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    The Bible With and Without Jesus: How Jews and Christians Read the Same Stories Differently
    The Bible With and Without Jesus: How Jews and Christians Read the Same Stories Differently
    The Bible With and Without Jesus: How Jews and Christians Read the Same Stories Differently
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    The Bible With and Without Jesus: How Jews and Christians Read the Same Stories Differently

    By Amy-Jill Levine and Marc Zvi Brettler

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    The editors of The Jewish Annotated New Testament show how and why Jews and Christians read many of the same Biblical texts – including passages from the Pentateuch, the Prophets, and the Psalms – differently. Exploring and explaining these diverse perspectives, they reveal more clearly Scripture’s beauty and power.  
    Esteemed Bible scholars and teachers Amy-Jill Levine and Marc Z. Brettler take readers on a guided tour of the most popular Hebrew Bible passages quoted in the New Testament to show what the texts meant in their original contexts and then how Jews and Christians, over time, understood those same texts. Passages include the creation of the world, the role of Adam and Eve, the Suffering Servant of Isiah, the book of Jonah, and Psalm 22, whose words, “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me,” Jesus quotes as he dies on the cross.

    Comparing various interpretations – historical, literary, and theological - of each ancient text, Levine and Brettler offer deeper understandings of the original narratives and their many afterlives. They show how the text speaks to different generations under changed circumstances, and so illuminate the Bible’s ongoing significance. By understanding the depth and variety by which these passages have been, and can be, understood, The Bible With and Without Jesus does more than enhance our religious understandings, it helps us to see the Bible as a source of inspiration for any and all readers.  

    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherHarperCollins
    Release dateOct 27, 2020
    ISBN9780062560179
    Author

    Amy-Jill Levine

    AMY-JILL LEVINE is University Professor of New Testament and Jewish Studies and Mary Jane Werthan Professor of Jewish Studies at Vanderbilt Divinity School and Department of Jewish Studies. She has also taught at Swarthmore College, Cambridge University, and the Pontifical Biblical Institute in Rome. She is the author of many books, including The Misunderstood Jew and Short Stories by Jesus, and she is the co-editor of the Jewish Annotated New Testament. 

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      Book preview

      The Bible With and Without Jesus - Amy-Jill Levine

      Dedication

      In memory of our parents,

      Miriam and Sidney Brettler, and Anne and Saul Levine.

      The Sages taught: There are three partners in the

      creation of all people: The Holy One, their father,

      and their mother (b. Niddah 31a).

      Contents

      Cover

      Title Page

      Dedication

      Preface

      A Note on Translations and Abbreviations

      Chapter 1: On Bibles and Their Interpreters

      Same Stories, Different Bibles

      Christian and Jewish Bibles

      On Interpretation

      Interpreting Divinely Revealed Texts

      Jewish Interpretations: Two Jews, Three Opinions

      Christian Interpretation: Aligned with Belief

      Chapter 2: The Problem and Promise of Prophecy

      Prophecy

      Prooftexts

      Polemics

      Possibilities

      Chapter 3: The Creation of the World

      In the Beginning

      Making Order from Chaos

      Wind, Spirit, Wisdom, Logos

      Let Us Make Humankind . . .

      Later Jewish Interpretation

      Chapter 4: Adam and Eve

      Death, Domination, and Divorce

      The Garden of Eden

      Eating Forbidden Fruit

      The Garden of Eden in the Bible Outside of Genesis

      Original Sin in the Hebrew Bible?

      Adam and Eve in Early Judaism

      Later Jewish Tradition

      Chapter 5: You Are a Priest Forever

      Priesthood in Ancient Israel

      Jesus the High Priest, After the Order of Melchizedek

      Genesis 14: The First Appearance of Melchizedek

      Psalm 110: An Enigmatic Royal Psalm

      Melchizedek in Later Jewish Tradition

      The Problem of Supersessionism in the Epistle to the Hebrews

      Chapter 6: An Eye for an Eye and Turn the Other Cheek

      Antitheses or Extensions?

      But I Say to You . . .

      On an Eye for an Eye

      The Hebrew Bible’s Context

      The Struggle Between Justice and Mercy

      Chapter 7: Drink My Blood: Sacrifice and Atonement

      The Sacrificial Lamb

      Sacrifices in Ancient Israel

      Passover

      Human Sacrifice in the Hebrew Bible

      Nonsacrificial Atonement

      Sacrifice in Postbiblical Judaism

      The Blood of Circumcision

      The Blood of the Covenant

      Chapter 8: A Virgin Will Conceive and Bear a Child

      To Fulfill What Had Been Spoken

      Isaiah in His Context

      From Young Woman to Virgin

      From Prediction to Polemic

      Chapter 9: Isaiah’s Suffering Servant

      By His Bruises We Are Healed

      The Suffering Servant in His Historical Context

      The Servant’s History in Later Jewish and Christian Traditions

      Chapter 10: The Sign of Jonah

      Jesus and the Sign of Jonah

      The Story of Jonah in Its Earliest Historical Context

      Jonah in Christian Eyes

      Jonah in Jewish Eyes

      Chapter 11: My God, My God, Why Have You Forsaken Me?

