RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS FOR DATA COLLECTION (Updated)

RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS FOR DATA COLLECTION WHAT ARE RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS These are the fact finding strategies. They are the tools for data collection. There is no doubt that in Educational Research, data collection, forms an essential component of the research process. This is because it enables the researcher to obtain relevant information or gain the experience of others from which he or she imbibes lessons for the enrichment of his report. In this respect, different procedures and data collection instruments have to be employed. These principally include questionnaire, interview, observation, reading and transcribing. Since data collected specifically in qualitative research has to help in answering research questions, the researcher must carefully select the informants (respondents) to be interviewed or administered with questionnaire. He must carefully choose relevant documents to be read or visual materials to be observed. This means that research question or statement of hypothesis significant in quantitative research determines the appropriate data collection instrument for a research. Essentially the researcher must ensure that the instrument chosen is valid and reliable. In data collection, it is important to find out which instrument or tool will better serve the purpose of the study, in order to obtain the right information that will answer the research questions. Please note that the validity and reliability of any research project depends largely on the appropriateness of such instruments. Whatever procedure one uses to collect data, it must primarily be critically examined to check the extent at which it is likely to give you the expected results. Today, the use of both digital and analogue recorders enhance data collection. Technical gadgets such as the audio and video recorders, cameras, telephones, computers, fax, and e- mail systems have gained importance as auxiliary tools and equipment in the data collection processes. Sketching in drawing is one of the traditional artistic skills, by which fine artists, industrial designers and architectural designers collect data for studio and design-based research. NOTE: Do not commence Data Collection exercise when; 1. a research problem and suitable topic has not been identified and stated 2. your aims and objectives have not been specified 3. the research question has not been stated 4. your hypothesis, if necessary, has not been stated. The above, obviously sets the parameters within which the scope and delimitations of an academic research activity can be defined. Compiled by Godfred Y. Annum (PhD) KNUST Gh. Updat ed: 22/ 10/ 2020 21:10 Personal Websit e: ht t ps:/ / sit es.google.com/ sit e/ godfredannum/ Email : [email protected] page 1 Questionnaire • This is a data collection instrument mostly used in normative surveys. This is a systematically prepared form or document with a set of questions deliberately designed to elicit responses from respondents or research informants for the purpose of collecting data or information. • It is a form of inquiry document, which contains a systematically compiled and well organised series of questions intended to elicit the information which will provide insight into the nature of the problem under study. • It is a form that contains a set of questions on a topic or group of topics designed to be answered by the respondent. • The respondents are the population samples of the study. The answers provided by the respondents constitute the data for the report. The effective use of questionnaire for data collection depends on the mode of formulation and administration of the questions, the medium of delivering the questionnaire and the method of contacting respondents for retrieval of the questionnaire. These modes affect the credibility and quality of the data obtained. Note that the respondent is not under any obligation to respond to the questionnaire. The respondent therefore has to be influenced in order to submit accurate data to the questions administered. Read more for some expect strategies. Types of Questionnaire Questionnaires may be designed as Structured (closed form) or Unstructured, (open ended form). Structured questionnaire They are those in which some control or guidance is given for the answer. This may be described as closed form because the questions are basically short, requiring the respondent to provide a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ response, or checking an item out of a list of given responses. Questions that require yes or no answers are also termed as Dichotomous questions. It may, also be multiple choice options from which the respondent selects the answer closer to their own opinion. The respondent's choices are limited to the set of options provided. Unstructured questionnaire This type, which is also termed as open-ended or unrestricted type of questionnaire calls for a free response in the respondent's own words. The respondent frames and supplies the answer to the question raised in the questionnaire. It also constitutes questions which give the respondent an opportunity to express his or her opinions from a set of options. Spaces are often provided for respondents to make their inputs. Compiled by Godfred Y. Annum (PhD) KNUST Gh. Updat ed: 22/ 10/ 2020 21:10 Personal Websit e: ht t ps:/ / sit es.google.com/ sit e/ godfredannum/ Email : [email protected] page 2 