼkidladi. Windows XP’dagi nutq qoʻllab-quvvatlashdan farqli oʻlaroq – u Tablet PC Input Panel bilan integratsiyalashgan va buyruqlar hamda diktant rejimlari oʻrtasida almashishni talab qilgan boʻlsa, Windows Vista ish stoli uchun nutq kiritishga bagʻishlangan maxsus interfeysni joriy qildi va alohida nutq rejimlarini birlashtirdi[17]. Oldin foydalanuvchilar diktantdan keyin buyruq aytish yoki aksincha ishni bajarish uchun albatta rejimlarni oʻzgartirishi kerak edi[18]. Windows Vista Beta 1 versiyasi nutqni aniqlashni tizimga integratsiyalashgan holda oʻz ichiga oldi[19]. WSR’dagi xatoliklarni tahlil qilish va fikr-mulohazalarni taqdim etishni ragʻbatlantirish uchun Microsoft oʻz testchilari uchun Xbox 360 Premium modelini yutib olish imkoniyatini taklif qildi[20].

2006-yil 27-iyulda, Windows Vista ishlab chiqarishga chiqarilishidan (RTM) oldin Microsoft tomonidan oʻtkazilgan namoyishda WSR bilan bogʻliq eʼtiborga molik bir voqea sodir boʻldi. Nutqni diktant qilish boʻyicha bir necha marta urinishlar ketma-ket xatolarga olib kelib, kutilmagan holda „Aziz amma, keling, qotilni ikki barobar oshiraylik, oʻchirish, barchasini tanlash“ matnini chiqardi[21][22]. Ushbu voqea tinglovchilar orasidagi tahlilchilar va jurnalistlar tomonidan keskin tanqidga uchradi[23][24], garchi dasturlarni boshqarish va navigatsiya boʻyicha boshqa bir namoyish muvaffaqiyatli oʻtgan boʻlsa ham[21]. Microsoft ushbu muammolar nutqni tanib olish jarayonida audio signal kuchayishi bilan bogʻliq xato tufayli yuzaga kelganini aniqladi, bu esa buyruqlar va diktantlarning buzilishiga olib kelgan. Ushbu xatolik Windows Vista chiqarilishidan oldin tuzatildi[25].

2007-yil boshida WSR’da xavfsizlikka oid zaiflik aniqlangani haqida xabarlar tarqaldi. Ushbu zaiflik orqali tajovuzkorlar maqsadli qurilmada ovozli buyruqlarni dinamiklar orqali ijro etib, zararli operatsiyalarni amalga oshirishlari mumkin edi[26][27]. Bu Windows Vista umumiy foydalanishga chiqarilgandan keyin aniqlangan birinchi zaiflik boʻldi[28]. Microsoftning taʼkidlashicha, bunday hujum nazariy jihatdan mumkin boʻlsa-da, uning samaradorligini cheklaydigan yoki umuman oldini oladigan bir qator omillar va shartlar mavjud. Hujum amalga oshishi uchun, maqsadli qurilmada nutqni tanish funksiyasi faollashtirilgan va bunday buyruqlarni toʻgʻri talqin qiladigan darajada sozlangan boʻlishi kerak edi. Bundan tashqari, mikrofon va dinamiklar yoqilgan, ovoz balandligi esa yetarli darajada boʻlishi talab qilinardi. Shuningdek, hujum natijasida qurilma foydalanuvchining eʼtiborini tortuvchi koʻrinadigan operatsiyalarni bajarishi va eshitiladigan qayta aloqa signallari ishlab chiqarishi kerak edi, bu esa foydalanuvchining sezmasligi ehtimolini kamaytiradi. Foydalanuvchi hisobini boshqarish (User Account Control) esa yuqori darajadagi huquq talab qiladigan operatsiyalarning amalga oshirilishini toʻxtatib qoʻyardi[29].

Windows 7

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WSR was updated to use Microsoft UI Automation and its engine now uses the WASAPI audio stack, substantially enhancing its performance and enabling support for echo cancellation, respectively. The document harvester, which can analyze and collect text in email and documents to contextualize user terms has improved performance, and now runs periodically in the background instead of only after recognizer startup. Sleep mode has also seen performance improvements and, to address security issues, the recognizer is turned off by default after users speak „stop listening“ instead of being suspended. Windows 7 also introduces an option to submit speech training data to Microsoft to improve future recognizer versions.[30]

A new dictation scratchpad interface functions as a temporary document into which users can dictate or type text for insertion into applications that are not compatible with the Text Services Framework.[30] Windows Vista previously provided an „enable dictation everywhere option“ for such applications.[31]

Windows 8.x and Windows RT

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WSR can be used to control the Metro user interface in Windows 8, Windows 8.1, and Windows RT with commands to open the Charms bar („Press Windows C“); to dictate or display commands in Metro-style apps („Press Windows Z“); to perform tasks in apps (e.g., „Change to Celsius“ in MSN Weather); and to display all installed apps listed by the Start screen („Apps“).[32][33]

Windows 10

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WSR is featured in the Settings application starting with the Windows 10 April 2018 Update (Version 1803); the change first appeared in Insider Preview Build 17083.[34] The April 2018 Update also introduces a new Andoza:Keypress+Andoza:Keypress+Andoza:Keypress keyboard shortcut to activate WSR.[35]

Windows 11

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In Windows 11 version 22H2, a second Microsoft app, Voice Access, was added in addition to WSR.[36][37] In December 2023 Microsoft announced that WSR is deprecated in favor of Voice Access and may be removed in a future build or release of Windows.[38]

Overview and features

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WSR allows a user to control applications and the Windows desktop user interface through voice commands.[39] Users can dictate text within documents, email, and forms; control the operating system user interface; perform keyboard shortcuts; and move the mouse cursor.[40] The majority of integrated applications in Windows Vista can be controlled;[39] third-party applications must support the Text Services Framework for dictation.[3] English (U. S.), English (U. K.), French, German, Japanese, Mandarin Chinese, and Spanish are supported languages.[41]

When started for the first time, WSR presents a microphone setup wizard and an optional interactive step-by-step tutorial that users can commence to learn basic commands while adapting the recognizer to their specific voice characteristics;[39] the tutorial is estimated to require approximately 10 minutes to complete.[42] The accuracy of the recognizer increases through regular use, which adapts it to contexts, grammars, patterns, and vocabularies.[41][43] Custom language models for the specific contexts, phonetics, and terminologies of users in particular occupational fields such as legal or medical are also supported.[44] With Windows Search,[45] the recognizer also can optionally harvest text in documents, email, as well as handwritten tablet PC input to contextualize and disambiguate terms to improve accuracy; no information is sent to Microsoft.[43]

WSR is a locally processed speech recognition platform; it does not rely on cloud computing for accuracy, dictation, or recognition.[46] Speech profiles that store information about users are retained locally.[43] Backups and transfers of profiles can be performed via Windows Easy Transfer.[47]

Interface

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Fayl:WSRRecognizerStates.png
The speech recognizer displaying information based on different modes; the color of the recognizer button changes based on user interaction.