      Jesus and Psalm 22

      An Aside: Other Psalms in the New Testament

      Psalm 22 in the Scriptures of Israel

      When Psalms Become Prophecy

      Psalm 22 in Jewish Sources

      Chapter 12: Son of Man

      Human and/or Divine

      In Search of the Son of Man

      Son of Man: From Human to Superhuman

      The Son of Man Elsewhere in the New Testament

      The Postbiblical Future of the Son of Man

      Chapter 13: Conclusion: From Polemic to Possibility

      The New Covenant: ‘At That Time,’ Says the Lord . . .

      In the Interim

      What We Learn

      Acknowledgments

      Notes

      Author Index

      Primary Texts Index

      Subject Index

      About the Authors

      Copyright

      About the Publisher

      Preface

      OUR BOOK’S COVER, Marc Chagall’s Abraham and the Three Angels (1966), offers readers the choice of multiple interpretations. Some may see an invocation of Genesis 18, the story of three angels or messengers who appear to Abraham and Sarah and announce that Sarah, well into menopause, will soon, miraculously, give birth to a son. For these readers, the picture may bring to mind a main theme of the Bible, expressed through the text’s powerful question, Is anything too wonderful for the LORD? (Gen 18:14). Those aware of Jewish biblical interpretation may be reminded of the tradition of Abraham as the model of hospitality, who every day sat at the entrance of his tent in the heat of the day (Gen 18:1) to greet any passersby and to give them water and food to refresh themselves before they continued on their journey. Christian readers might focus on the meal as representing the Eucharist, or on the angels’ haloes, a typical depiction in Christian art, and view this painting as recalling earlier Christian depictions of this scene where the haloes indicate that these three angelic visitors are the Holy Trinity. To complicate matters more: What does it mean that the Jewish Chagall painted this scene from the Hebrew Bible using images that characterize Eastern Orthodox icons, in particular Andrei Rublev’s The Old Testament Trinity?

      We suggest that all of these perspectives—the biblical, the Jewish, the Christian—are important, and all are necessarily partial. The answers we receive, the interpretations we develop, are all dependent on the questions we ask, the experiences we bring, and the preferences we have.

      The multiple interpretations of Chagall’s picture highlight the intent of this book. Its title is not The Bible With or Without Jesus; it is The Bible With and Without Jesus. This title offers three subjects that we care about equally: Bible, with Jesus, and without Jesus. We do not claim that only one way of reading Genesis, or any other text in what is called variously the Hebrew Bible, the Tanakh, and the Old Testament, is correct. The questions we bring to the text will yield multiple answers, sometimes mutually exclusive and sometimes complementary and even mutually enhancing. We do not ask only, What did this text mean in its original context—the time that the author of Genesis wrote the tale? Nor do we ask only, What does Genesis 18 mean in a Christian context—with Jesus? Nor again do we focus only on the various readings of the ancient scripture in the postbiblical Jewish context—without Jesus. Rather, we seek to put these various interpretations into dialogue, for such dialogue helps us understand why, when we read the same text or look at the same painting, we come away with such different views. The better we can see through the eyes of our neighbors, the better able we are to be good neighbors. The more aware we are of the historical settings of the original texts, as best as we can determine them, the better we can see how the texts might have been interpreted by the ancient audience that first heard them. And the more aware we are of the historical settings of those who interpreted the biblical texts, the better we understand our own religious traditions and those of our neighbors.

      This multilensed perspective comes from our teaching experience. In both our classrooms and our various programs in churches and synagogues, we have encountered individuals with limited views of their own traditions and even more limited views of interpretations in other religious communities. We have seen not only ignorance but antipathy toward the views of their neighbors. We have met many Christians who wonder about the value of the Old Testament, which they see as proclaiming an Old Testament God of wrath versus the New Testament God of love, or which they conclude is about law (seen as a negative) rather than about grace (seen as epitomizing the positive). And we have frequently encountered Jewish audiences who find the New Testament irrelevant at best, or a co-optation and even deformation of the Tanakh written by Jews for Jews. Both of these attitudes are unfortunate: ignorance of the other’s tradition is not bliss. We live in a multicultural society where we cannot afford to ignore the perspective of others, or indeed to perceive them as other.

      We have thus teamed up, as a scholar who predominantly studies the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament/Tanakh (Brettler) and one who predominantly studies the New Testament (Levine), and who each works in reception history—the interpretation of these texts by the communities that hold them sacred—to examine ten well-known passages or themes from Israel’s scriptures that are important to the New Testament. Each of our central chapters asks three questions: What did the text mean in its original context in ancient Israel? How do the New Testament authors interpret that text? And how do postbiblical Jews from the time of Jesus (e.g., the Dead Sea Scrolls, the first-century historian Josephus, and the first-century philosopher Philo) through the rabbinic and medieval Jewish tradition and later Christian traditions understand those same texts?

