Shaping Worldviews

Shaping Worldviews

Copyright © Richard Skiba 2024

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other non-commercial uses permitted by copyright law.

https://greenhillpublishing.com.au/

Skiba, Richard (author)

SHAPING WORLDVIEWS

ISBN 978-1-923156-92-0 (paperback)

ISBN 978-1-923156-93-7 (ebook)

Non-fiction

Typesetting Calluna Regular 10/16

Cover and book design by Green Hill Publishing

Contents

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

CHAPTER 2

Belief Systems

CHAPTER 3

Religious Beliefs

CHAPTER 4

Abrahamic Religions

CHAPTER 5

Indian Religions

CHAPTER 6

East Asian Religions

CHAPTER 7

Folk Religions, Cult Groups, and Other Religions

CHAPTER 8

Unaffiliated or Atheist

CHAPTER 9

Religious Perceptual Influences on Social Issues

CHAPTER 10

Political Beliefs

CHAPTER 11

Conservatism

CHAPTER 12

Liberalism

CHAPTER 13

Socialism

CHAPTER 14

Communism

CHAPTER 15

Libertarianism

CHAPTER 16

Feminism

CHAPTER 17

Environmentalism

CHAPTER 18

Nationalism

CHAPTER 19

Anarchism

CHAPTER 20

Multiculturalism

CHAPTER 21

Tensions and Conflict

CHAPTER 22

Applying Worldviews to Practices

Index

References

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

This book aims to examine various aspects related to belief systems and worldviews, with a focus on religion, political ideologies, and their impact on practices and social issues. Considering the impact of worldviews on social practices is a fundamental aspect of promoting cultural sensitivity, effective communication, social harmony, equitable policy-making, conflict resolution, social justice, innovation, education, health, and global relations.

Cultural sensitivity is a critical aspect of social interaction, particularly in a globalized world where individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds frequently interact. The unique worldviews held by different cultures and societies are deeply rooted in their history, traditions, and social structures, shaping their values, norms, and beliefs. These worldviews influence various aspects of social practices, including communication, behaviour, and societal norms. Understanding and acknowledging these diverse perspectives is essential for promoting cultural sensitivity and avoiding cultural misunderstandings, ultimately fostering an environment of inclusivity and mutual respect. By recognizing and respecting the distinct worldviews of different cultures, individuals and communities can foster an environment of inclusivity and mutual respect.

Effective communication is vital in both personal and professional contexts, yet the influence of worldviews on language, communication styles, and symbols within a society is often neglected. This book aims to underscore the significance of acknowledging and appreciating diverse world-views in enhancing communication effectiveness. By grasping the intricacies of different worldviews, individuals can adeptly navigate communication challenges, fostering improved comprehension and reducing the likelihood of miscommunication. This is particularly crucial in our globalized world, where interactions between individuals from varied cultural backgrounds are increasingly prevalent.

The significance of acknowledging diverse worldviews in enhancing communication effectiveness is underscored by research. Wood and Douglas (2015) emphasize the importance of understanding recipients’ worldviews to develop effective persuasive communications tailored to their world-views. Fong et al. (2021) highlight the need to identify stable intergroup differences in language use to inform research exploring the psychological characteristics of conspiracist worldviews and the wider proliferation of misinformation in an increasingly online world. Shao et al. (2022) discuss the influence of an individual’s native language on their worldview and perception, supporting the idea that language shapes one’s worldview and perception. Bartz and Bartz (2018) emphasize the importance of recognizing and acknowledging worldview diversity in the inclusive classroom, allowing for a learning from process where personal and foreign worldviews can be related to one another. Lipiäinen et al. (2020) also highlight the crucial role of worldviews education in promoting equity, inclusiveness, and peace, further emphasizing the significance of diverse worldviews in education and social inclusion.

Worldviews encompass the fundamental beliefs, values, and perspectives that shape an individual’s understanding of the world and deeply influence language and communication styles within a society. Different worldviews give rise to distinct communication patterns, such as directness, indirectness, high-context, and low-context communication, each essential to comprehend for effective cross-cultural communication. Language, as a reflection of cultural values and worldviews, carries nuances in vocabulary, grammar, and idiomatic expressions that may lead to misunderstandings in intercultural communication. Recognizing and respecting diverse symbols, deeply intertwined with worldviews, is crucial, as cultural symbols convey meanings rooted in a society’s worldview, and misinterpretations can result in communication breakdowns.

Further, recognizing and respecting diverse worldviews is fundamental to intercultural communication competence, involving the development of cultural empathy, open-mindedness, and active efforts to understand others’ perspectives. To develop intercultural communication competence, it is essential to recognize and respect diverse worldviews, fostering cultural empathy, open-mindedness, and active efforts to understand others’ perspectives (Epley et al., 2004). This involves acknowledging and valuing different worldviews to create an inclusive communication environment that promotes mutual respect and understanding across cultural boundaries (Epley et al., 2004).

Research has shown that individuals in collectivistic cultures have interdependent selves, while those in individualistic cultures have independent selves (Wu & Keysar, 2007). Furthermore, perspective-taking is crucial for mediating diversity in the generation of new ideas, as it enables understanding the perspective of others and creates an atmosphere of tolerance, playfulness, and mutual recognition (Hawlina et al., 2017). Additionally, the development of visuospatial and psychological perspective-taking has been debated, indicating its significance in social-emotional development and empathy (Caldwell et al., 2022). Moreover, mutual respect is an interpersonal and relational property that accrues from being treated in a morally correct, unbiased, and fair manner (Rahman & Mahadi, 2021).