The WSR interface consists of a status area that displays instructions, information about commands (e.g., if a command is not heard by the recognizer), and the status of the recognizer; a voice meter displays visual feedback about volume levels. The status area represents the current state of WSR in a total of three modes, listed below with their respective meanings:

  • Listening: The recognizer is active and waiting for user input
  • Sleeping: The recognizer will not listen for or respond to commands other than „Start listening“
  • Off: The recognizer will not listen or respond to any commands; this mode can be enabled by speaking „Stop listening“

Colors of the recognizer listening mode button denote its various modes of operation: blue when listening; blue-gray when sleeping; gray when turned off; and yellow when the user switches context (e.g., from the desktop to the taskbar) or when a voice command is misinterpreted. The status area can also display custom user information as part of Windows Speech Recognition Macros.[48][49]

Fayl:WSR-AlternatesPanel.png
The alternates panel displaying suggestions for a phrase.

Alternates panel

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An alternates panel disambiguation interface lists items interpreted as being relevant to a user’s spoken word(s); if the word or phrase that a user desired to insert into an application is listed among results, a user can speak the corresponding number of the word or phrase in the results and confirm this choice by speaking „OK“ to insert it within the application.[50] The alternates panel also appear when launching applications or speaking commands that refer to more than one item (e.g., speaking „Start Internet Explorer“ may list both the web browser and a separate version with add-ons disabled). An ExactMatchOverPartialMatch entry in the Windows Registry can limit commands to items with exact names if there is more than one instance included in results.[51]

Common commands

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Listed below are common WSR commands. Words in italics indicate a word that can be substituted for the desired item (e.g., „direction“ in „scroll direction“ can be substituted with the word „down“).[40] A „start typing“ command enables WSR to interpret all dictation commands as keyboard shortcuts.[50]

Dictation commands: „New line“; „New paragraph“; „Tab“; „Literal word“; „Numeral number“; „Go to word“; „Go after word“; „No space“; „Go to start of sentence“; „Go to end of sentence“; „Go to start of paragraph“; „Go to end of paragraph“; „Go to start of document“ „Go to end of document“; „Go to field name“ (e.g., go to address, cc, or subject). Special characters such as a comma are dictated by speaking the name of the special character.[40]
Navigation commands:
Keyboard shortcuts: „Press keyboard key“; „Press Andoza:Keypress plus Andoza:Keypress“; „Press capital Andoza:Keypress.“
Keys that can be pressed without first giving the press command include: Andoza:Keypress, Andoza:Keypress, Andoza:Keypress, Andoza:Keypress, Andoza:Keypress, Andoza:Keypress, Andoza:Keypress, and Andoza:Keypress.[40]
Mouse commands: „Click“; „Click that“; „Double-click“; „Double-click that“; „Mark“; „Mark that“; „Right-click“; „Right-click that“; „MouseGrid“.[40]
Window management commands: „Close (alternatively maximize, minimize, or restore) window“; „Close that“; „Close name of open application“; „Switch applications“; „Switch to name of open application“; „Scroll direction“; „Scroll direction in number of pages“; „Show desktop“; „Show Numbers.“[40]
Speech recognition commands: „Start listening“; „Stop listening“; „Show speech options“; „Open speech dictionary“; „Move speech recognition“; „Minimize speech recognition“; „Restore speech recognition“.[40] In the English language, applicable commands can be shown by speaking „What can I say?“[41] Users can also query the recognizer about tasks in Windows by speaking „How do I task name“ (e.g., „How do I install a printer?“) which opens related help documentation.[52]
Fayl:Mousegrid.png
The MouseGrid command displaying a grid of numbers on the Windows Vista desktop.

MouseGrid

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MouseGrid enables users to control the mouse cursor by overlaying numbers across nine regions on the screen; these regions gradually narrow as a user speaks the number(s) of the region on which to focus until the desired interface element is reached. Users can then issue commands including „Click number of region,“ which moves the mouse cursor to the desired region and then clicks it; and „Mark number of region“, which allows an item (such as a computer icon) in a region to be selected, which can then be clicked with the previous click command. Users also can interact with multiple regions at once.[40]

Show Numbers

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Applications and interface elements that do not present identifiable commands can still be controlled by asking the system to overlay numbers on top of them through a Show Numbers command. Once active, speaking the overlaid number selects that item so a user can open it or perform other operations.[40] Show Numbers was designed so that users could interact with items that are not readily identifiable.[53]

Fayl:Show numbers.png
The Show Numbers command overlaying numbers in the Games Explorer.

Dictation

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WSR enables dictation of text in applications and Windows. If a dictation mistake occurs it can be corrected by speaking „Correct word“ or „Correct that“ and the alternates panel will appear and provide suggestions for correction; these suggestions can be selected by speaking the number corresponding to the number of the suggestion and by speaking „OK.“ If the desired item is not listed among suggestions, a user can speak it so that it might appear. Alternatively, users can speak „Spell it“ or „I’ll spell it myself“ to speak the desired word on letter-by-letter basis; users can use their personal alphabet or the NATO phonetic alphabet (e.g., „N as in November“) when spelling.[44]

Multiple words in a sentence can be corrected simultaneously (for example, if a user speaks „dictating“ but the recognizer interprets this word as "the thing, " a user can state „correct the thing“ to correct both words at once). In the English language over 100,000 words are recognized by default.[44]

Speech dictionary

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A personal dictionary allows users to include or exclude certain words or expressions from dictation.[44] When a user adds a word beginning with a capital letter to the dictionary, a user can specify whether it should always be capitalized or if capitalization depends on the context in which the word is spoken. Users can also record pronunciations for words added to the dictionary to increase recognition accuracy; words written via a stylus on a tablet PC for the Windows handwriting recognition feature are also stored. Information stored within a dictionary is included as part of a user’s speech profile.[43] Users can open the speech dictionary by speaking the „show speech dictionary“ command.

Macros

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Fayl:WSRMacroOptions.png
An Aero Wizard interface displaying options to create speech recognition macros.

WSR supports custom macros through a supplementary application by Microsoft that enables additional natural language commands.[54][55] As an example of this functionality, an email macro released by Microsoft enables a natural language command where a user can speak „send email to contact about subject,“ which opens Microsoft Outlook to compose a new message with the designated contact and subject automatically inserted.[56] Microsoft has also released sample macros for the speech dictionary,[57] for Windows Media Player,[58] for Microsoft PowerPoint,[59] for speech synthesis,[60] to switch between multiple microphones,[61] to customize various aspects of audio device configuration such as volume levels,[62] and for general natural language queries such as „What is the weather forecast?“[63] „What time is it?“[60] and „Whatʼs the date?“[60] Responses to these user inquiries are spoken back to the user in the active Microsoft text-to-speech voice installed on the machine.