      Our chapters highlight how differently different communities interpret the same material. For example, for Jews, the book of Jonah is (predominantly) about the power of repentance, and the postbiblical tradition also finds in the brief book a great amount of humor; meanwhile, for Christians it is a book (predominantly) about the resurrection of Jesus on the third day, and there is nothing funny about that. In other cases, a particular theme or text is important to one community and relatively unimportant to another. For example, Isaiah’s depictions of the Servant of the LORD, sometimes called the suffering servant, are central to Christianity, as already reflected in the New Testament, but most Jews are unaware of this image. Indeed, a number of verses that have enormous import for the New Testament and ongoing Christian theology have become virtually unknown to Jewish readers, just as Jewish interpretations (and there are usually multiple interpretations of the same verse or passage) are generally unknown to Christians. Thus this book is, in part, an act of recovery so that we can all be more familiar with biblical passages that Jews and Christians share, albeit with different emphases.

      As biblical scholars, we believe that we have an obligation to provide careful explications of these texts and interpretations in a sympathetic light. Our agenda is not to show how one reading is right and another reading is wrong; it is rather to show how these interpretations developed, how they make sense given the theological presuppositions of their authors and original audiences, and how they are necessarily partial.

      We also seek to demonstrate how translation matters: how reading the original Hebrew, the pre-Christian Greek translation (the Septuagint), and different English versions creates substantially different impressions. Translators, sometimes deliberately and often unconsciously, choose readings that fit the needs of their own religious communities. For example, in examining the Bible’s very first story, we explain how Genesis 1:2 can be seen as speaking of both a mighty wind and the Spirit of God hovering over the deep. We see how Isaiah 7 could be speaking of a pregnant young woman, a soon-to-be-pregnant (by usual means) young woman, or a virgin who is also pregnant.

      Finally, acknowledging the polemical implications of some of the Jewish and Christian interpretations, we ask of each text or theme, What might we say about them today, given our knowledge of history and theology, and given our commitment to and respect for differing traditions? With this approach, we then show how polemic can be turned to possibility.

      We have worked together before in editing both the first (2011) and second (2017) editions of The Jewish Annotated New Testament, a volume that frequently flags how the followers of Jesus recontextualized and reinterpreted earlier Jewish texts. In each case, we wished we had more pages to develop these readings. We are therefore grateful for the opportunity to collaborate on this volume.

      In both editing the Jewish Annotated and especially in writing this book, we learned to work together, to sharpen our arguments, to discover how the two of us saw different aspects of the same text. We experienced firsthand how the type of paired study (Hebrew chevruta) that is the hallmark of traditional Jewish learning leads to effective understanding, clarity, and sharpness, and we are both grateful for the experience of having sometimes sparred over, but mostly marveled over, even laughed over, almost every interpretation, every word, in the following pages.

      A Note on Translations and Abbreviations

      BIBLICAL TRANSLATIONS in this book come from the New Revised Standard Version (NRSV) of the Bible unless otherwise noted. We also use the New Jewish Publication Society Tanakh translation of the Hebrew Bible (NJPS), completed in 1985 and last revised in 1999. We recommend this study edition, which includes brief commentary and essays cited in this book: Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, eds., The Jewish Study Bible, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2014). At times we quote from the Septuagint, the ancient Jewish Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible; for translation we cite the NETS: Albert Pietersma and Benjamin G. Wright, eds., A New English Translation of the Septuagint (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2007).

      Each of these translations is available online and will often be referenced in the book by these abbreviations:

      NRSV: https://www.biblegateway.com/

      NJPS: https://www.sefaria.org/texts/Tanakh

      NETS: http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/nets/edition/

      For other ancient sources, we use the following translations unless otherwise noted:

      Philo: C. D. Yonge, trans., The Works of Philo: Complete and Unabridged (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1993).

      Josephus: William Whiston, trans., Josephus: Complete Works (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1981), http://penelope.uchicago.edu/josephus/.

      The Mishnah: Jacob Neusner, trans., Mishnah: A New Translation (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1988).

      Rabbinic literature (Talmud, midrash): https://www.sefaria.org/.

      Targumim: Various translations in Targum English Translation module (Accordance Bible Software); when other translations are used, this will be noted.

      Dead Sea Scrolls: Martin Abegg, Dead Sea Scrolls Biblical Manuscripts module (Accordance, 2007).

      Pseudepigrapha: Louis H. Feldman, James L. Kugel, and Lawrence H. Schiffman, eds., Outside the Bible: Ancient Jewish Writings Related to Scripture (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2013); and James Charlesworth, ed., The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, 2 vols., 3rd ed. (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2013).

      Other abbreviations:

      ANF: Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson, eds., The Ante-Nicene Fathers, 10 vols. (1885–1887; repr., Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1994), http://www.ccel.org/fathers.html.

      DDD: Karel van der Toorn, Bob Becking, and Pieter W. van der Horst, eds., Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible, 2nd rev. ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999).