In the context of workplace cultures, creating and sustaining an inclusive environment supportive of diverse employees is crucial (Cunningham, 2015). Communication plays a vital role in facilitating an inclusive work environment, and interventions on respect and social inclusion have been found to impact psychological outcomes and well-being (Yu et al., 2018). Additionally, systems thinking in school organizations and leadership levels has been identified as a motive to support an inclusive approach, framing the starting point for creating inclusive environments for human well-being (Layton & Steel, 2015; Norqvist & Ärlestig, 2020). By acknowledging and valuing different world-views, individuals can create an inclusive communication environment that fosters mutual respect and promotes understanding and collaboration across cultural boundaries.

Understanding the nuances of different worldviews also enables individuals to navigate communication challenges effectively, adapt communication styles to accommodate diverse cultural perspectives, and minimize the likelihood of miscommunication by avoiding ethnocentrism. In today’s globalized world, where interactions between individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds are commonplace, the importance of recognizing and respecting diverse worldviews cannot be overstated. Globalization has heightened cultural interconnectedness, making intercultural communication skills essential for personal and professional success. Embracing cultural diversity and understanding the impact of worldviews on communication is crucial for fostering harmonious relationships and effective collaboration in a multicultural society.

This book also explores the pivotal role of acknowledging and respecting diverse worldviews in contributing to social harmony, emphasizing the importance of creating an environment where individuals feel their perspectives are valued. Drawing on a range of scholarly sources, it comprehensively analyses the impact of embracing diversity on inclusivity, social tensions, sense of belonging, unity, and overall social cohesion. The theoretical framework, rooted in the theory of practice architectures (Kemmis et al., 2014), elucidates the mechanisms through which acknowledging diverse worldviews promotes positive intergroup relations. The book delves into the impact on inclusivity, highlighting how valuing diverse perspectives enhances representation, reduces barriers to social participation, and fosters a more inclusive social environment.

Additionally, it discusses the role of acknowledging diverse worldviews in mitigating social tensions, citing empirical studies that demonstrate its potential to reduce intergroup conflicts. The book also explores how embracing diverse perspectives fosters a sense of belonging and unity, affirming identity and creating a supportive social environment. Ultimately, by contributing to social cohesion and harmony, the acknowledgment and respect for diverse worldviews strengthen social bonds, increase cooperation, and promote a shared sense of purpose within the community.

In governance and policymaking, the imperative of recognizing diverse worldviews is paramount to the creation of inclusive and equitable policies. Policymakers, through considering various perspectives, can ensure that policies align with the needs and values of diverse communities, contributing to a more just and inclusive society. This book delves into the significance of acknowledging diverse world-views in policy and decision-making, drawing on diverse academic sources and empirical evidence to substantiate the argument. Diverse worldviews encompass a spectrum of perspectives, beliefs, values, and cultural norms shaped by factors such as cultural background, religion, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and personal experiences. Policymakers must understand these diverse worldviews to craft responsive policies addressing the unique needs and concerns of different societal groups.

In developing inclusive and equitable policies, it is fundamental to recognize diverse worldviews, considering the needs of all individuals and aiming to rectify disparities and ensure fair treatment. This aligns with the principles of social justice, as policymakers can dismantle systemic barriers and promote a fair and impartial society by acknowledging diverse worldviews. Acknowledging diverse worldviews involves implementing policies that address the distinct needs of marginalized and underrepresented communities, fostering a more equitable distribution of resources and opportunities. Research by Fisk et al. (2018) emphasizes the challenge for service scholars to use design to create inclusive service systems worldwide by 2050, aligning with the goal of developing policies that consider the needs of all individuals. Additionally, Guy and McCandless (2012) explain the roots of social equity, its contemporary understandings, and its relevance to emerging issues, providing a theoretical basis for the development of inclusive and equitable policies. Dantec and Fox (2015) contribute to the discussion by developing a reflective account of research to evaluate knowledge production and advance methods for engaging in community-based research, which is essential for understanding diverse worldviews and developing inclusive policies.

Recognition of diverse worldviews, then, is fundamental in developing inclusive and equitable policies, where inclusivity considers the needs of all individuals, and equity aims to rectify disparities and ensure fair treatment. Aligning with the principles of social justice, policymakers can dismantle systemic barriers and promote a fair and impartial society by acknowledging diverse worldviews. This involves implementing policies that address the distinct needs of marginalized and underrepresented communities, fostering a more equitable distribution of resources and opportunities.

Recognizing diverse worldviews not only allows policymakers to address the varied needs of the population but also enhances policy effectiveness. Policies informed by diverse perspectives are more likely to succeed as they account for the complexities and nuances of societal needs and values. However, recognizing diverse worldviews poses challenges, including potential conflicts between different perspectives and the necessity of coherent and feasible policies. Policymakers must engage in ongoing dialogue and consultation with diverse communities to comprehensively understand their perspectives and needs, particularly in complex and rapidly changing societies.

Further, many conflicts stem from differing worldviews, and understanding and addressing these differences are essential for effective conflict resolution. By acknowledging and understanding the underlying worldviews that contribute to conflicts, individuals and communities can identify common ground and develop solutions that respect various perspectives. This approach is vital for fostering peaceful resolutions and promoting reconciliation in diverse societies. This book outlines sources of tension and conflict that may stem from differing worldviews.

