Books by Mariam al-Attar
فلسفة عبد اللطيف البغدادي, 1996
رسالة ماجستير باشراف الأستاذ الدكتور سحبان خليفات رحمه الله عام 1996 في قسم الفلسفة - الجامعة الأ... more رسالة ماجستير باشراف الأستاذ الدكتور سحبان خليفات رحمه الله عام 1996 في قسم الفلسفة - الجامعة الأردنية
Islamic Ethics: Divine Command Theory in Arabo-Islamic Thought, 2010
The book investigate the theories and ideas that are developed in Arabo-Islamic thought and under... more The book investigate the theories and ideas that are developed in Arabo-Islamic thought and underscore its ethical significance. The introduction sketches the development of Islamic ethical though, reviews previous literature on Islamic ethics, explains the framework and the methodology and explains concepts and theories used in the rest of the chapter such as normative ethic, metaethics and ethical voluntarism.
First chapter: "Theoretical and historical backgrounds" analyses Euthyphro's dialogue and underscores its relevance to Islamic ethics and sheds light on some historical developments relevant to Euthyphro's dilemma.
Second chapter: "Ethical Presuppositions of the Qur'an and the Hadith" focuses on Divine justice and human free will in the Qur'an, the ontological status of ethical values concepts and the source of ethical knowledge according to Islamic scripture.
Third chapter: "Pre-Mu'tazilite Ethical Doctrines" focuses on the ethically significant doctrines of the Kharijites and the Murji'ites.
The fourth chapter: "Mu'tazilites ethics" provides a moral interpretation of their five principles.
The fifth chapter: "Ethics of 'Abd al-Jabbar" studies the presuppositions of ethical judgments of al-Qadi 'Abd al-Jabbar al-Asadabadi.
The sixth chapter "Analysis of Normative ethical Judgments" analyses normative judgments developed by the Mu'tazilites and sheds some light on the post-Mu'tazilite or Ash'arite moral theory.
The last two chapters are primarily concerned in interpreting Mu'tazilite ethics and reconstruct a moral theory, based on the Basrian Mu'tazilite moral thought, that can appeal to the contemporary reader interested in moral philosophy.
Book chapter by Mariam al-Attar
While we can agree that within the framework of Islamic faith Shariʿa is divine and just, the pro... more While we can agree that within the framework of Islamic faith Shariʿa is divine and just, the problem is that it is often erroneously conflated with the body of legal rulings (fiqh) that were formulated by pre-modern jurists. Islamic Shariʿa, as many modern Muslim scholars have persuasively argued, is first and foremost an ethical paradigm that presents the totality of the moral teachings and norms found in the Qurʾan and Sunna. However, the understanding of Shariʿa as an ethical paradigm (and the implications of this) remains a perspective that is not widely shared. Even if that understanding is to successfully take root, there are still further important questions with which we need to grapple. Such questions have been largely ignored by contemporary Muslim scholars. They include: What is the nature of morality and what sources of moral knowledge could inform egalitarian Muslim gender norms? Are norms simply to be discovered from textual sources or the natural world? What is the role of human reasoning and, specifically, ethical reasoning in these processes? And what shapes and characterizes the kind of ethical reasoning that can unmask patriarchy and lay the foundation for gender equality? Although theoretical, these questions are important for establishing a philosophical foundation for ethical thought.
Routledge Handbook of Islamic Law, 2019
The first section of this chapter investigates the meaning and the implications of Divine Command... more The first section of this chapter investigates the meaning and the implications of Divine Command Theory associated, in the Islamic tradition, with the Ash‘arite school of theology. The second section attempts to shed light on some conceptual and historical background. It briefly traces the development of the controversy over the meaning of moral values and the use of reason in deriving ethico-legal judgments from the early beginnings until the rise of Ash‘arism. In the third section, special attention is given to what I choose to call ‘Common Morality Theory’, associated with the Mu’tazilite school of thought and the early Muslim jurists (fuqahā’). Whereas the fourth section focuses on ‘Divine Purposes Theory’ commonly known as Maqāṣid al-Sharī‘ah. I argue that the last theory is closer to common morality than to Divine Command Theory, regardless of the fact that most of the proponents of the maqāṣid explicitly endorsed Divine Command Theory (DCT). Thus, the main concern of the last part of this chapter is the position of those who belonged to the Ash‘arites, yet in their fiqh and legal theory deviated from the maxims of a classical Divine Command Theory established by Abu Ḥasan al-Ash‘arī (d.324/936). The significance of Maqāṣid al-Sharī‘ah or the Divine Purposes Theory lies in the fact that many contemporary Muslim reformers rely on this theory in their efforts to reform Islamic law.