      EBR: Hans-Josef Klauck et al., eds., Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2009–).

      EDEJ: John J. Collins and Daniel C. Harlow, eds., The Eerdmans Dictionary of Early Judaism (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2010).

      EDSS: Lawrence H. Schiffman and James C. VanderKam, Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls, 2 vols. (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2000).

      Heb.: This marks cases where the Hebrew chapter and verse numbers differ from those in the NRSV.

      JANT: Amy-Jill Levine and Marc Zvi Brettler, eds., The Jewish Annotated New Testament: New Revised Standard Version, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2017).

      JSB: Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, eds., The Jewish Study Bible: Jewish Publication Society Tanakh Translation, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2014).

      KJV: King James Version

      LXX: Septuagint

      MT: Masoretic Text

      OTB: Louis H. Feldman, James L. Kugel, and Lawrence H. Schiffman, eds., Outside the Bible: Ancient Jewish Writings Related to Scripture (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2013).

      TDOT: G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren, eds., Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, trans. John T. Willis et al., 8 vols. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1974–2006).

      For Hebrew and Greek, we use a popular phonetic transliteration; our aim is to make the original languages more available to the readers rather than to provide full consistency.

      Chapter 1

      On Bibles and Their Interpreters

      Same Stories, Different Bibles

      THE BIBLE, in the singular, does not exist; different communities have different Bibles. We don’t mean that they prefer different translations but that they have Bibles comprised of different books, in different orders, in different languages. The biggest difference is between the Jewish and Christian communities, for only Christians have a New Testament. In fact, only Christians have an Old Testament, which itself differs among the various Christian communions. Jews have the Tanakh, and although the Old Testament and Tanakh share books, the communities interpret the shared verses differently. The Old Testament and the Tanakh are not, today for Christians and Jews, self-standing books. Christians read their Old Testament through the lens of the New Testament, and Jews read the Tanakh through the lens of postbiblical Jewish commentaries.

      These differences raise major interpretive questions. For example, who is the Bible’s main character? Is it God? Is it Jesus? Does it lack a main character? What is its main point, or is there one? Does the original meaning of a passage, apart from Christian or later Jewish interpretation, still have anything to say to us?

      Different interpretive communities answer these questions differently—and that is what this book is about. What does it mean to read, and interpret, sections of the Bible with and without Jesus? What is gained, or lost? We are not advocating for one correct way of reading, but we hope, first, that our book will help all readers to see how and why the Bible is such a contested work. Second, we hope that people with different interpretations—with and without Jesus—will talk to each other and understand each other better. The goal of biblical studies should not be to convert each other or to polemicize. Conversion is a matter of the heart, not of the academy; polemics function more to speak to the choir and shore up internal unity rather than to facilitate understanding, let alone to show love of neighbor. Biblical studies, as we understand it, can rather help us better to understand each other, and to move forward in appreciating the Bible’s power and importance.

      As the early followers of Jesus, reflecting on the proclamation of his resurrection, turned to books such as Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Psalms more fully to understand their risen Lord, they found throughout the ancient sources new meaning. Instead of asking what the texts meant in their original contexts, they asked what the texts meant to them, in their own lives centuries later. Jews throughout the ages have done the same. They looked to their ancient scriptures to understand practices such as honoring the Sabbath and aiding the poor, as well as postbiblical events such as the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple by Rome in 70 CE and later their persecution by Christians. In this turn to scripture, Jews and Christians also fought like family members over the disposition of their parents’ legacy. Each claimed the scriptures for themselves, and in doing so they read the texts not only as sources of comfort and inspiration but also as sites of contention and polemic. This book seeks to foster a different future, where Jews and Christians come to understand each other’s positions and beliefs, and at the minimum, respectfully agree to disagree.

      This is no easy task. It involves appreciating what biblical texts meant in their earliest contexts¹ and then explaining how over the centuries different communities with different concerns developed different interpretations. It also means understanding how these ancient scriptures became weaponized—on papyrus, parchment, vellum, paper, and now online—in the war over the rights to their meaning. This war continues today, when a Christian tells a Jew, You obviously don’t understand your Bible because, if you did, you would see how it predicts the Messiah Jesus, and when a Jew responds, Not only do you Christians see things in the text that are not there, you mistranslate and you yank verses out of context. Neither position is helpful, since neither appreciates how and why Jews and Christians understand their own texts. When read through Christian lenses, what the church calls the Old Testament points to Jesus. When read through Jewish lenses, what the synagogue calls the Tanakh speaks to Jewish experience, without Jesus. When read through the eyes of historians, these original texts yield meanings often lost to both church and synagogue. Even the terms Old Testament and Tanakh create problems, as we’ll see below.

      In this book we focus on texts from ancient Israel that are central in the New Testament. We cannot be comprehensive, for the New Testament either cites directly or alludes to this antecedent scripture from the first verses of Matthew’s Gospel to the last verses of John’s Revelation. Therefore, we chose texts and ideas most people would know, such as God’s speech in Genesis 1:26, Let us make humankind in our image, according to our likeness; the meaning of Isaiah 7:14, A virgin shall conceive or a young woman is pregnant; and the centrality of blood for atonement.