In the contemporary landscape of a globalized world, the imperative for collaboration across diverse cultures and perspectives has become increasingly pronounced. This interconnectedness has propelled the need for recognizing and capitalizing on the strengths inherent in different worldviews, thereby fostering innovation and creativity across various fields. Embracing diverse worldviews presents a unique opportunity for individuals and organizations to tap into a rich tapestry of ideas, experiences, and perspectives. By actively seeking out and valuing the diversity of thought that comes with different cultural backgrounds, belief systems, and life experiences, innovative solutions to complex problems can be cultivated.

This cross-pollination of ideas not only stimulates creativity but also promotes a more holistic understanding of challenges, encouraging comprehensive and forward-thinking approaches. Moreover, collaboration among individuals with diverse worldviews leads to a fusion of unique skills, knowledge, and methodologies, creating a synergistic environment that goes beyond traditional boundaries. This synergy, born out of embracing diversity, contributes to an atmosphere conducive to breakthroughs, advancements, and the generation of novel concepts. Ultimately, the recognition and integration of diverse worldviews are integral to unleashing the full potential of innovation and collaboration in an ever-evolving global context.

In the realm of education, the acknowledgment and exploration of diverse worldviews are crucial for the development of empathy and a broader understanding of the world. Educational institutions are entrusted with the responsibility of shaping the minds and perspectives of future generations, making exposure to a spectrum of worldviews a potent tool in preparing students for global citizenship. This exposure goes beyond imparting academic knowledge; it serves as a transformative experience that instils the skills and perspectives necessary to navigate and thrive in an increasingly interconnected and diverse world.

The acknowledgment and exploration of diverse worldviews in education have been a subject of scholarly inquiry. Banks (2008) challenges liberal assimilationist conceptions of citizenship and citizenship education, emphasizing the importance of recognizing and respecting diverse cultural identities. Similarly, Lipiäinen et al. (2020) highlight the significance of schools as sources of information about diverse worldviews, especially in the context of diminishing discussions about religions and worldviews in Finnish homes. This underscores the pivotal role of educational institutions in providing exposure to diverse worldviews.

Furthermore, (Bryant, 2010) discusses the differences in the ways that students of diverse world-views experience college, indicating the need for educational institutions to address these variations in experiences. Additionally, (McKivett et al., 2020) emphasize the utility of including diverse world-views in Indigenous medical education, suggesting that such inclusion may have broader applicability beyond specific educational contexts. Educators play a significant role in facilitating the acknowledgment and exploration of diverse worldviews. Kuusisto and Lamminmäki-Vartia (2012) examine the moral foundation of the kindergarten teacher’s educational approach, shedding light on the discourses and practical level approaches employed regarding the diversity of worldviews and world-view education in their work. Bartz and Bartz (2018) also emphasize the importance of creating a safe space in learning environments that are sensitive to worldview diversity, highlighting the potential of inclusive worldview education in resolving conflicts between students, parents, or teachers. Moreover, Morin et al. (2021) point out that worldview is often neglected as a dimension of holistic student learning and development in college, but certain higher education practitioners are deeply committed to supporting students with diverse religious, spiritual, and secular identities. This highlights the need for educators to actively engage with diverse worldviews to foster inclusive learning environments.

In the context of global citizenship education, Torres and Bosio (2020) emphasize the contributions of researchers, educators, and politicians in describing, interpreting, and developing global citizenship education, underscoring the highly diverse conceptual arena surrounding this field. Additionally, (Moon, 2010) stresses the importance of considering multicultural citizenship and global citizenship simultaneously in educational settings, indicating the complex nature of addressing diverse worldviews in the context of global citizenship education.

Incorporating diverse worldviews into education involves curricular and extracurricular activities that expose students to a range of cultural, social, and ideological perspectives. This exposure challenges students to move beyond their own cultural and experiential bubbles, fostering an environment where differences are not only acknowledged but celebrated. Through this process, students develop a heightened sense of empathy—an ability to understand and share the feelings of others, even those with backgrounds vastly different from their own.

Furthermore, an education that encompasses diverse worldviews contributes significantly to the cultivation of culturally aware individuals. In a world characterized by globalization, multiculturalism, and interconnectedness, cultural awareness is an indispensable skill. It involves not only recognizing and respecting cultural differences but also understanding the historical, social, and economic contexts that shape these differences. This awareness, cultivated through exposure to diverse worldviews, equips individuals with the cultural competency needed to engage meaningfully in a globalized society.

Educational institutions, by incorporating diverse worldviews, thus become agents of social change and inclusivity. They not only prepare students for academic success but also nurture a mindset that values diversity, fosters inclusivity, and promotes a deep appreciation for the richness that arises from varied perspectives. This holistic educational approach contributes to the development of well-rounded individuals who are not only academically proficient but also possess the interpersonal skills and cultural competence required to thrive in an interconnected world. Ultimately, education becomes a powerful vehicle for instilling empathy, fostering cultural awareness, and shaping individuals into responsible, open-minded global citizens.

The provision of healthcare services within a society is profoundly influenced by the intricate interplay between cultural beliefs, worldviews, and healthcare practices. Cultural beliefs, deeply rooted in diverse worldviews, significantly shape individuals’ perceptions of health, illness, and wellness. This has profound implications for the effectiveness and inclusivity of healthcare services, as it influences how individuals perceive and engage with healthcare. Understanding and recognizing these cultural perspectives are fundamental for healthcare providers to deliver care that is not only medically effective but also aligns with the values and preferences of diverse populations (Kahan et al., 2011).