The Routledge Companion to Islamic Philosophy, 2015
Divine Command Theory (DCT) is a moral theory with definite metaphysical assumptions. It has neve... more Divine Command Theory (DCT) is a moral theory with definite metaphysical assumptions. It has never lacked adherents among the followers of the three Abrahamic traditions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Different aspects of the theory were emphasized by different authors and thus different labels were given to the same theory. George Hourani called it “theistic subjectivism” emphasizing the fact that it denies anything objective in the acts themselves which would make them good or bad (Hourani 1985: 15). It has also been labeled as “theological voluntarism,” emphasizing the fact that, according to this theory, it is the divine free will—which is not subject to any reason or requirements—that establishes morality and renders any action good or evil by command and prohibition. The central assumption of this view, which we choose to call Divine Command Theory (DCT), is that God is absolutely free to command anything, and that entails both aspects emphasized by those who called it ethical voluntarism and theistic subjectivism. What is sometimes called Modified Divine Command Theory which presupposes the goodness, love or purposefulness of God is not really a Divine Command Theory, since the ultimate basis of morality will then lie in the purposes or in a certain conception of good and bad rather than the commands and the prohibitions themselves. A Divine Command Theory which supports its argument by claiming that God is identical to the property of goodness or rightness is properly speaking incoherent and unintelligible. “A Divine Command Theory worthy of the name says that to be right is to be commanded by God, and to be wrong is to be forbidden by God” (Tuggi 2005: 53). It seems that in Christianity, as in Islam, theologians have adhered to the theory in order to preserve God’s free will and omnipotence, since “the view that God’s will is subject to independent standards of right and wrong, good and evil, appears to compromise His omnipotence” (Wainwright 2005: 74). Hence, “the Divine Command Theory has traditionally been associated with a particular conception of God’s nature, one which emphasises His absolute power and freedom, and consequently 316the unknowability of His will by human reason” (Chandler 1985: 238). Nevertheless some hold different views and uphold different versions and interpretations of the theory, and refer to it as a “Modified Divine Command Theory” (Adams 1981).
Papers by Mariam al-Attar
Journal of Islamic Ethics
The aim of this article is to critique the meta-ethical foundation of the purposes of law theory ... more The aim of this article is to critique the meta-ethical foundation of the purposes of law theory (maqāṣid al-sharīʿa). It starts by introducing the Ashʿarite meta-ethics, and in two subsections briefly elucidates the perceived relation between meta-ethics and normative ethics and the relation between ethics, Islamic jurisprudence (uṣūl al-fiqh) and speculative theology (ʿilm al-kalām). The article examines the meta-ethical presup-positions of the Qurʾan, arguing that Qurʾanic ethics allows for rethinking the meta-ethical foundation of the maqāṣid, since it accepts objective moral values and allows for moral epistemology that is based on reason. The last and the longest section of the article develops arguments that would admit human reason in formulating the maqāṣid and suggests that this requires a different ethical foundation, one that is closer to the Muʿtazilite conception of morality. The arguments are based on the work of some classical and contemporary scholars who have noted the contradiction in the traditional maqāṣid theory, and on the views of those scholars whose ethical views and principles expressed an understanding of morality that contradicts with ethical voluntarism or 'divine command theory' in ethics. The theory of maqāṣid is here clearly presumed to be a normative one rather than simply descriptive. Keywords Islamic ethics – maqāṣid al-sharīʿa – Muʿtazila, Ashāʿira – divine command theory – natural law – Qurʾan and ethics.
Relevance and Interest:
This article seeks to engage not only those readers who are interested i... more Relevance and Interest:
This article seeks to engage not only those readers who are interested in understanding some aspects of the reasoning related to genetically modified food/GMOs controversy in the Muslim world, but also those readers interested in issues related to Islamic ethics in general, because it sheds light on various ethical arguments provided by Muslims and attempts to critically analyze various perspectives by unveiling and assessing certain theological, cultural and political assumptions. I believe that the article’s relevance and interest stems from the fact that it focuses on the issue of the GMOs as a target for deliberation against the background of economic globalization on one side and global ethics on the other.
This article critiques some Islamic approaches to food ethics and the debate over genetically modified (GM) food. Food ethics is a branch of bioethics, and is an emerging field in Islamic bioethics. The article critically analyzes the arguments of the authors who wrote in favor of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) from
an Islamic perspective, and those who wrote against GMOs, also from an Islamic perspective. It reveals the theological and the epistemological foundations of the two main approaches. Moreover, it provides an attempt to critique what is perceived as an exclusivist and legalistic trend adopted by some authors. It argues that an alternative approach that acknowledges the priority of reason in ethics and is at the same time rooted in Islamic tradition would be more inclusive and constructive.
