Communicating Climate Change: A Guide for Educators

a volume in the series

Cornell Studies in Environmental Education

Edited by Marianne E. Krasny

For a list of books in the series, visit our website at cornellpress.cornell.edu.

COMMUNICATING CLIMATE CHANGE

A Guide for Educators

Anne K. Armstrong,

Marianne E. Krasny,

and Jonathon P. Schuldt

COMSTOCK PUBLISHING ASSOCIATES

AN IMPRINT OF

CORNELL UNIVERSITY PRESS ITHACA AND LONDON

Dedicated to my family

—A.K.A.

Contents

Acknowledgments

Introduction

Part 1 BACKGROUND

1. Climate Change Science: The Facts

2. Climate Change Attitudes and Knowledge

3. Climate Change Education Outcomes

4. Climate Change Education Vignettes

Part 1 Recap

Part 2 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF CLIMATE CHANGE

5. Identity

6. Psychological Distance

7. Other Psychological Theories

Part 2 Recap

Part 3 COMMUNICATION

8. Framing Climate Change

9. Using Metaphor and Analogy in Climate Change Communication

10. Climate Change Messengers: Establishing Trust

Part 3 Recap

Part 4 STORIES FROM THE FIELD

11. Climate Change Education at the Marine Mammal Center, Sausalito, California

12. Climate Change Literacy, Action, and Positive Youth Development in Kentucky

13. Building Soil to Capture Carbon in a School Garden in New Mexico

14. Psychological Resilience in Denver, Colorado

Part 4 Recap

Closing Thoughts

Notes

Select Bibliography

Index

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Glen Koehler and Michael Hoffmann for their thorough review and helpful suggestions on climate science. We would also like to thank Adam Ratner, Jennifer Hubbard-Sanchez, Maria Talero, Karen Temple-Beamish, and Laura Mack for their time spent talking with author Anne Armstrong and for their dedication to developing innovative climate change education programs. This publication was funded in part by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, Assistant Agreement No. NT-83497401) and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) National Institute for Food and Agriculture funds awarded to Cornell University (Award No. 2016-17-215). Neither EPA nor USDA has reviewed this publication. The views expressed are solely those of the authors. Finally, the authors gratefully acknowledge the support of Cornell University Library in enabling publication of this volume on an open access basis.

INTRODUCTION

If only they knew more about the issue, they would act! Have you said that to yourself or your environmental education colleagues before? Looking at an issue like climate change, we see that a wealth of information and a high level of issue awareness among the U.S. public have not led to the kind of action needed to reduce climate threats to human and natural systems. Americans’ climate change concern still ranks lower than their concern for other environmental problems like water supply and pollution, as well as lower than their concern for health care and the economy. Climate change concern has, however, increased significantly since 2015.¹ Yet these high levels of awareness and growing concern mask the range of opinions that environmental educators might encounter at a local level, as well as the emergence of climate change as a highly politicized issue in U.S. politics.² Although climate change remains a challenging topic for environmental educators, environmental education is an important player in fostering positive climate change dialogue and subsequent climate change action.³

Environmental education programs, organizations, and online resources related to climate change abound in formal, nonformal, and informal settings.⁴ The Climate Literacy and Energy Awareness Network (CLEAN) boasts a collection of over six hundred climate change education resources reviewed by scientists and educators that range from activities to demonstrations, visualizations, and videos curated from around the Internet. National environmental education training programs like Project Learning Tree focus their attention on climate change, with a module for secondary education called Southeastern Forests and Climate Change.⁵ The National Network for Ocean and Climate Change Interpretation (NNOCCI) has trained over 150 educators in thirty-eight states in research-based techniques for engaging audiences with climate change. And the Planet Stewards program of the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) offers face-to-face training for educators, as well as a webinar series on climate change science and education. As interest from environmental educators has grown, so has research on developing effective climate change programs, particularly in formal education settings.⁶

Yet the question remains: How do we optimize programs for attaining climate literacy and action to address mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions, and, when necessary, adaptation to changes already taking place? A review of climate change education literature focused on education in formal settings found that making climate change personally relevant and meaningful, and engaging learners through inquiry and constructivist learning, correlated with a program’s success in increasing climate science understanding, shifting climate change attitudes, and inspiring action.⁷ Research from environmental psychology and climate change communication offers useful, tangible insights into designing climate change education programs that are personally relevant and meaningful.⁸ For example, environmental psychology informs climate change communication research on framing and metaphors, and it can also directly inform how educators think about and assess their audiences (figure i.1). Similarly, climate change communication research on framing can inform environmental educators’ strategic choice of program language. Training programs like NNOCCI have adopted evidence-based methods drawn from climate change communication and environmental psychology, and educators who participate in this program adopt research-based practices and value a research-based approach.⁹

FIGURE i.1 How environmental psychology research and climate change communication research can inform climate change education practice

Climate change education and climate change communication share similar goals and desired outcomes, and their definitions reflect these similarities. Climate change education, or climate change environmental education, encompasses a range of interdisciplinary learning opportunities that people of all ages need to develop the competencies, dispositions and knowledge to address climate change. It approaches climate change with an understanding of the socio-political and economic considerations; the scientific basis; and the communication, collaborative problem-solving and analytical skills needed to generate and implement feasible solutions.¹⁰ According to the Yale Program on Climate Change Communication, climate change communication is about educating, informing, warning, persuading, mobilizing and solving this critical problem. At a deeper level, climate change communication is shaped by our different experiences, mental and cultural models, and underlying values and worldviews.¹¹ The first part of this definition speaks to goals held in common between climate change communication and environmental education, like climate literacy and action, while the second part touches on linkages between climate change communication and environmental psychology.