      Each of our ten central chapters, Chapters 3–12, attends to a particular text or theme and has the same structure. In most cases beginning with a New Testament citation, we then backtrack to examine that citation in its original context. We do our best to determine when and why that original text was written as well as how to translate the Hebrew words (often a problem). Next we see what the verses meant in Jewish sources earlier to and contemporaneous with the New Testament, such as the Septuagint (the Greek translation of the Hebrew texts) and the Dead Sea Scrolls (scrolls and fragments of biblical and nonbiblical texts, dating from the fourth or third century BCE to the second century CE, found near the Dead Sea). Here we show both how the New Testament draws from Jewish reflections and where it offers distinct readings. The next step is to look at later selected Jewish texts, some of which engage those New Testament readings, and not usually sympathetically. In some cases, we look at how the text was interpreted in early Christian, post–New Testament tradition. We conclude each chapter by seeing what Jews, Christians, and indeed all readers might learn today from those ancient verses. We cover a broad chronological sweep, from the early first millennium BCE, to the first century CE, to the twenty-first century.²

      We roughly follow the canonical order of the Bible, but to do this precisely is impossible, since the order of books in the Old Testament differs from that of the Tanakh, and we do not want to privilege either.

      Christian and Jewish Bibles

      THE IMPRECISE TERM Bible derives from the Greek ta biblia, the books, and it suggests that a particular collection of books has priority. There is no such thing as "the Bible"; different religious communities have different Bibles.³ The Samaritan community has only the Torah, the first five books of the Bible, as its Bible; it lacks works such as Jeremiah and Psalms. Extending scripture, the Orthodox Tewahedo canon used predominantly in Eritrea and Ethiopia includes 1 Enoch and Jubilees and 1, 2, and 3 Meqabyan (which are not, contrary to the sounding of the name, related to 1, 2, and 3 Maccabees, which are found in other Christian canons); additional books have canonical status as well. Other Christian movements, such as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (commonly called Mormons) and Christian Science, regard denominationally specific works as also authoritative. It should be obvious that the Jewish Bible does not include a New Testament—and thus reflects a Bible without Jesus—although we have often been surprised by our students’ unawareness of this fact. Then again, Messianic Jews do include the brit chadashah—which is how one would say the New Testament in Hebrew—as part of their canon.

      Nor is the Old Testament the same for all Christians. The Roman Catholic, Anglican, Eastern Orthodox, and Assyrian Churches include books written by Jews before New Testament times but preserved in Greek, such as Sirach or Judith, as part of their Old Testament. These books are typically called the Apocrypha by Protestants or, for those communions that hold them as having the status of scripture, deuterocanonical or part of the second canon.

      Part two of the Christian Bible is the New Testament. The word testament is a synonym for covenant, and the term New Testament used for the second part of the Christian canon is first attested by the North African church father Tertullian (ca. 155–ca. 240). The expression refers to Jeremiah 31:31: The days are surely coming, says the LORD, when I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel and the house of Judah. We return to Jeremiah 31, which the New Testament frequently either cites or evokes, in our concluding chapter.

      The terms New Testament and Old Testament are theologically loaded. In this book, we use New Testament in a technical sense to refer to the twenty-seven books from Matthew to Revelation that all Christian churches eventually recognized as canonical.⁴

      It is more difficult to know what to call scripture’s first section. The early rabbis used the Hebrew terms mikra’, that which is read, or kitvei hakodesh, the holy writings,⁵ but these terms are no longer broadly employed. Old Testament, first attested in the late second century CE by the church father Melito of Sardis,⁶ makes sense only within a Christian context. One needs a New Testament in order to have an Old Testament. Making the expression Old Testament even more problematic is a verse from the New Testament, Hebrews 8:13, which says, In speaking of ‘a new covenant’ [the Greek can be translated as new testament] he [Jesus] has made the first one obsolete. And what is obsolete and growing old will soon disappear. In fact, in the early second century, a fellow named Marcion declared that this first testament should be rejected, along with the God it proclaimed. The nascent Christian Church declared Marcion a heretic—yet the rhetoric of the Old Testament God of wrath versus the New Testament God of love, frequently heard in churches even today, repeats Marcion’s heresy and is a misreading of both testaments.

      The term Hebrew Bible, coined by modern biblical scholars seeking a more religiously neutral term than Old Testament, is inaccurate, since part of this text is in Aramaic, not Hebrew. Jewish Bible is problematic for a different reason: it strips this work from the Christian canon.

      Some scholars, in the effort to avoid the problem of connecting the term old with something outdated or decrepit, speak of the First Testament.⁷ This good-faith effort has its own problems, as Jews don’t have a first Testament but an only Testament. Worse, if the earlier material is the First Testament, then the New Testament becomes the Second Testament, and there is nothing positive about second, as second hand, second place, and second rate all suggest.