Interviews Interviews become necessary when researchers feel the need to meet face-to-face with individuals to interact and generate ideas in a discourse that borders on mutual interest. It is an interaction in which oral questions are posed by the interviewer to elicit oral response from the interviewee. Specifically with research interviews, the researcher has to identify a potential source of information, and structure the interaction in a manner that will bring out relevant information from his respondent. The creation of a cordial atmosphere is therefore vital to the success of such an interaction. Apart from face-to-face interviews, they can also be conducted over the phone or the computer terminal via video conferencing technology. Interviews range from formal to less formal and to completely informal interviews. There are four principal types of interview: (a) the structured interview; (b) the unstructured interview; (c) the non-directive interview; and (d) the focus interview. Structured Interviews The Structured Interviews are formal because, sets of questions known as interview questionnaire are posed to each interviewee visited and the responses are recorded on a standardized schedule. It is therefore characterised as being a closed interview situation. In structured interview, the interviewer follows a set pattern usually adhering as much as possible to the order of questions on the interview questionnaire whilst posing the questions in a formal manner. Interviewers must always ensure that the atmosphere of an interview is congenial to establish interviewer-interviewee rapport. Unstructured Interview The Unstructured Interview is the less formal type in which although sets of questions may be used, the interviewer freely modifies the sequence of questions, changes the wording and sometimes explains them or adds to them during the interaction. Hence the researcher has to be careful in order not to deviate from his focus. The atmosphere is often casual. This is conducted in what is characterised as an opened situation because there is more flexibility and freedom in the interaction. Non-Directive Interview The Non-Directive Interview or the unguided gives excessive freedom for the respondent to express his or her ideas subjectively and spontaneously as she chooses or is able to. There are no set questions in this style. It is the most appropriate type of interview to use when investigating issues where the respondent has to be allowed to talk uninterrupted on a very broad topic which will unconsciously reveal personal motives, feelings, attitudes etc. Compiled by Godfred Y. Annum (PhD) KNUST Gh. Updat ed: 22/ 10/ 2020 21:10 Personal Websit e: ht t ps:/ / sit es.google.com/ sit e/ godfredannum/ Email : [email protected] page 3 Focus Interview Focus Interview as the name suggests, focuses on the respondent’s subjective responses and experience on the subject matter to elicit more information. This method is used by researchers to render the non-directive interview more interviewer control with the use of verbal cues that serve as a stimulus to inspire respondents to volunteer more information on the subject. As the story unfolds the researcher can hum in approval of what the respondent submits or chip in a stimulating question to encourage the flow of the conversation. Transcribing Audio-visual recordings on mediums like CD's and DVD's have become major sources of soft data which researchers rely on during data collection. Other sources include you-tube. Such soft data and those recorded from verbal interaction with respondents during interviews have to be transcribed. (i.e. convert the speech sound into words as accurately as possible). This is an essential tool in linguistics where recorded speech is systematically represented in a specific language. A message in a written text from a particular language can also be transcribed into a new language. This is often described as translation. Transcription must be made from the original recordings of any speech or interview. Even though interviews are always dotted with non-verbal communication such as hand, face and body gestures, they must not influence the transcription in anyway. It is also not appropriate to put words in the respondent’s mouth as one transcribes. Transcription has mainly been carried out through the manual use of pencil and paper, using an analogue sound recorder as in Cassette tape recorders. In this digital age however, special computer software are used to transcribe into electronic documents. Example is the ANVIL (Annotation of Video and Language Data) and ‘Dragon software’ which is speaker dependent speech recognition. The software are designed to accurately transcribe the voice of a single speaker. A user simply speaks out loud the text that he or she wants to appear on the screen into the microphone. A user can also dictate an article or presentation directly to the computer or by playing back his/her voice from a digital recorder and the software will execute the transcription. In absence of this, word processing software like Microsoft Word can be used to manually type the text whilst listening to the recordings. Observation The study of various categories of images: Audio-visual Materials (videotapes, tape recordings and films) photographs, natural objects (plants, humans), inanimate objects, art objects, multi-media graphics on computer screen, computer software, to mention a few, fall under this type of data collection procedure. Researchers who use this instrument (observation) directly