Application or item Sample macro phrases (italics indicate substitutable words)
Microsoft Outlook Send email Send email to Send email to Makoto Send email to Makoto Yamagishi Send email to Makoto Yamagishi about Send email to Makoto Yamagishi about This week’s meeting Refresh Outlook email contacts
Microsoft PowerPoint Next slide Previous slide Next Previous Go forward 5 slides Go back 3 slides Go to slide 8
Windows Media Player Next track Previous song Play Beethoven Play something by Mozart Play the CD that has In the Hall of the Mountain King Play something written in 1930 Pause music
Microphones in Windows Microphone Switch microphone Microphone Array microphone Switch to Line Switch to Microphone Array Switch to Line microphone Switch to Microphone Array microphone
Volume levels in Windows Mute the speakers Unmute the speakers Turn off the audio Increase the volume Increase the volume by 2 times Decrease the volume by 50 Set the volume to 66
WSR Speech Dictionary Export the speech dictionary Add a pronunciation Add that [selected text] to the speech dictionary Block that [selected text] from the speech dictionary Remove that [selected text] [Selected text] sounds like… What does that [selected text] sound like?
Speech Synthesis Read that [selected text] Read the next 3 paragraphs Read the previous sentence Please stop reading What time is it? Whatʼs today’s date? Tell me the weather forecast for Redmond

Users and developers can create their own macros based on text transcription and substitution; application execution (with support for command-line arguments); keyboard shortcuts; emulation of existing voice commands; or a combination of these items. XML, JScript and VBScript are supported.[50] Macros can be limited to specific applications[64] and rules for macros can be defined programmatically.[56] For a macro to load, it must be stored in a Speech Macros folder within the active user’s Documents directory. All macros are digitally signed by default if a user certificate is available to ensure that stored commands are not altered or loaded by third-parties; if a certificate is not available, an administrator can create one.[65] Configurable security levels can prohibit unsigned macros from being loaded; to prompt users to sign macros after creation; and to load unsigned macros.[64]

Performance

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-Missing required parameter 1=''month''!, 2017-yil(2017-Missing required parameter 1=month!-00) holatiga koʻra WSR uses Microsoft Speech Recognizer 8.0, the version introduced in Windows Vista. For dictation it was found to be 93.6% accurate without training by Mark Hachman, a Senior Editor of PC World—a rate that is not as accurate as competing software. According to Microsoft, the rate of accuracy when trained is 99%. Hachman opined that Microsoft does not publicly discuss the feature because of the 2006 incident during the development of Windows Vista, with the result being that few users knew that documents could be dictated within Windows before the introduction of Cortana.[42]