Healthcare providers must be culturally competent to effectively navigate the diverse cultural beliefs and practices that influence health-seeking behaviours and treatment adherence. Studies have shown that cultural competence is essential for delivering healthcare that is sensitive to the needs of diverse communities. It involves understanding the tension between structural and responsive care needs, challenges posed by cultural beliefs and practices, building relationships through cultural understanding, and effectively communicating health messages across diverse populations (Handtke et al., 2019). Cultural competence knowledge and confidence are important for healthcare providers to navigate the preformed perspectives, beliefs, and behaviours regarding health and well-being that patients from diverse cultural backgrounds bring to the healthcare setting (Goff et al., 2020).

The influence of worldviews on health is not limited to individual perceptions but extends to broader psychological health and well-being. Studies have highlighted the role of culture in shaping worldviews about nature and its impact on psychological health, particularly during events such as the COVID-19 pandemic (Wright et al., 2021). Additionally, the Africentric worldview has been linked with indices of psychological adjustment, emphasizing the need to consider diverse world-views in addressing mental health and well-being (Haas et al., 2021). The significance of worldviews in healthcare is also evident in end-of-life care, where understanding Cicely Saunders’ vision of hospice care through the concept of worldview is essential for providing culturally sensitive and respectful care to individuals approaching death (Neblett et al., 2010). This highlights the broader implications of cultural beliefs and worldviews in shaping healthcare practices across different stages of life and care settings.

Furthermore, the interplay between different worldviews, such as Yolŋu and Western health systems, has been identified as a significant factor in health literacy among Australian Indigenous peoples, emphasizing the need to address cultural differences in healthcare delivery (Metzger, 2023). Additionally, the role of culture, religion, and belief in healthcare decision-making underscores the importance of considering patients’ cultural and religious beliefs in clinical judgment and practices (Vass et al., 2011). Education and training play a crucial role in promoting cultural competence among healthcare providers. Studies have emphasized the need for cultural competence training and education to improve healthcare providers’ knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours towards culturally diverse populations (Hordern, 2020). This includes addressing the need for culturally competent physicians who can navigate diverse healthcare beliefs and practices to provide effective care (Nkhoma et al., 2022).

The impact of worldviews and cultural beliefs on healthcare extends beyond individual interactions to the broader dissemination of health information and trust in health sources. Understanding the influence of worldviews on trust of sources for health information is essential for addressing disparities in risk perceptions and healthcare utilization among diverse populations (Wanigatunge, 2021). Moreover, the integration of Western and traditional health practices has been identified as crucial for improving the health of indigenous populations, emphasizing the need to consider diverse cultural beliefs in healthcare systems (Weaver et al., 2017).

As such, cultural beliefs influence various aspects of health practices, including attitudes toward preventive measures, perceptions of symptoms and diseases, preferred modes of treatment, and even the decision-making processes related to healthcare. For instance, some communities may place a strong emphasis on holistic approaches to health, involving traditional remedies or spiritual practices, while others may prioritize Western medical interventions. Understanding these nuances is vital for healthcare providers to establish trust, effective communication, and collaborative relationships with patients.

Acknowledging and incorporating diverse worldviews into healthcare practices is an essential step toward ensuring cultural sensitivity in medical services. It involves healthcare providers actively seeking to understand the cultural contexts of their patients, recognizing the significance of cultural factors in shaping health behaviours and decision-making. By doing so, healthcare providers can tailor their approaches to align with the cultural preferences and values of the individuals they serve.

Moreover, culturally sensitive healthcare practices contribute to improved patient outcomes by fostering better communication and understanding between healthcare providers and patients. Patients are more likely to adhere to treatment plans and actively participate in their healthcare when they feel that their cultural identities and beliefs are respected. Additionally, incorporating diverse worldviews into healthcare practices promotes equity in access to healthcare services, as it recognizes and addresses the unique needs of various communities.

Efforts to enhance cultural competency in healthcare delivery can include training healthcare professionals on cultural awareness, encouraging the recruitment of diverse healthcare staff, and implementing policies that promote inclusivity. Such initiatives contribute to the development of a healthcare system that is responsive to the diverse backgrounds, preferences, and beliefs of the communities it serves.

The intersection of cultural beliefs and worldviews with healthcare practices is a critical consideration for ensuring the effectiveness, accessibility, and inclusivity of healthcare services. By acknowledging and incorporating diverse worldviews, healthcare providers can move beyond a one-size-fits-all approach and create a healthcare environment that respects the richness of cultural diversity, ultimately contributing to improved health outcomes and the well-being of diverse populations.

In the complex landscape of international relations, the recognition and understanding of diverse worldviews among nations play a pivotal role in shaping diplomatic interactions and building positive relationships. The term worldview encapsulates a nation’s collective beliefs, values, historical experiences, and cultural perspectives, which profoundly influence its foreign policy decisions and interactions on the global stage. Diplomats and policymakers face the challenge of navigating this intricate web of worldviews to foster positive and constructive engagement between nations.

Understanding the worldviews of different nations is a cornerstone of effective diplomacy. Each nation brings a unique set of cultural, historical, and political lenses through which it perceives the world and formulates its policies. Diplomats who invest time and effort in comprehending these diverse worldviews gain insights into the motivations, priorities, and sensitivities of their counterparts. This nuanced understanding becomes the foundation for building bridges of communication and trust, allowing for more effective dialogue and negotiation.