conduct an analytical study of the type of Compiled by Godfred Y. Annum (PhD) KNUST Gh. Updat ed: 22/ 10/ 2020 21:10 Personal Websit e: ht t ps:/ / sit es.google.com/ sit e/ godfredannum/ Email : [email protected] page 4 image being observed using their natural sense of sight. The procedure is creatively engaging and captures attention visually. Observation is one of the very important instruments for obtaining comprehensive data in qualitative research especially when a composite of both oral and visual data become vital to the research. It is also vital in quantitative research especially during titration experiments as well as drug efficacy testing. It is a preferred tool for studying children, illiterates, patients in psychiatric medical practice and others who generally cannot be tested with writing instruments. It is also useful for data collection in art studio practice where a lot of observation of artistic objects and figures take place for idea development. Fine artists, industrial artists and graphic designers employ sketching as they observe nature to collect data in practice-based or design-based research. A researcher obviously needs an audio-visual recorder to complement the data collection exercise in order to obtain a comprehensive record. By the use of observation strategy, researchers are able to obtain first hand information about objects, and eventful happenings like durbar and festivals. The possibility of distorting facts and records is reduced to the barest minimum. One major disadvantage is that the presence of a photographer or a video recording technician may be intrusive to affect an observee to act indifferently thereby invalidating data. The procedure should therefore be unobtrusive to enable observees to share their real experience devoid of falsifications and distortions. With this instrument, the researcher may become a 1. Participant observer or 2. Non-participant observer. Participant Observer: In this type of observation the researcher lives as a member of the subjects of the study while observing and keeping notes of the attributes of the subject that is being researched so that he can directly experience, the phenomenon being studied. Even though he is seen by the subjects of the study, he conceals his real identity as a researcher. By this approach the researcher achieves close and intimate familiarity with the subjects (e.g. group of individuals in a religious organisation or educational institution, occupational commonality, sub cultural groups, a particular community or even a particular individual). Participant observation enables researcher to gain firsthand experience and interaction with informants, which helps them to understand their way of life. This is the type of observation, which deals with covert investigation for which information may be sensitive and informants may feel uncomfortable to disclose. Investigative journalists and criminal investigators employ this type of scheme to unravel clandestine heinous dealings in society. Compiled by Godfred Y. Annum (PhD) KNUST Gh. Updat ed: 22/ 10/ 2020 21:10 Personal Websit e: ht t ps:/ / sit es.google.com/ sit e/ godfredannum/ Email : [email protected] page 5 Non-Participant Observer: In this approach the researcher does not live as a member of the subjects of the study. The researcher watches the subjects of his or her study, with their knowledge of his status as a researcher, but without taking an active part in the situation under study. This approach is sometimes criticized on the grounds that the very fact of they are being observed may lead people to behave indifferently, thus invalidating the data obtained. Reading of Documents Although reading is more to do with literature review of relevant theories, it is also an instrument for studying public documents such as newspapers, minutes of meetings and private documents such as letters, biographies, diaries etc., to enable the researcher obtain the language and words of informants who may not be alive at the time of the research. The limitation or difficulty in this approach is that the documents may be protected and researchers may not have access to them either because they are national security documents or confidential documents. An advantage is that such documents can be studied at both the researcher and the informant's convenience. Researchers must ensure to acknowledge the sources of their reading materials to safeguard acts of plagiarism. Major Sources of Public Documents include: 1. Public records (governmental agencies) 7. Social-media channels (internet) 8. Official gazettes 2. Archival records (Museums) 9. Minutes of meetings 3. Biographical records 10. Blue prints 4. Confidential records (Police reports) 11. Visual documents (art works) 5. Print-media (Newspapers) 6. Electronic-media (Radio/Television) Supporting Reference Sources Alhassan S. (2007). Modern Approaches to Research in Administration, Payless Publication Limited, Revised Edition. Educational Cohen, L., Manion, L. & Morrison, K. (1994). Research Methods in Education, th Routledge London, 5 Edition. Kumar, K. L. (1997). Educational Technology: A Pratical Textbook for Student, Teachers, Professionals and Trainers. New Delhi: New Age International publishers, p 34. Kumekpor, T.K.B. (2002). Research Methods and Techniques of Social Research, SonLife Printing Press Compiled by Godfred Y. Annum (PhD) KNUST Gh. Updat ed: 22/ 10/ 2020 21:10 Personal Websit e: ht t ps:/ / sit es.google.com/ sit e/ godfredannum/ Email : [email protected] page 6