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 2011
ABSTRACT -
Drafts and pre-print copies by Mariam al-Attar
This chapter aims at developing a doctrine of moral pluralism based on Islamic intellectual tradi... more This chapter aims at developing a doctrine of moral pluralism based on Islamic intellectual tradition. It draws upon modern concepts to differentiate between religious and moral pluralism on ones side and moral pluralism and ethical relativism on the other side. It shows that two concepts form the foundation of moral pluralism, namely the concept of universality, which includes core moral principles and the concept of the plurality of moral values. The two essential concepts are identified in the Islamic intellectual tradition represented by the MuꜤtazilite and AshꜤarite theories. Those are the theory of rational obligation developed by the MuꜤtazila and the theory of maqāṣid al-shariꜤa or the purposes of law developed by the late AshꜤarites. The two theories combined can provide us with a theory of moral pluralism that is authentic and contemporary.
Beyond the Traditional Considerations of Ḥalāl and Ḥarām : Genetically Engineered Food as an Ex... more Beyond the Traditional Considerations of Ḥalāl and Ḥarām : Genetically Engineered Food as an Example
Mariam al-Attar
Brief Abstract
I argue for an Islamic food ethics that goes beyond the Traditional Considerations of Ḥalāl and Ḥarām, for an approach to food ethics that would take into consideration issues related to justice and sustainability. Controversial issues in Islamic food ethics, such as animal slaughter and genetically engineered (GE) food products are investigated in this chapter.
Arguments related to animal slaughter usually focus on whether stunning animals before slaughter is ḥalāl. However, I argue that what really matters is how to reduce the number of animals that need to be killed for food rather than how to slaughter them. Arguments related to GE food mainly focus on whether the benefits of GE food outweigh any unforeseen harms, disregarding issues related to global justice that are in the heart of the GE controversy.
The first part of this chapter briefly presents traditional religious considerations of ḥalāl food, and then moves to consider arguments related to animal slaughter. However, the largest part of the is dedicated to issues related to GE food. The claim made by the proponents of GE that it will increase yield and contribute to the alleviation of hunger is exposed, largely drawing upon the documents published by the Union of Concerned Scientists. Drawing upon Thomas Pogge, it is shown that research related to poverty and hunger is being manipulated by big industry players that benefit from the status quo. It is argued that the introduction of GE crops has corresponded to an increasing monopolization of seed by biotechnology companies. Life itself has been manipulated, picked apart, re-assembled—and then patented and monopolized. Numerous verses in the Qur’an prohibit injustice, the practice of monopolizing food falls under this framework. Any items that promote and facilitate the monopolization of food should therefore be banned, including GE crops.
Conference Presentations by Mariam al-Attar
This paper traces the development of women's empowerment discourse in the Arab world and focuses ... more This paper traces the development of women's empowerment discourse in the Arab world and focuses on the development of the discourse in Jordan and reflects on some issues concerning contemporary women thought in Jordan. One can recognize five stage of women's empowerment discourse in the Arab world. The first stage witnessed the emergence of the discourse during the Arabic literary renaissance, known as Al-Nahda, in the nineteenth century. Refaa' Al Tahtawi, the founder of modern Arab Thought and women's discourse, was the first to call for this in Egypt. He called for women's education, and giving them equal rights as men. The second stage was during the late 19th century and early 20th century. During this stage many intellectuals, some with religious and others with secular background, realized the backwardness of women's status and demanded a reform. Mohammed Abdoo, Tahar Haddad, and Nazira Zeanaldin are some of significant intellectuals with religious background, who set the foundations for the " Rational Interpretation " of the Islamic tradition. They focused on the purposes of the Qura'nic verses that suit the modern age emphasizing the core meaning, such as monotheism, morals, justice and equality among people, and demanded that men should admit that women are equal in mind and status. On the other hand, and during the same stage, thinkers and writers with a secular reference, such as: Kasim Amean, Zeanab Fwaz, Eiasha Tymoria, May Ziyada, Douria Shafeak, Huda Sharawe, Farah Antoon, Amean Alreahani, Jubran khalil Jubran, and Slama Mousa emphasized the principles of rationality, freedom, justice, and equality. And some criticized the religious laws and traditions that discriminate between women and men, and isolate women and deprive them from being involved in social, cultural, and economic activities. Yet, they haven't offered many practical solutions for the oppression of women, and mainly described women's conditions, calling for reform. The third stage in the mid of the 20 th century, witnessed the rise of Women's liberating activities, focusing on women's right to vote in elections as well as nomination. However, women's issues were not discussed in depth, as women activists were more concerned with pressing political issues in the Arab world. In the fourth stage, during the third quarter of the 20 th century, discussions about Arab women's conditions and suffering increased as well as the defenders of women's rights. This is possibly due to the influence of feminist thought on Arab intellectuals and scholars who attended western universities and read Marx and Engels work on women. In view of that, a feminist discourse, representing rational, progressive, and secular thought, was promoted by a number of Arab philosophers and thinkers. This discourse was characterized by addressing women's issues deeply and avoiding to discuss and tackle them as a religious matter. Nawal Al-Sadawi, Elham Mansour, Yumna Tareef Al Khouli, are prominent intellectuals that represent this discourse. Arab philosophers and thinkers such as Adel Daher, Nasief Nassar,
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Books by Mariam al-Attar
First chapter: "Theoretical and historical backgrounds" analyses Euthyphro's dialogue and underscores its relevance to Islamic ethics and sheds light on some historical developments relevant to Euthyphro's dilemma.