      To refer to the Jewish Bible, we use the medieval term Tanakh, an acronym of Torah (Hebrew instruction; the first five books, also known as the Pentateuch), Nevi’im (Hebrew prophets), and Ketuvim (Hebrew writings), the term Jews typically use, and the title for the New Jewish Publication Society translation.⁸ Tanakh refers to the Jewish Bible in its medieval form, as codified by scholars called the Masoretes, and therefore it is also called the Masoretic Text (MT); these scholars added written vowel points, cantillation marks, and other signs to the consonantal text.⁹ When we refer to more or less the same work within a Christian context, we use the term Old Testament. When we are talking about the books of this corpus, in their original historical setting, we will use, for convenience, both Hebrew Bible and scriptures of Israel.

      We say more or less because the Christian Old Testament is not identical to the Jewish Tanakh. This is true even within Protestantism, which lacks the Apocrypha. Unlike the three-part division of the Jewish canon, the Christian Old Testament has four sections: Pentateuch, Histories, Poetry and Wisdom, and Prophecy. The last book in the Old Testament is Malachi, and the end of Malachi predicts the return of the prophet Elijah and the coming of the messianic age. Thus, the Christian canon emphasizes prophecy in the Old Testament and fulfillment of that prophecy in the New Testament. By putting the prophets (Nevi’im) in the middle of the canon, the Jewish scriptures appear in comparison to de-emphasize prophecy, although that was not likely the original intent of the canonizers. At least according to some New Testament texts, the canon of the Jews followed the order that became the Tanakh. In Matthew 23:35, following his excoriation of a Jewish movement called the Pharisees, Jesus states, so that upon you may come all the righteous blood shed on earth, from the blood of the righteous Abel to the blood of Zechariah son of Barachiah whom you murdered between the sanctuary and the altar. This verse is a sweep of biblical history, from Abel in Genesis 4 (the Pharisees were hardly present at the time) to 2 Chronicles 24:20–22, which mentions this death of Zechariah, although identifying him as the son of Jehoiada. Similarly, Luke 24:44–45 reports that the resurrected Jesus told his disciples, ‘These are my words that I spoke to you while I was still with you—that everything written about me in the law of Moses, the prophets, and the psalms [likely a reference to the third part of the canon, beginning with Psalms] must be fulfilled.’ Then he opened their minds to understand the scriptures. We see here both the continuity and the change: the canonical order remains the same, but for Luke’s Gospel only Jesus can provide its correct interpretation.

      Although the order of Ketuvim, the Writings, never fully stabilized, most editions end with 2 Chronicles, which concludes with Cyrus of Persia encouraging Jews exiled in Babylonia to return to Israel. The final words of the Tanakh are, Whoever is among you of all his people, may the LORD his God be with him! Let him go up (2 Chr 36:23). This ending signals not the coming of the messiah but the centrality of the land of Israel. A few early Jewish canonical collections, such as the famous Aleppo Codex, end with the book of Ezra-Nehemiah. This text concludes, Remember me, O my God, for good. Perhaps coincidentally, the Hebrew word for God, ’elohim, and the Hebrew word for good, tov, echo the first chapter of Genesis, where ’elohim saw that everything was very good.

      The problem of nomenclature is even more complex when we look to scripture in the first century CE, the time of Jesus. Terms like canon and Bible typically indicate a fixed set of books. During the first century, however, Jews and the followers of Jesus, both Jewish and gentile, had no such canon. To speak of the Tanakh in the time of Jesus would be anachronistic—there was no agreed-upon, three-part Bible to which all Jews then subscribed.¹⁰ Beyond the Torah or Pentateuch, the first five books in all traditions, the order and selection of the books that communities held sacred differed; nor was the text of the various books yet uniform. For this reason, we use the amorphous term scriptures of Israel to refer to the writings that were central to Jews during the time of Jesus.¹¹

      The books comprising this collection were written mostly in Hebrew, with several chapters of some books in Aramaic, a Semitic language also used by many Jews of the sixth and following centuries BCE. But many Jews living outside the land of Israel, such as in Alexandria in Egypt, knew neither Hebrew nor Aramaic: they spoke Greek. Thus, beginning in the third century BCE, they translated the Torah and then other books into Greek. The initial translation is called the Septuagint (from the Latin Septuaginta, meaning seventy), based on the legend that seventy (or seventy-two) Jewish scholars prepared the translation. The text is abbreviated as LXX, the Roman numeral for 70.¹²

      A legend, initially preserved in a circa 250 BCE Greek text called the Letter of Aristeas and known to the rabbis (b. Megillah 9a–b), describes the translation of the Torah (not the entire Tanakh) into Greek. In the account, the high priest sent seventy-two scribes from Jerusalem to Egypt to create the Greek translation, and this legend came to sanction the Septuagint for Greek-speaking Jews. Today, Septuagint is frequently used to refer to the Greek translation of all the books of the Hebrew Bible as well as the books in the Old Testament Apocrypha or deuterocanonical literature.