Recognition and respect for diverse worldviews in international relations are crucial components of diplomatic success. By acknowledging the unique perspectives of other nations, diplomats can demonstrate cultural sensitivity and an appreciation for the complexity of global issues. This approach fosters an environment conducive to open and constructive dialogue, mitigating the potential for misunderstandings or conflicts arising from cultural differences.

To address sustainable development-related issues, it is crucial to recognize that dominant western worldviews are not universal and that there are diverse worldviews (Demssie et al., 2020). Lack of consensus in recognizing and validating the contribution of indigenous knowledge, practices, and innovation remains a challenge to achieving successful practically oriented relevant educational changes that address the needs of learners and their communities (Owuor, 2008). Diverse worldviews education can contribute to developing individuals’ attitudes and understanding the worldviews of others, in order to learn to live together in harmony with diversity (Lipiäinen et al., 2020). A challenge for transdisciplinary sustainability science is learning how to bridge diverse worldviews among collaborators in respectful ways (Steelman et al., 2018).

Moreover, embracing diverse worldviews is instrumental in navigating diplomatic challenges and promoting global cooperation. Diplomatic challenges often stem from differing national interests, values, and approaches to governance. By recognizing and respecting the diverse worldviews at play, diplomats can work toward finding common ground and areas of mutual interest. This not only facilitates conflict resolution but also lays the groundwork for collaborative efforts on issues of global significance, such as climate change, security, and public health.

In the contemporary interconnected world, positive and mutually beneficial relationships between nations are more critical than ever. Recognizing diverse worldviews is not merely a diplomatic nicety; it is an essential strategy for building enduring partnerships that transcend geopolitical tensions and contribute to global stability. Nations that actively engage with and appreciate the worldviews of their counterparts are better positioned to form alliances, address shared challenges, and collectively contribute to the advancement of common goals.

Understanding and respecting the diverse worldviews of different nations are indispensable for effective diplomacy and the cultivation of positive relationships. Diplomats and policymakers who prioritize this recognition are better equipped to navigate complexities, bridge cultural gaps, and work collaboratively toward a more harmonious and cooperative world order.

This book begins by exploring the general concept of belief systems, highlighting the role of religion as a contributor to these systems. The sociology of belief systems is introduced to provide a broader understanding of how beliefs shape societal structures. The subsequent chapters delve into religious beliefs, starting with a definition of religion and an exploration of religious diversity. Major world religions, including Judaism, Islam, and Christianity, are examined along with their variations and denominations. The book also explores the impact of religious beliefs on identity, perception, and decision-making.

Further, the book delves into specific religious traditions, such as Indian religions (Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism) and East Asian religions (Taoism, Confucianism, Mahayana Buddhism, Shinto). It also explores folk religions, cult groups, and other religions, providing insights into various belief systems and their manifestations.

The book goes beyond religious beliefs to examine unaffiliated or atheist perspectives, including agnosticism and atheism. It explores how religious beliefs influence social issues, perceptions of science, and views on topics like climate change.

Shifting from religious beliefs to political beliefs, the book explores the political landscape, spectrum, and various ideologies. Chapters are dedicated to conservatism, liberalism, socialism, communism, libertarianism, feminism, environmentalism, nationalism, anarchism, and multiculturalism. Each chapter delves into the respective ideology, political parties associated with it, and the worldviews that underpin these belief systems.

The concluding chapters address tensions and conflicts arising from religious and political ideologies. It also examines how worldviews can be shaped by combinations of religious philosophies and political ideologies, contributing to a comprehensive exploration of the intricate interplay between belief systems and societal dynamics.

CHAPTER 2

Belief Systems

Belief systems play a crucial role in shaping individuals’ understanding of the world, their place in it, and their guiding principles for life. These comprehensive frameworks of ideas, values, beliefs, and principles have a profound influence on personal and collective behaviour, decision-making, and culture (Havrylenko, 2020; Huebner & Fickling, 2023; Taves, Asprem, & Ihm, 2018). From a psychological perspective, belief systems guide an individual’s perceptions, behaviours, and interactions (Huebner & Fickling, 2023). They are not only about whether God exists or whether the world has a purpose, but also about the philosophical vision of the world (Havrylenko, 2020; Irzık & Nola, 2007). Furthermore, belief systems are fundamental to human identity and are proposed to influence consumer values through one’s worldview (Peterson & Minton, 2018).

Belief systems are not only individual and unique but are also social, organized, and shared (Åhs et al., 2019). They are deeply intertwined with culture and religion, and it has been proposed that a psychology of worldview can serve as an integrative framework for the study of culture and religion (Johnson et al., 2011). Moreover, belief systems are not limited to religious or non-religious perspectives; they encompass atheism, agnosticism, theism, and a wide range of worldviews that are generated by combining various answers to fundamental questions (Taves, Asprem, & Ihm, 2018). This highlights the complexity and diversity of belief systems and their impact on individuals and societies.

The influence of belief systems extends to decision-making processes. Research has shown that decision-making styles are influenced by belief systems, affecting how individuals make choices and evaluate alternatives (Campo et al., 2016; Scott & Bruce, 1995). Additionally, affective imagery associated with certain beliefs is related to decision-making processes (Peters & Slovic, 1996). This suggests that belief systems not only shape perceptions and behaviours but also play a role in cognitive processes such as decision-making.