This book seeks to provide environmental educators with an understanding of how their audiences engage with climate change information, as well as with concrete, empirically tested communication tools they can use to enhance their climate change programs. We define environmental educator broadly, to mean people focused on using best practice in education … to address the social and environmental issues facing society.¹² We focus primarily on the first three steps of developing a climate change education program (figure i.2): identifying climate change education outcomes and resources, assessing audiences, and strategizing programs. Part 1 of this book provides overviews of climate change science, climate change attitudes and knowledge, and climate change education outcomes. It also introduces three vignettes referenced throughout the chapters describing how fictional educators address climate change education challenges. Part 2 explores how psychology research explains the complex ways in which people interact with climate change information; this research is useful in informing educators’ audience assessment. Part 3 presents communication strategies with a focus on research about framing, metaphors, and messengers that can help educators formulate program language. At the end of parts 2 and 3, we summarize the research with an eye toward applications to environmental education. Finally, part 4, Stories from the Field, highlights four educators’ climate change education programs and illustrates connections between their teaching strategies and the research covered in parts 2 and 3.

FIGURE i.2 Program development cycle

Adapted from Susan Jacobson, Communication Skills for Conservation Professionals, 2nd ed. (Washington: Island Press, 2009), 50–51

Bottom Line for Educators

The complexity of climate science combined with the complicated political and cultural contexts in which people live makes climate change a particularly challenging topic to approach no matter the educational setting. This book introduces environmental psychology and climate change communication research that can assist environmental educators at several program development stages. Of course, educators also need a foundation in climate change science, which is where we turn next.

Part 1

BACKGROUND

In part 1, we begin with a chapter on how climate change works and how we know the climate is changing. Chapter 1 also includes examples of climate change actions directed at the largest sources of greenhouse gases. Chapter 2 summarizes research on climate change attitudes and knowledge. Chapter 3 outlines a variety of climate change education outcomes to assist educators in defining what they want to achieve with their programs. Chapter 4 presents three vignettes of fictional climate change educators, Elena, Jayla, and Will, who conduct programs in different settings with different audiences. Together, these four chapters provide background and context for the environmental psychology and communications research presented in parts 2 and 3.

1

CLIMATE CHANGE SCIENCE

The Facts

In this chapter, we present a short summary of weather and climate as well as an overview of climate change causes, evidence, and impacts. We also introduce actions needed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, thus mitigating climate change. Because environmental educators know their communities, they can play a key role in distilling scientific information and guiding discussion about complexities associated with weather, climate, and climate change. They can also lead their students and communities in taking meaningful action to reduce greenhouse gases.

Weather and Climate

Weather varies minute to minute, hour to hour, day to day, month to month, and season to season. Temperatures go up and down; some days are cloudy and rainy, while others are sunny; and sometimes the air is still, whereas other times we are refreshed by a gentle breeze or buffeted about by a strong wind. Occasionally, we get floods or droughts.

In contrast to the short-term atmospheric changes we call weather, climate refers to longer-term variations. We can think of climate as the average weather for a particular region and time period, usually over thirty years. For example, increases in average temperatures over decades provide evidence of a changing climate. Looking to the future, scientific climate models predict longer and more severe periods of dry weather in some regions, while other regions will likely experience an increase in annual precipitation, as well as more severe rain events. In 2017, warmer and wetter atmospheric conditions and warmer ocean temperatures intensified Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria in the eastern United States, while dry weather exacerbated California wildfires—all the result of a warming planet. The more extreme weather events that we are experiencing currently will likely only intensify as average global temperatures continue to rise.

Greenhouse Gases and Climate Change

Humans, like all life on earth, depend on energy coming from the sun. But we also depend on the energy reflected from the earth’s surface back into the atmosphere. This balance between energy coming in and energy going out has been maintained for billions of years, allowing life on earth to survive and thrive.

But what happens if excess greenhouse gases in the earth’s atmosphere block more energy from leaving the atmosphere, upsetting that balance? What if, instead of leaving the atmosphere and going back into space, some of the excess energy is returned to the earth’s surface? Put simply, the surface of the earth—including its oceans, land, and air—heats up.

Greenhouse gases are essential to life on earth. For example, plants depend on carbon dioxide (CO2), which is also an important greenhouse gas contributing to global warming. And greenhouse gases help to maintain the earth’s surface and oceans at temperatures that enable life to flourish on our planet. But as greenhouse gases accumulate beyond their historic levels, they prevent more and more of the energy reaching the earth from going back into space.

The earth absorbs sunlight energy and reemits it as heat, or what