      The Septuagint encouraged Jews to maintain their identity in the Greek-speaking world. Rather than a prompt for assimilation, it had the opposite effect: it allowed Jews to proclaim and promote their own traditions. The Babylonian Talmud (a collection of Jewish law and lore compiled beginning in the sixth century in Babylonia, present-day Iraq) recognizes the legitimacy of at least some Greek translations (b. Megillah 9a). Eventually, synagogues determined that the Masoretic Text be a unifying factor of all Jewish communities, just as the (Arabic) Qur’an is for the Islamic world. For a time, the Latin translation united the Roman Catholic Church, as the Greek does for Greek Orthodoxy. For Protestants, for whom there is no one recognized translation, unity is more difficult to achieve. What is sacred to one Christian denomination may be consigned to the flames by another.

      As evangelists for Jesus began to speak to Jews in the diaspora, the areas outside of Israel, as well as to gentiles, Greek was the preferred language. Thus, the New Testament frequently cites some version of, or versions of, the Septuagint.¹³ It is from the Greek translation that we get, for example, Isaiah’s prediction of a virginal conception.

      As the old Italian proverb goes, all translators are traitors. Words always have connotations, and when they move from one language to another, those connotations often change. Because the New Testament writers primarily used the Greek translation of Israel’s scriptures, some Hebrew nuances are erased or replaced. From the familiar Beatitudes of the equally familiar Sermon on the Mount (Matt 5–7), Jesus states, Blessed are the meek, for they will inherit the earth (Matt 5:5). This is a partial quotation from the Greek translation of Psalm 37:11. However, whereas the Greek (Ps 36:11 LXX) speaks of inheriting the earth (Greek gē, as in geology), the Hebrew speaks of inheriting the land (Hebrew ’eretz), which to its initial hearers would have meant the land of Israel, not all the earth.

      Eastern-rite churches, such as the Greek Orthodox Church, to this day regard the Septuagint, rather than the Hebrew Bible, as canonical. Eventually, Greek-speaking Jewish communities produced new Greek translations that were closer to the Hebrew in order to combat Christian claims. Later, the Jewish people decided that for liturgical purposes their sacred texts would remain in the original Hebrew (or Aramaic). Conversely, Christian churches use various vernacular translations in worship.

      On Interpretation

      BECAUSE 2 Timothy 3:16 states that all scripture [the reference was initially to the scriptures of Israel, since there was no New Testament at the time 2 Timothy was written] is inspired by God [or God-breathed], the idea developed in Christian circles that all biblical passages are replete with meaning. More, the corollary was that because the text is inspired, it cannot have contradictions: it is inerrant, containing no error or faults. Jews traditionally have taken the same approach: scripture is divine; it contains revelation.

      If we begin with this premise of inerrancy, we will spend ages attempting to harmonize inharmonious texts written by different authors at different times. Genesis 1:1–2:4a (the a refers to the first half of the verse) and Genesis 2:4b to the end of the garden of Eden story are different versions of creation, as we see in Chapters 3 and 4. So too, the Gospels give four different versions of the life of Jesus, with major distinctions. Either Jesus died on the first day of the Passover holiday (so Matthew, Mark, and Luke, called the Synoptic Gospels because they see together or share the same basic plot) or he died the day before, when the Passover lambs were being slaughtered in the Temple (so John’s Gospel). Either Joseph’s father was named Jacob, like the original Jacob, father of Joseph (he of the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat) in Genesis, who also dreamed dreams and took his family to Egypt (so Matthew); or Joseph’s father was named Heli (so Luke).

      In our view, the biblical story is a marvelous tapestry created by many weavers of tales over many centuries, each with a different understanding of history, of the relationship of God to the covenant community, and of how people in that community should believe and act. We celebrate the various perspectives rather than try to harmonize them. Similarly, we celebrate the different Jewish and Christian interpretations rather than try to reconcile them. As mainstream biblical scholars, we respect both views in our work of interpretation, and we recognize that interpretation of texts is a complicated process.

      For example, many words have multiple meanings. The English word port may refer to a type of fortified wine or to a harbor, and thus the sentence the sailors enjoyed the port is ambiguous.¹⁴ Equally ambiguous is the sentence Roberta likes horses more than Mark, but its ambiguity is syntactic instead of lexical: perhaps Roberta likes horses more than she likes Mark, or perhaps she has a greater liking for horses than Mark does. In most cases, context resolves such ambiguities; however, as we shall see with the biblical texts, the context is often unknown, and different historical contexts yield different interpretations. For example, depending on when it was written, the Tower of Babel story in Genesis 11:1–9 may reflect the hope that Babylon will soon fall, or it may be a story mocking that empire after the Persians conquered it. The words stay the same, but the frame affects what the story means.