A worldview is a comprehensive framework of beliefs, values, and assumptions about the world and our place in it. It encompasses a wide range of perspectives, including philosophical, religious, cultural, and scientific outlooks that shape an individual’s understanding of reality, morality, and the nature of existence. Worldviews are deeply ingrained and influence how individuals perceive and interpret the world around them, as well as how they make sense of their experiences and interactions with others.

At the heart of any belief system are core beliefs about fundamental questions, such as the nature of reality, the purpose of life, the existence of the divine, and the nature of good and evil. These beliefs provide a foundation for how individuals or communities interpret and make sense of their experiences.

Belief systems often include a set of values and ethical principles that guide moral and ethical decision-making. These principles may shape a person’s understanding of right and wrong and influence their behaviour.

The distinction between science and belief systems, referencing Figure 1 and Figure 2, lies in their fundamental nature and the way they shape our understanding of the world. Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe (Kriesi, 1990). It relies on empirical evidence, logical reasoning, and critical thinking to develop theories and models that describe the natural world (Kriesi, 1990). In contrast, belief systems are sets of norms that provide an organized interpretation of the world to human beings, allowing viable interaction with society (Pont et al., 2015). Belief systems are often rooted in cultural, religious, or societal influences and may not necessarily rely on empirical evidence or logical reasoning.

Figure 1: March for Science in Freiburg, with sign Science is not belief system. Andreas Schwarzkopf, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons.

One key distinction between science and belief systems is the reliance on evidence. Science is characterized by its commitment to empirical evidence and the scientific method, which involves systematic observation, measurement, and experimentation (Friedman, 1997). This rigorous approach allows scientific knowledge to be continually tested, refined, and updated based on new evidence. In contrast, belief systems may be based on faith, tradition, or cultural values, and their tenets are often accepted without the same level of empirical scrutiny. Furthermore, the nature of knowledge within science and belief systems differs. Science aims to produce knowledge that is objective, universal, and subject to revision based on new evidence (Friedman, 1997).

Scientific knowledge is provisional and subject to change in light of new discoveries. On the other hand, belief systems often involve subjective interpretations of the world and may be resistant to change, as they are deeply intertwined with cultural, religious, or personal identities (Conradie & Toit, 2015). The role of belief systems and science in shaping attitudes and behaviours is also noteworthy. Belief systems can influence individuals’ attitudes, values, and behaviours, often serving as guiding principles for personal conduct and societal norms (Wang et al., 2020). In contrast, science provides a framework for understanding the natural world and technological advancements, shaping our understanding of the universe and informing decision-making processes (Garnett, 2019).

Figure 2: Sign Science = reason / Belief = opinion at the March for Science in Brussels, 04/22/2017. Anne Jea., CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons.

Belief systems provide a comprehensive worldview, which is a way of understanding the world and its workings. This includes beliefs about the natural world, society, human relationships, and the universe’s origin and destiny. They often play a significant role in shaping individual and group identities. They can create a sense of belonging to a particular community or cultural group, fostering a shared sense of purpose and values.

Belief systems are integral to culture. They affect art, literature, music, architecture, and other cultural expressions. They also influence cultural norms and practices, such as rituals, ceremonies, and celebrations. Further, they can have a profound impact on political and social structures. They can influence laws, governance, social policies, and the interaction between religion and state. The relationship between belief systems and politics can vary widely.

Many belief systems have a spiritual or religious dimension, with beliefs in deities, spirits, or supernatural forces. These spiritual aspects can involve rituals, worship, and religious practices. However, not all belief systems are explicitly religious. Some individuals and communities hold secular or non-religious belief systems, such as atheism, agnosticism, secular humanism, or philosophical worldviews, which may focus on rational and empirical perspectives. The world is characterized by a diversity of belief systems. This diversity can lead to pluralism, where different belief systems coexist in the same society, often promoting tolerance and understanding among diverse groups.

Belief systems can vary widely among individuals and cultures, and they may evolve over time. They can be deeply personal and are often influenced by factors like upbringing, culture, education, and personal experiences. Understanding belief systems is crucial for fostering intercultural dialogue, tolerance, and cooperation in a diverse and interconnected world.

Belief systems and worldviews, although interconnected, differ in their scope and nuances. They share a relationship, yet distinctions exist between the two concepts. A belief system is essentially a collection of interconnected beliefs or principles held by an individual or a group. These beliefs encompass specific convictions and the acceptance of particular ideas, values, and propositions. Examples of belief systems span various domains, ranging from religious and philosophical orientations to political and cultural ideologies. Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, democracy, communism, and individualism are illustrative instances of belief systems.

On the other hand, a worldview is a broader and more comprehensive framework that extends beyond individual beliefs. It encompasses the overall perspective or lens through which an individual or a culture interprets and comprehends the world. A worldview involves a more extensive set of assumptions about reality, human nature, morality, knowledge, and the purpose or meaning of life. While worldviews often include elements of belief systems, they go beyond by incorporating aspects like cultural norms, social practices, and personal experiences. Examples of worldviews encompass diverse outlooks such as naturalism, postmodernism, Eastern holistic perspectives, and Western secular humanism.

In summary, a belief system operates as a subset within the larger framework of a worldview. While a belief system focuses on specific convictions about certain topics, a worldview is a more encompassing lens that shapes how individuals or cultures perceive and make sense of the world. Belief systems play a role in shaping worldviews, but the latter is characterized by its broader scope, encompassing a comprehensive set of assumptions and perspectives.