See also

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References

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  1. ↑ Windows Vista Beta 1 Startup sound (Animated).
  2. ↑ Windows Vista Speech Recognition Tutorial - Welcome Sequence.
  3. ↑ 3,0 3,1 Brown, Robert „Exploring New Speech Recognition And Synthesis APIs In Windows Vista“. MSDN Magazine. Microsoft. 2008-yil 7-martda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2015-yil 26-iyun.
  4. ↑ „How To Use Speech Recognition in Windows XP“. Windows Support. Microsoft. 2015-yil 14-martda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 15-may.
  5. ↑ „Description of the speech recognition and handwriting recognition methods in Word 2002“. Windows Support. Microsoft. 2015-yil 3-iyulda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2018-yil 26-mart.
  6. ↑ Thurrott, Paul „Windows XP Tablet PC Edition Review“. Windows IT Pro. Penton (2002-yil 25-iyun). 2011-yil 19-iyulda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 15-may.
  7. ↑ 7,0 7,1 Dresevic, Bodin „Natural Input On Mobile PC Systems“ (PPT). Microsoft (2005). 2005-yil 14-dekabrda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 15-may.
  8. ↑ Thurrott, Paul „Plus! for Windows XP Review“. Windows IT Pro. Penton (2010-yil 6-oktyabr). 2011-yil 5-iyulda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 15-may.
  9. ↑ Stam, Nick „WinHEC: The Pregame Show“. PC Magazine. Ziff Davis Media (2002-yil 16-aprel). 2015-yil 3-iyulda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 15-may.
  10. ↑ Flandern Van, Mike „Audio Considerations for Voice-Enabled Applications“ (EXE). Windows Hardware Engineering Conference. Microsoft (2002). 2002-yil 6-mayda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2018-yil 30-mart.
  11. ↑ „Bill Gates' Web Site — Speech Transcript, Microsoft Professional Developers Conference 2003“. Microsoft (2003-yil 27-oktyabr). 2004-yil 3-fevralda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 15-may.
  12. ↑ Thurrott, Paul; Furman, Keith „Live from PDC 2003: Day 1, Monday“. Windows IT Pro. Penton (2003-yil 26-oktyabr). 2013-yil 11-sentyabrda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 15-may.
  13. ↑ Spanbauer, Scott „Your Next OS: Windows 2006?“. TechHive. IDG (2003-yil 4-dekabr). Qaraldi: 2015-yil 25-iyun.
  14. ↑ „Interacting with the Computer using Speech Input and Speech Output“. MSDN. Microsoft (2003). 2004-yil 4-yanvarda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2015-yil 28-iyun.
  15. ↑ Suokko, Matti „Windows For Mobile PCs And Tablet PCs — CY05 And Beyond“ (PPT). Microsoft (2004). 2005-yil 14-dekabrda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 15-may.
  16. ↑ Fish, Darrin „Windows For Mobile PCs and Tablet PCs — CY04“ (PPT). Microsoft (2004). 2005-yil 14-dekabrda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 15-may.
  17. ↑ Dresevic, Bodin „Natural Input on Mobile PC Systems“ (PPT). Microsoft (2005). 2005-yil 14-dekabrda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 15-may.
  18. ↑ Thurrott, Paul „Windows Vista Beta 1 Review (Part 3)“. Windows IT Pro. Penton (2010-yil 6-oktyabr). 2014-yil 23-avgustda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 15-may.
  19. ↑ Chambers, Rob „Commanding and Dictation — One mode or two in Windows Vista?“. MSDN. Microsoft (2005-yil 1-avgust). Qaraldi: 2015-yil 30-iyun.
  20. ↑ Levy, Brian „Microsoft Speech Recognition poster“ (2006). 2006-yil 11-oktyabrda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 15-may.
  21. ↑ 21,0 21,1 Auchard, Eric „Updated – When good demos go (very, very) bad“. Thomson Reuters (2006-yil 28-iyul). 2011-yil 21-mayda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2018-yil 29-mart.
  22. ↑ „Software glitch foils Microsoft demo“. NBC News (2006-yil 2-avgust). 2018-yil 28-martda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 15-may.
  23. ↑ Montalbano, Elizabeth „Vista voice-recognition feature needs work“. InfoWorld. IDG (2006-yil 31-iyul). 2006-yil 5-avgustda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2015-yil 26-iyun.
  24. ↑ Montalbano, Elizabeth „Vista's Voice Recognition Stammers“. TechHive. IDG (2006-yil 31-iyul). 2015-yil 3-iyulda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 15-may.
  25. ↑ Chambers, Rob „FAM: Vista SR Demo failure — And now you know the rest of the story ...“. MSDN. Microsoft (2006-yil 29-iyul). 2011-yil 22-mayda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 15-may.
  26. ↑ „Vista has speech recognition hole“. BBC News. BBC (2007-yil 1-fevral). 2007-yil 3-fevralda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 15-may.
  27. ↑ Miller, Paul „Remote 'exploit' of Vista Speech reveals fatal flaw“. Engadget. AOL (2007-yil 1-fevral). Qaraldi: 2015-yil 28-iyun.
  28. ↑ Roberts, Paul „Honeymoon's Over: First Windows Vista Flaw“. PCWorld. IDG (2007-yil 1-fevral). 2007-yil 4-fevralda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2015-yil 28-iyun.
  29. ↑ „Issue regarding Windows Vista Speech Recognition“. TechNet. Microsoft (2007-yil 31-yanvar). 2016-yil 20-mayda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2018-yil 31-mart.
  30. ↑ 30,0 30,1 Brown, Eric „What's new in Windows Speech Recognition?“. MSDN. Microsoft (2009-yil 29-yanvar). 2011-yil 28-yanvarda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 15-may.
  31. ↑ Brown, Eric „Where does dictation work in Windows Speech Recognition?“. MSDN. Microsoft (2007-yil 24-oktyabr). Qaraldi: 2018-yil 28-mart.
  32. ↑ „How to use Speech Recognition“. Windows Support. Microsoft. 2012-yil 25-oktyabrda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2018-yil 24-dekabr.
  33. ↑ „How to use Speech Recognition in Windows“. Windows Support. Microsoft (2016-yil 31-avgust). Qaraldi: 2018-yil 24-dekabr.
  34. ↑ Sarkar, Dona „Announcing Windows 10 Insider Preview Build 17083 for PC“. Windows Blogs. Microsoft (2018-yil 24-yanvar). 2018-yil 24-yanvarda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 15-may.
  35. ↑ „Windows keyboard shortcuts for accessibility“. Windows Support. Microsoft. 2018-yil 12-oktyabrda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2019-yil 8-yanvar.
  36. ↑ „Set up voice access - Microsoft Support“. support.microsoft.com. Qaraldi: 2022-yil 10-dekabr.
  37. ↑ Hachman, Mark „New Windows 11 build tests Voice Access, Spotlight backgrounds“ (en). PCWorld. Qaraldi: 2022-yil 10-dekabr.
  38. ↑ Microsoft. „Deprecated features in the Windows client - What's new in Windows“. Qaraldi: 2023-yil 7-dekabr.
  39. ↑ 39,0 39,1 39,2 Phillips, Todd „Windows Vista Speech Recognition Step-by-Step Guide“. MSDN. Microsoft (2007). Qaraldi: 2015-yil 30-iyun.
  40. ↑ 40,0 40,1 40,2 40,3 40,4 40,5 40,6 40,7 40,8 „Windows Speech Recognition commands“. Windows Support. Microsoft. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 15-may.
  41. ↑ 41,0 41,1 41,2 „Windows Speech Recognition“. Microsoft Accessibility. Microsoft. 2007-yil 4-fevralda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 15-may.
  42. ↑ 42,0 42,1 Hachman, Mark „The Windows weakness no one mentions: Speech recognition“. PC World. IDG (2017-yil 10-may). Qaraldi: 2018-yil 28-mart.
  43. ↑ 43,0 43,1 43,2 43,3 „Windows Vista Privacy Statement“ (RTF). Microsoft (2006). 2008-yil 30-avgustda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 15-may.
  44. ↑ 44,0 44,1 44,2 44,3 Chambers, Rob „Customized speech vocabularies in Windows Vista“. MSDN. Microsoft (2005-yil 20-sentyabr). Qaraldi: 2018-yil 29-mart.
  45. ↑ Thurrott, Paul „Jim Allchin Talks Windows Vista“. Windows IT Pro. Penton (2010-yil 6-oktyabr). 2018-yil 28-martda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 15-may.
  46. ↑ „Microsoft Privacy Statement“. Microsoft. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 12-may.
  47. ↑ Chambers, Rob „Transferring Windows Speech Recognition profiles from one machine to another“. MSDN. Microsoft (2007-yil 15-fevral). Qaraldi: 2015-yil 28-iyun.
  48. ↑ Shintaku, Kurt „BETA: 'Windows Speech Recognition Macros' Technology Preview“ (2008-yil 29-aprel). Qaraldi: 2016-yil 17-mart.
  49. ↑ Pash, Adam „Control Your PC with Your Voice“. Lifehacker. Gawker Media (2008-yil 20-may). Qaraldi: 2016-yil 17-mart.
  50. ↑ 50,0 50,1 50,2 Chambers, Rob „Speech Macros, Typing Mode and Spelling Mode in Windows Speech Recognition“. MSDN. Microsoft (2007-yil 19-noyabr). Qaraldi: 2015-yil 25-avgust.
  51. ↑ Chambers, Rob „Windows Speech Recognition — ExactMatchOverPartialMatch“. MSDN. Microsoft (2007-yil 7-may). Qaraldi: 2015-yil 24-avgust.
  52. ↑ Chambers, Rob „Windows Speech Recognition: General commands“. MSDN. Microsoft (2007-yil 12-mart). Qaraldi: 2017-yil 1-may.
  53. ↑ Andoza:Cite patent
  54. ↑ „Windows Speech Recognition Macros“. Download Center. Microsoft. Qaraldi: 2015-yil 29-iyun.
  55. ↑ Protalinski, Emil „WSR Macros extend Windows Vista's speech recognition feature“. ArsTechnica. Condé Nast (2008-yil 30-aprel). Qaraldi: 2015-yil 29-iyun.
  56. ↑ 56,0 56,1 Chambers, Rob „Macro of the Day: Send Email to [OutlookContact“]. MSDN. Microsoft (2008-yil 9-iyun). Qaraldi: 2015-yil 26-iyun.
  57. ↑ Chambers, Rob „Speech Macro of the Day: Speech Dictionary“. MSDN. Microsoft (2008-yil 2-avgust). Qaraldi: 2015-yil 3-sentyabr.
  58. ↑ Chambers, Rob „Macro of the Day: Windows Media Player“. MSDN. Microsoft (2008-yil 1-iyul). Qaraldi: 2015-yil 26-iyun.
  59. ↑ Chambers, Rob „Macro of the day: Next Slide“. MSDN. Microsoft (2008-yil 3-iyun). Qaraldi: 2015-yil 3-sentyabr.
  60. ↑ 60,0 60,1 60,2 Chambers, Rob „Macro of the Day: Read that“. MSDN. Microsoft (2008-yil 28-may). Qaraldi: 2015-yil 26-iyun.
  61. ↑ Chambers, Rob „Macro of the Day: Microphone Control“. MSDN. Microsoft (2008-yil 7-noyabr). Qaraldi: 2015-yil 30-iyun.
  62. ↑ Chambers, Rob „Macro of the Day: Mute the speakers!“. MSDN. Microsoft (2008-yil 18-avgust). Qaraldi: 2015-yil 3-sentyabr.
  63. ↑ Chambers, Rob „Macro of the Day: Tell me the weather forecast for Redmond“. MSDN. Microsoft (2008-yil 2-iyun). Qaraldi: 2015-yil 26-iyun.
  64. ↑ 64,0 64,1 Chambers, Rob „Making a Speech macro Application Specific“. MSDN. Microsoft (2008-yil 30-iyun). Qaraldi: 2015-yil 3-sentyabr.
  65. ↑ „Windows Speech Recognition Macros Release Notes“ (DOCX). Microsoft (2009). 2011-yil 30-sentyabrda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2020-yil 15-may.
[tahrir | manbasini tahrirlash]