Second chapter: "Ethical Presuppositions of the Qur'an and the Hadith" focuses on Divine justice and human free will in the Qur'an, the ontological status of ethical values concepts and the source of ethical knowledge according to Islamic scripture.
Third chapter: "Pre-Mu'tazilite Ethical Doctrines" focuses on the ethically significant doctrines of the Kharijites and the Murji'ites.
The fourth chapter: "Mu'tazilites ethics" provides a moral interpretation of their five principles.
The fifth chapter: "Ethics of 'Abd al-Jabbar" studies the presuppositions of ethical judgments of al-Qadi 'Abd al-Jabbar al-Asadabadi.
The sixth chapter "Analysis of Normative ethical Judgments" analyses normative judgments developed by the Mu'tazilites and sheds some light on the post-Mu'tazilite or Ash'arite moral theory.
The last two chapters are primarily concerned in interpreting Mu'tazilite ethics and reconstruct a moral theory, based on the Basrian Mu'tazilite moral thought, that can appeal to the contemporary reader interested in moral philosophy.
Book chapter by Mariam al-Attar
Papers by Mariam al-Attar
This article seeks to engage not only those readers who are interested in understanding some aspects of the reasoning related to genetically modified food/GMOs controversy in the Muslim world, but also those readers interested in issues related to Islamic ethics in general, because it sheds light on various ethical arguments provided by Muslims and attempts to critically analyze various perspectives by unveiling and assessing certain theological, cultural and political assumptions. I believe that the article’s relevance and interest stems from the fact that it focuses on the issue of the GMOs as a target for deliberation against the background of economic globalization on one side and global ethics on the other.
This article critiques some Islamic approaches to food ethics and the debate over genetically modified (GM) food. Food ethics is a branch of bioethics, and is an emerging field in Islamic bioethics. The article critically analyzes the arguments of the authors who wrote in favor of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) from
an Islamic perspective, and those who wrote against GMOs, also from an Islamic perspective. It reveals the theological and the epistemological foundations of the two main approaches. Moreover, it provides an attempt to critique what is perceived as an exclusivist and legalistic trend adopted by some authors. It argues that an alternative approach that acknowledges the priority of reason in ethics and is at the same time rooted in Islamic tradition would be more inclusive and constructive.
Drafts and pre-print copies by Mariam al-Attar
Mariam al-Attar
Brief Abstract
I argue for an Islamic food ethics that goes beyond the Traditional Considerations of Ḥalāl and Ḥarām, for an approach to food ethics that would take into consideration issues related to justice and sustainability. Controversial issues in Islamic food ethics, such as animal slaughter and genetically engineered (GE) food products are investigated in this chapter.
Arguments related to animal slaughter usually focus on whether stunning animals before slaughter is ḥalāl. However, I argue that what really matters is how to reduce the number of animals that need to be killed for food rather than how to slaughter them. Arguments related to GE food mainly focus on whether the benefits of GE food outweigh any unforeseen harms, disregarding issues related to global justice that are in the heart of the GE controversy.