Worldviews are formed through a complex interplay of social, psychological, and cultural factors. Berger and Luckmann (1967) propose that worldviews are socially constructed through the process of institutionalization, where individuals internalize the beliefs and values of the society in which they live. (Koltko-Rivera, 2004) emphasizes the psychological aspect, suggesting that worldviews are a set of assumptions about reality that can have powerful effects on cognition and behaviour. Erdvig (2020) focuses on the role of religious education in the formation of a Biblical worldview, highlighting the influence of specific teachings and doctrines. Additionally, (Witt, 2014) discusses how different worldviews envision concepts such as development and quality of life, indicating that cultural and environmental factors also play a significant role in shaping worldviews.

From a philosophical standpoint, a worldview can be understood as a set of fundamental cognitive, affective, and evaluative beliefs that provide a framework for understanding and interpreting reality. These beliefs may encompass metaphysical assumptions about the nature of reality, epistemological beliefs about how knowledge is acquired, and axiological beliefs about what is considered valuable or meaningful. Philosophers such as Immanuel Kant, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Jean-Paul Sartre have explored the concept of worldview in their works, emphasizing the role of individual perception and interpretation in shaping one’s understanding of the world.

Culturally, worldviews are influenced by the social, historical, and linguistic context in which individuals are situated. Cultural worldviews encompass shared beliefs, values, and norms that are transmitted through language, traditions, and social institutions. These worldviews shape individuals’ perceptions of identity, community, and social roles, and may vary widely across different cultural groups. For instance, the Confucian worldview in East Asia emphasizes the importance of filial piety, social harmony, and hierarchical relationships, while the individualistic worldview prevalent in Western societies prioritizes personal autonomy, self-expression, and individual rights. Scientifically, a worldview can be informed by empirical evidence, rational inquiry, and the principles of naturalistic explanation.

Scientific worldviews are characterized by a commitment to methodological naturalism, which seeks to understand natural phenomena through observation, experimentation, and logical reasoning. This approach to understanding the world has led to significant advancements in fields such as physics, biology, and psychology, shaping our understanding of the universe, the origins of life, and the mechanisms of human cognition.

Religiously, a worldview is often shaped by the teachings, doctrines, and practices of a particular faith tradition. Different religious worldviews offer distinct perspectives on the nature of the divine, the purpose of human existence, and the moral principles that guide ethical behaviour. For example, the Christian worldview emphasizes the concepts of sin, redemption, and salvation through the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, while the Buddhist worldview centres on the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path as a means to alleviate suffering and achieve enlightenment.

A worldview is a multifaceted construct that encompasses philosophical, religious, cultural, and scientific perspectives. It serves as a lens through which individuals interpret and make sense of the world, influencing their beliefs, values, and behaviours. Understanding the diverse nature of worldviews is essential for fostering intercultural dialogue, promoting mutual understanding, and addressing the complex challenges facing our global society.

RELIGION AS A CONTRIBUTOR TO BELIEF SYSTEMS

Our beliefs and attitudes, shaped by a combination of experiences, environment, and genetics, wield considerable influence over our behaviour and actions, collectively contributing to the fabric of our society. Among belief systems, religion stands out as one of the most enduring, existing for millennia and serving as a code of conduct that guides believers toward cultured and non-primitive living. Initially established to foster social bonding, religious practices are believed to be adaptive, emerging to ensure survival and reproductive advantages through gene selection or gene-culture coevolution dynamics (Vajpayee, 2016).

The significance of religion extends to its impact on thinking patterns, self-identity, and the collective identity of communities. The influence of religious beliefs is particularly potent in children, fostering a teleological bias that persists into adulthood, shaping perceptions of phenomena based on their perceived purpose rather than their postulated causes (Kelemen, 2004). Attitudes are intricately tied to beliefs about God’s attributes, existence, and involvement in one’s life events, contributing to the formation of cultural norms and influencing individual and group behaviour.

While commonalities exist among various religions, such as shared principles of god, love, honesty, altruism, miracle workings, and peacekeeping, differences in ideologies can lead to disharmony. The interpretation of religious scriptures by followers sometimes results in irrational and distorted deductions that deviate from fundamental principles, contributing to conflicts. The coexistence of diverse religions within a single community or nation is a relatively recent trend, and historical examples like The Crusades, Sati System, Buddhist Burma, Jihadists, and Witch Hunts underscore instances of sacrifice and war in the name of religion.

Religions often enforce moral behaviour through positive and negative reinforcement, incorporating elements like karma and reincarnation in Hinduism, heaven-hell and salvation in Christianity, paradise and hell in Islamism, and peaceful afterlife and reincarnation in indigenous Chinese folk religions. The dichotomous nature of religion becomes apparent as it simultaneously promotes compassion and kindness while fuelling religious hatred, violence, and martyrdom, particularly among radical believers. Studies, such as (Shariff & Norenzayan, 2011), suggest that belief in fearsome and punishing supernatural agents, like hell, correlates with moral behaviour, while concepts of heaven are associated with positive feelings and happiness. However, an alternative explanation proposes that religious scriptures or rituals act as moral reminders through priming, independently influencing moral and honest behaviour.