Andoza:Windows Components



Fizikada asosiy oʻzaro taʼsirlar yoki fundamental kuchlar – tabiatda mavjud boʻlib, yanada sodda taʼsirlarga boʻlinmaydigan kuchlar. Hozirda insoniyatga maʼlum boʻlgan toʻrtta fundamental kuch mavjud[1]:

Gravitatsion va elektromagnit oʻzaro taʼsirlar uzoq masofaga taʼsir etuvchi kuchlarni yuzaga keltiradi, ularning natijalarini kundalik hayotda bevosita kuzatish mumkin. Kuchli va kuchsiz oʻzaro taʼsirlar esa subatomik darajada kuchlar hosil qiladi va atomlar ichidagi yadroviy jarayonlarni boshqaradi.

Some scientists hypothesize that a fifth force might exist, but these hypotheses remain speculative.

Each of the known fundamental interactions can be described mathematically as a field. The gravitational force is attributed to the curvature of spacetime, described by Einsteinʼs general theory of relativity. The other three are discrete quantum fields, and their interactions are mediated by elementary particles described by the Standard Model of particle physics.[2]

Within the Standard Model, the strong interaction is carried by a particle called the gluon and is responsible for quarks binding together to form hadrons, such as protons and neutrons. As a residual effect, it creates the nuclear force that binds the latter particles to form atomic nuclei. The weak interaction is carried by particles called W and Z bosons, and also acts on the nucleus of atoms, mediating radioactive decay. The electromagnetic force, carried by the photon, creates electric and magnetic fields, which are responsible for the attraction between orbital electrons and atomic nuclei which holds atoms together, as well as chemical bonding and electromagnetic waves, including visible light, and forms the basis for electrical technology. Although the electromagnetic force is far stronger than gravity, it tends to cancel itself out within large objects, so over large (astronomical) distances gravity tends to be the dominant force, and is responsible for holding together the large scale structures in the universe, such as planets, stars, and galaxies.

Many theoretical physicists believe these fundamental forces to be related and to become unified into a single force at very high energies on a minuscule scale, the Planck scale,[3] but particle accelerators cannot produce the enormous energies required to experimentally probe this. Devising a common theoretical framework that would explain the relation between the forces in a single theory is perhaps the greatest goal of today’s theoretical physicists. The weak and electromagnetic forces have already been unified with the electroweak theory of Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam, and Steven Weinberg, for which they received the 1979 Nobel Prize in physics.[4][5][6] Some physicists seek to unite the electroweak and strong fields within what is called a Grand Unified Theory (GUT). An even bigger challenge is to find a way to quantize the gravitational field, resulting in a theory of quantum gravity (QG) which would unite gravity in a common theoretical framework with the other three forces. Some theories, notably string theory, seek both QG and GUT within one framework, unifying all four fundamental interactions along with mass generation within a theory of everything (ToE).

History

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Classical theory

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In his 1687 theory, Isaac Newton postulated space as an infinite and unalterable physical structure existing before, within, and around all objects while their states and relations unfold at a constant pace everywhere, thus absolute space and time. Inferring that all objects bearing mass approach at a constant rate, but collide by impact proportional to their masses, Newton inferred that matter exhibits an attractive force. His law of universal gravitation implied there to be instant interaction among all objects.[7][8] As conventionally interpreted, Newtonʼs theory of motion modelled a central force without a communicating medium.[9][10] Thus Newtonʼs theory violated the tradition, going back to Descartes, that there should be no action at a distance.[11] Conversely, during the 1820s, when explaining magnetism, Michael Faraday inferred a field filling space and transmitting that force. Faraday conjectured that ultimately, all forces unified into one.[12]

In 1873, James Clerk Maxwell unified electricity and magnetism as effects of an electromagnetic field whose third consequence was light, travelling at constant speed in vacuum. If his electromagnetic field theory held true in all inertial frames of reference, this would contradict Newtonʼs theory of motion, which relied on Galilean relativity.[13] If, instead, his field theory only applied to reference frames at rest relative to a mechanical luminiferous aether—presumed to fill all space whether within matter or in vacuum and to manifest the electromagnetic field—then it could be reconciled with Galilean relativity and Newtonʼs laws. (However, such a „Maxwell aether“ was later disproven; Newtonʼs laws did, in fact, have to be replaced.)[14]

Standard Model

[tahrir | manbasini tahrirlash]
Asosiy sahifa: Standard Model
Yana qarang: Standard Model (mathematical formulation)
The Standard Model of elementary particles, with the fermions in the first three columns, the gauge bosons in the fourth column, and the Higgs boson in the fifth column

The Standard Model of particle physics was developed throughout the latter half of the 20th century. In the Standard Model, the electromagnetic, strong, and weak interactions associate with elementary particles, whose behaviours are modelled in quantum mechanics (QM). For predictive success with QM’s probabilistic outcomes, particle physics conventionally models QM events across a field set to special relativity, altogether relativistic quantum field theory (QFT).[15] Force particles, called gauge bosons—force carriers or messenger particles of underlying fields—interact with matter particles, called fermions.

Everyday matter is atoms, composed of three fermion types: up-quarks and down-quarks constituting, as well as electrons orbiting, the atom’s nucleus. Atoms interact, form molecules, and manifest further properties through electromagnetic interactions among their electrons absorbing and emitting photons, the electromagnetic field’s force carrier, which if unimpeded traverse potentially infinite distance. Electromagnetism’s QFT is quantum electrodynamics (QED).

The force carriers of the weak interaction are the massive W and Z bosons. Electroweak theory (EWT) covers both electromagnetism and the weak interaction. At the high temperatures shortly after the Big Bang, the weak interaction, the electromagnetic interaction, and the Higgs boson were originally mixed components of a different set of ancient pre-symmetry-breaking fields. As the early universe cooled, these fields split into the long-range electromagnetic interaction, the short-range weak interaction, and the Higgs boson. In the Higgs mechanism, the Higgs field manifests Higgs bosons that interact with some quantum particles in a way that endows those particles with mass. The strong interaction, whose force carrier is the gluon, traversing minuscule distance among quarks, is modeled in quantum chromodynamics (QCD). EWT, QCD, and the Higgs mechanism comprise particle physics' Standard Model (SM). Predictions are usually made using calculational approximation methods, although such perturbation theory is inadequate to model some experimental observations (for instance bound states and solitons). Still, physicists widely accept the Standard Model as scienceʼs most experimentally confirmed theory.