The first part of this chapter briefly presents traditional religious considerations of ḥalāl food, and then moves to consider arguments related to animal slaughter. However, the largest part of the is dedicated to issues related to GE food. The claim made by the proponents of GE that it will increase yield and contribute to the alleviation of hunger is exposed, largely drawing upon the documents published by the Union of Concerned Scientists. Drawing upon Thomas Pogge, it is shown that research related to poverty and hunger is being manipulated by big industry players that benefit from the status quo. It is argued that the introduction of GE crops has corresponded to an increasing monopolization of seed by biotechnology companies. Life itself has been manipulated, picked apart, re-assembled—and then patented and monopolized. Numerous verses in the Qur’an prohibit injustice, the practice of monopolizing food falls under this framework. Any items that promote and facilitate the monopolization of food should therefore be banned, including GE crops.
Conference Presentations by Mariam al-Attar
First chapter: "Theoretical and historical backgrounds" analyses Euthyphro's dialogue and underscores its relevance to Islamic ethics and sheds light on some historical developments relevant to Euthyphro's dilemma.
Second chapter: "Ethical Presuppositions of the Qur'an and the Hadith" focuses on Divine justice and human free will in the Qur'an, the ontological status of ethical values concepts and the source of ethical knowledge according to Islamic scripture.
Third chapter: "Pre-Mu'tazilite Ethical Doctrines" focuses on the ethically significant doctrines of the Kharijites and the Murji'ites.
The fourth chapter: "Mu'tazilites ethics" provides a moral interpretation of their five principles.
The fifth chapter: "Ethics of 'Abd al-Jabbar" studies the presuppositions of ethical judgments of al-Qadi 'Abd al-Jabbar al-Asadabadi.
The sixth chapter "Analysis of Normative ethical Judgments" analyses normative judgments developed by the Mu'tazilites and sheds some light on the post-Mu'tazilite or Ash'arite moral theory.
The last two chapters are primarily concerned in interpreting Mu'tazilite ethics and reconstruct a moral theory, based on the Basrian Mu'tazilite moral thought, that can appeal to the contemporary reader interested in moral philosophy.
This article seeks to engage not only those readers who are interested in understanding some aspects of the reasoning related to genetically modified food/GMOs controversy in the Muslim world, but also those readers interested in issues related to Islamic ethics in general, because it sheds light on various ethical arguments provided by Muslims and attempts to critically analyze various perspectives by unveiling and assessing certain theological, cultural and political assumptions. I believe that the article’s relevance and interest stems from the fact that it focuses on the issue of the GMOs as a target for deliberation against the background of economic globalization on one side and global ethics on the other.
This article critiques some Islamic approaches to food ethics and the debate over genetically modified (GM) food. Food ethics is a branch of bioethics, and is an emerging field in Islamic bioethics. The article critically analyzes the arguments of the authors who wrote in favor of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) from
an Islamic perspective, and those who wrote against GMOs, also from an Islamic perspective. It reveals the theological and the epistemological foundations of the two main approaches. Moreover, it provides an attempt to critique what is perceived as an exclusivist and legalistic trend adopted by some authors. It argues that an alternative approach that acknowledges the priority of reason in ethics and is at the same time rooted in Islamic tradition would be more inclusive and constructive.
Mariam al-Attar
Brief Abstract
I argue for an Islamic food ethics that goes beyond the Traditional Considerations of Ḥalāl and Ḥarām, for an approach to food ethics that would take into consideration issues related to justice and sustainability. Controversial issues in Islamic food ethics, such as animal slaughter and genetically engineered (GE) food products are investigated in this chapter.
Arguments related to animal slaughter usually focus on whether stunning animals before slaughter is ḥalāl. However, I argue that what really matters is how to reduce the number of animals that need to be killed for food rather than how to slaughter them. Arguments related to GE food mainly focus on whether the benefits of GE food outweigh any unforeseen harms, disregarding issues related to global justice that are in the heart of the GE controversy.
The first part of this chapter briefly presents traditional religious considerations of ḥalāl food, and then moves to consider arguments related to animal slaughter. However, the largest part of the is dedicated to issues related to GE food. The claim made by the proponents of GE that it will increase yield and contribute to the alleviation of hunger is exposed, largely drawing upon the documents published by the Union of Concerned Scientists. Drawing upon Thomas Pogge, it is shown that research related to poverty and hunger is being manipulated by big industry players that benefit from the status quo. It is argued that the introduction of GE crops has corresponded to an increasing monopolization of seed by biotechnology companies. Life itself has been manipulated, picked apart, re-assembled—and then patented and monopolized. Numerous verses in the Qur’an prohibit injustice, the practice of monopolizing food falls under this framework. Any items that promote and facilitate the monopolization of food should therefore be banned, including GE crops.