      Our favorite example of taking a text out of context comes from Ben Witherington’s essay on hermeneutics. The term hermeneutics comes from the Greek god Hermes, the go-between deity of Olympus and earth and therefore the interpreter of the gods’ pronouncements. Hermeneutics today is the art of interpretation. Witherington writes:

      I had a phone call over twenty years ago from a parishioner from one of my four N.C. Methodist Churches in the middle of the state. He wanted to know if it was o.k. to breed dogs, ’cause his fellow carpenter had told him that it said somewhere in the KJV [the King James Version] that God’s people shouldn’t do that. I told him I would look up all the references to dog in the Bible and get to the bottom of this. There was nothing of any relevance in the NT [New Testament], but then I came across this peculiar translation of an OT [Old Testament] verse—Thou shalt not breed with the dogs. I called my church member up and told him, I’ve got good news and bad news for you. He asked for the good news first. I said, Well you can breed as many of those furry four-footed creatures as you like, nothing in the Bible against it. He then asked what the bad news was. Well, I said, there is this verse that calls foreign women ‘dogs’ and warns the Israelites not to breed with them. There was a pregnant silence on the other end of the line, and finally Mr. Smith said, Well, I am feeling much relieved, my wife Betty Sue is from just down the road in Chatham county!¹⁵

      Actually, the dogs probably refers to prostitutes, not foreign women; the King James Version does not, in the printed versions we could find, refer to breeding; and the Torah tends to prohibit crossbreeding as part of its concern for placing things in appropriate categories. But the example still holds.

      Also complicating interpretation is our incomplete understanding of ancient Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek language and grammar. These issues affect translation of the Bible’s first verse: One reading of the Hebrew is the NRSV’S In the beginning when God created the heavens and the earth; the when connects this opening line to the following clause, the earth was a formless void and darkness covered the face of the deep. The NRSV translation suggests that God created this world from a formless earth and water. However, the English Standard Version reads, In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth, an absolute statement that suggests creation ex nihilo—creation from nothing. In addition, heavens and earth may refer to two specific bodies, or the phrase could be a merism, a literary device in which two opposites express the two poles and everything in-between—and thus heavens and earth may refer to God’s creation of everything.

      Features of ancient writing create even more ambiguity. Until the late first millennium CE, Hebrew writing contained only consonants; it had no vowels. If we were to imagine English written in this system, the word red would be written rd. But rd could also indicate read, reed, road, raid, rid, rad, ride, rod, ready, or redo. Context will almost always clarify what word rd represents. A favorite exercise of Bible teachers is to ask students to read, in comprehensible English, the sentence GDSNWHR. Some take the optimistic God is now here; others opt for God is nowhere.

      For a biblical example, the first word of Isaiah 9:8 (9:7 Heb.) in Hebrew is dvr, which may be vocalized as davar, a thing, word, or dever, pestilence. The Masoretes vocalized it as davar, yielding the translation The Lord sent a word against Jacob, while the Septuagint translators read dvr as pestilence and so translated it as thanaton (Greek for death). Both readings make sense in context. It is also possible that the Hebrew author was punning.

      Ancient Hebrew and Greek texts also lacked punctuation marks. Psalm 116:15 could be rendered, Precious in the sight of the LORD is the death of his faithful ones, or Is the death of his faithful ones precious in the sight of the LORD? Psalm 121:1 reads, I lift up my eyes to the hills— / from where will my help come; the context may suggest that the sentence is a question: Will my help come from the hills?, and the answer is, No, you’re looking to the wrong place. Help will come from the LORD, who made heaven and earth (Ps 121:2). But numerous Christian hymns take the statement as a declarative and then see nature as revealing the divine presence.

      Punctuation also matters in the New Testament. A centurion tells Jesus, Lord, my servant is lying at home paralyzed, in terrible distress (Matt 8:6). Most translations then have Jesus state, I will come and cure him. However, given that in Matthew’s Gospel Jesus restricts his mission to Jews, the sentence could just as easily be taken as a question, Shall I come and heal him?

      An example that illustrates the Jewish-Christian interpretive divide appears in how we punctuate Isaiah 40:3–4. As punctuated through the cantillation marks found in the Masoretic Text, Isaiah reads:

      A voice cries out:

      "In the wilderness prepare the way of the LORD,

      make straight in the desert a highway for our God.

      Every valley shall be lifted up,

      and every mountain and hill be made low;

      the uneven ground shall become level,

      and the rough places a plain."

      In other words, God will build a road in the desert to facilitate the Jews’ return from Babylon.

      The Gospel of Mark, however, opens as follows:

      As it is written in the prophet Isaiah,

      "See, I am sending my messenger ahead of you,

      who will prepare your way;

      the voice of one crying out in the wilderness:

      ‘Prepare the way of the Lord,

      make his paths straight.’"

      John the baptizer appeared in the wilderness, proclaiming a

      baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins. (Mark 1:2–4)

      The Hebrew text speaks of a voice telling the people to build a road: A voice cries out—colon, quotation mark—In the wilderness prepare the way of the LORD. The Gospel speaks of the voice of one crying out in the wilderness—colon, quotation mark—‘Prepare the way of the Lord.’ Here a dispute over punctuation is interwoven with a major theological issue. This example shows how even such small matters as commas are significant, as

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