Beyond the Standard Model, some theorists work to unite the electroweak and strong interactions within a Grand Unified Theory[16] (GUT). Some attempts at GUTs hypothesize „shadow“ particles, such that every known matter particle associates with an undiscovered force particle, and vice versa, altogether supersymmetry (SUSY). Other theorists seek to quantize the gravitational field by the modelling behaviour of its hypothetical force carrier, the graviton and achieve quantum gravity (QG). One approach to QG is loop quantum gravity (LQG). Still other theorists seek both QG and GUT within one framework, reducing all four fundamental interactions to a Theory of Everything (ToE). The most prevalent aim at a ToE is string theory, although to model matter particles, it added SUSY to force particles—and so, strictly speaking, became superstring theory. Multiple, seemingly disparate superstring theories were unified on a backbone, M-theory. Theories beyond the Standard Model remain highly speculative, lacking great experimental support.

Overview of the fundamental interactions

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An overview of the various families of elementary and composite particles, and the theories describing their interactions. Fermions are on the left, and Bosons are on the right.

In the conceptual model of fundamental interactions, matter consists of fermions, which carry properties called charges and spin ±Andoza:Frac (intrinsic angular momentum ±Andoza:Frac, where ħ is the reduced Planck constant). They attract or repel each other by exchanging bosons.

The interaction of any pair of fermions in perturbation theory can then be modelled thus:

Two fermions go in → interaction by boson exchange → two changed fermions go out.

The exchange of bosons always carries energy and momentum between the fermions, thereby changing their speed and direction. The exchange may also transport a charge between the fermions, changing the charges of the fermions in the process (e.g., turn them from one type of fermion to another). Since bosons carry one unit of angular momentum, the fermionʼs spin direction will flip from +Andoza:Frac to −Andoza:Frac (or vice versa) during such an exchange (in units of the reduced Planck constant). Since such interactions result in a change in momentum, they can give rise to classical Newtonian forces. In quantum mechanics, physicists often use the terms „force“ and „interaction“ interchangeably; for example, the weak interaction is sometimes referred to as the „weak force“.

According to the present understanding, there are four fundamental interactions or forces: gravitation, electromagnetism, the weak interaction, and the strong interaction. Their magnitude and behaviour vary greatly, as described in the table below. Modern physics attempts to explain every observed physical phenomenon by these fundamental interactions. Moreover, reducing the number of different interaction types is seen as desirable. Two cases in point are the unification of:

Both magnitude („relative strength“) and „range“ of the associated potential, as given in the table, are meaningful only within a rather complex theoretical framework. The table below lists properties of a conceptual scheme that remains the subject of ongoing research.

Interaction Current theory Mediators Relative strength[17] Long-distance behavior (potential) Range (m)[18]
Weak Electroweak theory (EWT) W and Z bosons 1033 10−18
Strong Quantum chromodynamics
(QCD)		 gluons 1038
(Color confinement, see discussion below)		 10−15
Gravitation General relativity
(GR)		 gravitons (hypothetical) 1 ∞
Electromagnetic Quantum electrodynamics
(QED)		 photons 1036 ∞

The modern (perturbative) quantum mechanical view of the fundamental forces other than gravity is that particles of matter (fermions) do not directly interact with each other, but rather carry a charge, and exchange virtual particles (gauge bosons), which are the interaction carriers or force mediators. For example, photons mediate the interaction of electric charges, and gluons mediate the interaction of color charges. The full theory includes perturbations beyond simply fermions exchanging bosons; these additional perturbations can involve bosons that exchange fermions, as well as the creation or destruction of particles: see Feynman diagrams for examples.

Interactions

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Gravity

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Asosiy sahifa: Gravity

Gravitation is the weakest of the four interactions at the atomic scale, where electromagnetic interactions dominate.

Gravitation is the most important of the four fundamental forces for astronomical objects over astronomical distances for two reasons. First, gravitation has an infinite effective range, like electromagnetism but unlike the strong and weak interactions. Second, gravity always attracts and never repels; in contrast, astronomical bodies tend toward a near-neutral net electric charge, such that the attraction to one type of charge and the repulsion from the opposite charge mostly cancel each other out.[19]

Even though electromagnetism is far stronger than gravitation, electrostatic attraction is not relevant for large celestial bodies, such as planets, stars, and galaxies, simply because such bodies contain equal numbers of protons and electrons and so have a net electric charge of zero. Nothing „cancels“ gravity, since it is only attractive, unlike electric forces which can be attractive or repulsive. On the other hand, all objects having mass are subject to the gravitational force, which only attracts. Therefore, only gravitation matters on the large-scale structure of the universe.

The long range of gravitation makes it responsible for such large-scale phenomena as the structure of galaxies and black holes and, being only attractive, it retards the expansion of the universe. Gravitation also explains astronomical phenomena on more modest scales, such as planetary orbits, as well as everyday experience: objects fall; heavy objects act as if they were glued to the ground, and animals can only jump so high.

Gravitation was the first interaction to be described mathematically. In ancient times, Aristotle hypothesized that objects of different masses fall at different rates. During the Scientific Revolution, Galileo Galilei experimentally determined that this hypothesis was wrong under certain circumstances—neglecting the friction due to air resistance and buoyancy forces if an atmosphere is present (e.g. the case of a dropped air-filled balloon vs a water-filled balloon), all objects accelerate toward the Earth at the same rate. Isaac Newtonʼs law of Universal Gravitation (1687) was a good approximation of the behaviour of gravitation. Present-day understanding of gravitation stems from Einsteinʼs General Theory of Relativity of 1915, a more accurate (especially for cosmological masses and distances) description of gravitation in terms of the geometry of spacetime.

Merging general relativity and quantum mechanics (or quantum field theory) into a more general theory of quantum gravity is an area of active research. It is hypothesized that gravitation is mediated by a massless spin-2 particle called the graviton.

Although general relativity has been experimentally confirmed (at least for weak fields, i.e. not black holes) on all but the smallest scales, there are alternatives to general relativity. These theories must reduce to general relativity in some limit, and the focus of observational work is to establish limits on what deviations from general relativity are possible.

Proposed extra dimensions could explain why the gravity force is so weak.[20]

Electroweak interaction

[tahrir | manbasini tahrirlash]
Asosiy sahifa: Electroweak interaction

Electromagnetism and weak interaction appear to be very different at everyday low energies. They can be modeled using two different theories. However, above unification energy, on the order of 100 GeV, they would merge into a single electroweak force.

The electroweak theory is very important for modern cosmology, particularly on how the universe evolved. This is because shortly after the Big Bang, when the temperature was still above approximately 1015 K, the electromagnetic force and the weak force were still merged as a combined electroweak force.

For contributions to the unification of the weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles, Abdus Salam, Sheldon Glashow and Steven Weinberg were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1979.[21][22]

Electromagnetism

[tahrir | manbasini tahrirlash]
Asosiy sahifa: Electromagnetism

Electromagnetism is the force that acts between electrically charged particles. This phenomenon includes the electrostatic force acting between charged particles at rest, and the combined effect of electric and magnetic forces acting between charged particles moving relative to each other.

Electromagnetism has an infinite range, as gravity does, but is vastly stronger. It is the force that binds electrons to atoms, and it holds molecules together. It is responsible for everyday phenomena like light, magnets, electricity, and friction. Electromagnetism fundamentally determines all macroscopic, and many atomic-level, properties of the chemical elements.

In a four kilogram (~1 gallon) jug of water, there is

of total electron charge. Thus, if we place two such jugs a meter apart, the electrons in one of the jugs repel those in the other jug with a force of

This force is many times larger than the weight of the planet Earth. The atomic nuclei in one jug also repel those in the other with the same force. However, these repulsive forces are canceled by the attraction of the electrons in jug A with the nuclei in jug B and the attraction of the nuclei in jug A with the electrons in jug B, resulting in no net force. Electromagnetic forces are tremendously stronger than gravity, but tend to cancel out so that for astronomical-scale bodies, gravity dominates.

Electrical and magnetic phenomena have been observed since ancient times, but it was only in the 19th century James Clerk Maxwell discovered that electricity and magnetism are two aspects of the same fundamental interaction. By 1864, Maxwell's equations had rigorously quantified this unified interaction. Maxwell’s theory, restated using vector calculus, is the classical theory of electromagnetism, suitable for most technological purposes.

The constant speed of light in vacuum (customarily denoted with a lowercase letter c) can be derived from Maxwell’s equations, which are consistent with the theory of special relativity. Albert Einstein's 1905 theory of special relativity, however, which follows from the observation that the speed of light is constant no matter how fast the observer is moving, showed that the theoretical result implied by Maxwell’s equations has profound implications far beyond electromagnetism on the very nature of time and space.

In another work that departed from classical electro-magnetism, Einstein also explained the photoelectric effect by utilizing Max Planck’s discovery that light was transmitted in 'quantaʼ of specific energy content based on the frequency, which we now call photons. Starting around 1927, Paul Dirac combined quantum mechanics with the relativistic theory of electromagnetism. Further work in the 1940s, by Richard Feynman, Freeman Dyson, Julian Schwinger, and Sin-Itiro Tomonaga, completed this theory, which is now called quantum electrodynamics, the revised theory of electromagnetism. Quantum electrodynamics and quantum mechanics provide a theoretical basis for electromagnetic behavior such as quantum tunneling, in which a certain percentage of electrically charged particles move in ways that would be impossible under the classical electromagnetic theory, that is necessary for everyday electronic devices such as transistors to function.

Weak interaction

[tahrir | manbasini tahrirlash]
Asosiy sahifa: Weak interaction

The weak interaction or weak nuclear force is responsible for some nuclear phenomena such as beta decay. Electromagnetism and the weak force are now understood to be two aspects of a unified electroweak interaction – this discovery was the first step toward the unified theory known as the Standard Model. In the theory of the electroweak interaction, the carriers of the weak force are the massive gauge bosons called the W and Z bosons. The weak interaction is the only known interaction that does not conserve parity; it is left–right asymmetric. The weak interaction even violates CP symmetry but does conserve CPT.

Strong interaction

[tahrir | manbasini tahrirlash]
Asosiy sahifa: Strong interaction

The strong interaction, or strong nuclear force, is the most complicated interaction, mainly because of the way it varies with distance. The nuclear force is powerfully attractive between nucleons at distances of about 1 femtometre (fm, or 10−15 metres), but it rapidly decreases to insignificance at distances beyond about 2.5 fm. At distances less than 0.7 fm, the nuclear force becomes repulsive. This repulsive component is responsible for the physical size of nuclei, since the nucleons can come no closer than the force allows.

After the nucleus was discovered in 1908, it was clear that a new force, today known as the nuclear force, was needed to overcome the electrostatic repulsion, a manifestation of electromagnetism, of the positively charged protons. Otherwise, the nucleus could not exist. Moreover, the force had to be strong enough to squeeze the protons into a volume whose diameter is about 10−15 m, much smaller than that of the entire atom. From the short range of this force, Hideki Yukawa predicted that it was associated with a massive force particle, whose mass is approximately 100 MeV.

The 1947 discovery of the pion ushered in the modern era of particle physics. Hundreds of hadrons were discovered from the 1940s to 1960s, and an extremely complicated theory of hadrons as strongly interacting particles was developed. Most notably:

While each of these approaches offered insights, no approach led directly to a fundamental theory.

Murray Gell-Mann along with George Zweig first proposed fractionally charged quarks in 1961. Throughout the 1960s, different authors considered theories similar to the modern fundamental theory of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) as simple models for the interactions of quarks. The first to hypothesize the gluons of QCD were Moo-Young Han and Yoichiro Nambu, who introduced the quark color charge. Han and Nambu hypothesized that it might be associated with a force-carrying field. At that time, however, it was difficult to see how such a model could permanently confine quarks. Han and Nambu also assigned each quark color an integer electrical charge, so that the quarks were fractionally charged only on average, and they did not expect the quarks in their model to be permanently confined.

In 1971, Murray Gell-Mann and Harald Fritzsch proposed that the Han/Nambu color gauge field was the correct theory of the short-distance interactions of fractionally charged quarks. A little later, David Gross, Frank Wilczek, and David Politzer discovered that this theory had the property of asymptotic freedom, allowing them to make contact with experimental evidence. They concluded that QCD was the complete theory of the strong interactions, correct at all distance scales. The discovery of asymptotic freedom led most physicists to accept QCD since it became clear that even the long-distance properties of the strong interactions could be consistent with experiment if the quarks are permanently confined: the strong force increases indefinitely with distance, trapping quarks inside the hadrons.

Assuming that quarks are confined, Mikhail Shifman, Arkady Vainshtein and Valentine Zakharov were able to compute the properties of many low-lying hadrons directly from QCD, with only a few extra parameters to describe the vacuum. In 1980, Kenneth G. Wilson published computer calculations based on the first principles of QCD, establishing, to a level of confidence tantamount to certainty, that QCD will confine quarks. Since then, QCD has been the established theory of strong interactions.

QCD is a theory of fractionally charged quarks interacting by means of 8 bosonic particles called gluons. The gluons also interact with each other, not just with the quarks, and at long distances the lines of force collimate into strings, loosely modeled by a linear potential, a constant attractive force. In this way, the mathematical theory of QCD not only explains how quarks interact over short distances but also the string-like behavior, discovered by Chew and Frautschi, which they manifest over longer distances.

Higgs interaction

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Conventionally, the Higgs interaction is not counted among the four fundamental forces.[23][24]

Nonetheless, although not a gauge interaction nor generated by any diffeomorphism symmetry, the Higgs field's cubic Yukawa coupling produces a weakly attractive fifth interaction. After spontaneous symmetry breaking via the Higgs mechanism, Yukawa terms remain of the form

,

with Yukawa coupling , particle mass (in eV), and Higgs vacuum expectation value 246.22 GeV. Hence coupled particles can exchange a virtual Higgs boson, yielding classical potentials of the form

,

with Higgs mass 125.18 GeV. Because the reduced Compton wavelength of the Higgs boson is so small (1.576×10−18 m, comparable to the W and Z bosons), this potential has an effective range of a few attometers. Between two electrons, it begins roughly 1011 times weaker than the weak interaction, and grows exponentially weaker at non-zero distances.

Beyond the Standard Model

[tahrir | manbasini tahrirlash]
Asosiy sahifa: Physics beyond the Standard Model
Yana qarang: Elementary particle#Beyond the Standard Model

Numerous theoretical efforts have been made to systematize the existing four fundamental interactions on the model of electroweak unification.

Grand Unified Theories (GUTs) are proposals to show that the three fundamental interactions described by the Standard Model are all different manifestations of a single interaction with symmetries that break down and create separate interactions below some extremely high level of energy. GUTs are also expected to predict some of the relationships between constants of nature that the Standard Model treats as unrelated, as well as predicting gauge coupling unification for the relative strengths of the electromagnetic, weak, and strong forces (this was, for example, verified at the Large Electron–Positron Collider in 1991 for supersymmetric theories).Andoza:Specify

Theories of everything, which integrate GUTs with a quantum gravity theory face a greater barrier, because no quantum gravity theories, which include string theory, loop quantum gravity, and twistor theory, have secured wide acceptance. Some theories look for a graviton to complete the Standard Model list of force-carrying particles, while others, like loop quantum gravity, emphasize the possibility that time-space itself may have a quantum aspect to it.

Some theories beyond the Standard Model include a hypothetical fifth force, and the search for such a force is an ongoing line of experimental physics research. In supersymmetric theories, some particles acquire their masses only through supersymmetry breaking effects and these particles, known as moduli, can mediate new forces. Another reason to look for new forces is the discovery that the expansion of the universe is accelerating (also known as dark energy), giving rise to a need to explain a nonzero cosmological constant, and possibly to other modifications of general relativity. Fifth forces have also been suggested to explain phenomena such as CP violations, dark matter, and dark flow.

See also

[tahrir | manbasini tahrirlash]

References

[tahrir | manbasini tahrirlash]
  1. ↑ Braibant, Sylvie; Giacomelli, Giorgio; Spurio, Maurizio. Particles and Fundamental Interactions: An Introduction to Particle Physics, illustrated, Springer Science & Business Media, 2011 — 109-bet. ISBN 9789400724631.  Extract of page 109
  2. ↑ „The Standard Model of Particle Physics | symmetry magazine“. www.symmetrymagazine.org. Qaraldi: 2018-yil 30-oktyabr.
  3. ↑ Shivni, Rashmi. „The Planck scale“ (en). symmetry magazine. Fermilab/SLAC (2016-yil 16-may). Qaraldi: 2018-yil 30-oktyabr.
  4. ↑ „The Nobel Prize in Physics 1979“ (en-US). NobelPrize.org. Qaraldi: 2018-yil 30-oktyabr.
  5. ↑ „The Nobel Prize in Physics 1979“ (en-US). NobelPrize.org. Qaraldi: 2018-yil 30-oktyabr.
  6. ↑ „The Nobel Prize in Physics 1979“ (en-US). NobelPrize.org. Qaraldi: 2018-yil 30-oktyabr.
  7. ↑ „Newton's Laws of Motion“. www.grc.nasa.gov. NASA.
  8. ↑ „Newton's law of gravitation | Definition, Formula, & Facts“ (en). Encyclopedia Britannica. Qaraldi: 2021-yil 22-mart.
  9. ↑ Nauenberg, Michael (October 2018). "Newton's graphical method for central force orbits". American Journal of Physics 86 (10): 765–771. doi:10.1119/1.5050620. 
  10. ↑ Newtonʼs absolute space was a medium, but not one transmitting gravitation.
  11. ↑ Henry, John (March 2011). "Gravity and De gravitatione: the development of Newton's ideas on action at a distance". Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A 42 (1): 11–27. doi:10.1016/j.shpsa.2010.11.025. https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/9845098/HENRY_2011_Gravity_and_de_gravitatione.pdf. 
  12. ↑ Faraday, Michael (2012). Experimental Researches in Electricity. doi:10.1017/cbo9781139383165.018. 
  13. ↑ Goldin, Gerald A.; Shtelen, Vladimir M. (February 2001). "On Galilean invariance and nonlinearity in electrodynamics and quantum mechanics". Physics Letters A 279 (5–6): 321–326. doi:10.1016/S0375-9601(01)00017-2. "no fully Galilean-covariant theory of a coupled Schrödinger-Maxwell system (where the density and current of the Schrödinger field act as source of the nonrelativistic Maxwell field) is possible" 
  14. ↑ Farhoudi, Mehrdad; Yousefian, Maysam (May 2016). "Ether and Relativity". International Journal of Theoretical Physics 55 (5): 2436–2454. doi:10.1007/s10773-015-2881-y. 
  15. ↑ Meinard Kuhlmann, „Physicists debate whether the world is made of particles or fields—or something else entirely“, Scientific American, 24 Jul 2013.
  16. ↑ Krauss, Lawrence M. (2017-03-16). "A Brief History of the Grand Unified Theory of Physics". Nautilus. http://nautil.us/issue/46/balance/a-brief-history-of-the-grand-unified-theory-of-physics. 
  17. ↑ Approximate. See Coupling constant for more exact strengths, depending on the particles and energies involved.
  18. ↑ Salam, Abdus (2020). "Fundamental interaction" (en). Access Science. doi:10.1036/1097-8542.275600. https://www.accessscience.com/content/fundamental-interaction/275600. 
  19. ↑ Siegel, Ethan. „What Is The Strongest Force In The Universe?“ (en). Starts With a Bang (2016). Qaraldi: 2021-yil 22-mart.
  20. ↑ CERN. „Extra dimensions, gravitons, and tiny black holes“ (2012-yil 20-yanvar).
  21. ↑ Bais, Sander (2005), The Equations. Icons of knowledge, ISBN 978-0-674-01967-6 p.84
  22. ↑ „The Nobel Prize in Physics 1979“. The Nobel Foundation. Qaraldi: 2008-yil 16-dekabr.
  23. ↑ „fundamental force | Definition, List, & Facts“ (en). Encyclopedia Britannica. Qaraldi: 2021-yil 22-mart.
  24. ↑ „The Standard Model“ (en). CERN. Qaraldi: 2021-yil 22-mart.

Bibliography

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