SOCIOLOGY OF BELIEF SYSTEMS

In understanding the role of belief systems within the broader framework of worldviews, it is essential to consider the sociological perspective (Goode & Berger, 1968). in The Sacred Canopy: Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion argue that human reality and knowledge are social constructs, shaped by interactions with larger social structures. This aligns with Shah (2010), who emphasizes the impact of belief systems on shaping and controlling human activities in different fields, including education. Additionally, Tata and Prasad (2015) highlight the orientation of beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions toward specific objects and situations within the context of national cultural values and organizational initiatives (Nkomo, 2017). further underscores the influence of socio-cultural beliefs in specific settings, such as the healthcare perspective, emphasizing the significance of traditional beliefs and practices related to health and wellbeing.

These references collectively support the understanding that belief systems operate within the broader framework of worldviews, influencing various aspects of human life and societal structures. They emphasize the social construction of reality and the impact of belief systems on shaping individual and collective behaviours, perceptions, and activities across different domains.

The sociology of belief systems is a complex field that examines the relationship between beliefs, values, and ideologies and their impact on individuals and societies. Belief systems are dynamic and influenced by various social factors such as socialization processes, peer groups, media, societal norms, and globalization (Döbler, 2022). The formation and socialization of belief systems occur through interactions within families, communities, educational institutions, and religious organizations, contributing to the development of specific beliefs, values, and worldviews (Döbler, 2022).

Additionally, belief systems play a crucial role in shaping individual and group identities, contributing to the sense of belonging and defining boundaries between different social groups. Moreover, belief systems can be tools of power and control, used by dominant groups to legitimize their authority, while counter-beliefs can challenge existing power structures (Döbler, 2022). Furthermore, belief systems are integral to understanding social order, identity formation, power dynamics, and societal change. The sociology of belief systems draws from various disciplines, including sociology, psychology, and anthropology, to understand the social dimensions of belief systems. It explores how shared beliefs create solidarity within groups and influence inter-group relations. Additionally, it sheds light on the role of belief systems in social inequalities, cultural change, and the dynamics of consensus and conflict within societies.

The study of belief systems also encompasses the impact of globalization on the spread and adaptation of beliefs across different cultures and societies. Sociologists analyse how conflicting belief systems contribute to social tensions and how shared beliefs contribute to social harmony. Furthermore, the study of belief systems helps to understand how social inequalities are reinforced or challenged through ideological mechanisms. It also provides insights into the role of belief systems in social change and cultural transformation. The sociology of belief systems is essential for comprehending the complex interplay between individual beliefs and the broader social context, offering a framework for understanding the role of belief systems in shaping social behaviour and institutions.

Examining social structures involves the analysis of patterns, relationships, and institutions that influence human behaviour within a society. Social theories play a crucial role in providing frameworks for understanding and interpreting these structures. Various social theories offer distinct perspectives on how social structures can be examined:

•Structural-Functionalism emphasizes the functions and dysfunctions of social structures in maintaining social order (Levy & Coser, 1957). An examination within this framework involves analysing how institutions like family, education, and the economy contribute to social stability and cohesion, identifying their roles in maintaining equilibrium and addressing societal needs. Yang et al. (2022) and (Kelly et al., 2017) explore the structural and functional aspects of social relationships, highlighting the significance of social support, family cohesion, and social networks in maintaining social stability and addressing societal needs (Kelly et al., 2017; Yang et al., 2022). These sources provide a comprehensive understanding of how social relationships and networks contribute to social cohesion and stability. Moreover, Shelton et al. (2019) emphasize the importance of social networks’ structural and functional characteristics in influencing physical health and health behaviours, further underlining the role of social structures in maintaining societal well-being and stability. Additionally, Barbano (1968) provides critical insights into the emancipation of structural analysis in sociology, offering a deeper understanding of the relationship between social structures and their functions. Jang and Han (2021) contribute to the discussion by highlighting the impact of social function on individuals’ well-being, further emphasizing the significance of social structures in addressing societal needs. also emphasizes the importance of analysing the functions of institutional structures and their interaction with internal and external forces in maintaining social equilibrium (Kerby, 2015).

•Conflict theory is a sociological perspective that emphasizes power struggles and social inequalities as the driving forces in society. This theory examines how social structures perpetuate inequalities based on factors such as class, race, and gender, and how institutions either reinforce or challenge existing power dynamics. Conflict theory directs attention to the covert, institutional, and normal activities in society that cause physical and psychological harm (Eitzen, 1988). It argues that as inequality increases, the conflict of interest between different social groups encourages the disadvantaged to organize and mobilize against the policies that favour the privileged (Karakoç, 2012). Moreover, it explores power structures and disparities, which refer to how power differentials affect social inequality (Zengenene, 2020). The theory of social conflict argues that conflicts can be identified among all social systems, including educational institutions (Trakšelys, 2018). Additionally, it suggests that people who perceive strong conflicts in society are likely to experience lower levels of happiness and life satisfaction (Delhey & Dragolov, 2013).

•Symbolic Interactionism examines how individuals create and interpret symbols and meanings in their social interactions. The examination within this framework involves analysing how social structures are constructed and maintained through everyday interactions, exploring how symbols and shared meanings contribute to the formation and reinforcement of social structures. Symbolic Interactionism is a sociological perspective that focuses on the subjective meanings that people attach to objects, events, and behaviours, and how these meanings are used to guide social interactions. This theory emphasizes the importance of symbols and language in shaping individual behaviour and the construction of society through interaction (Carter & Fuller, 2016). Symbolic Interactionism is rooted in the work of early sociologists such as George Herbert Mead, Charles Horton Cooley, and Herbert Blumer, who developed the theory as a distinctive sociological approach (Klesse, 2023). It is a theoretical perspective that addresses the manner in which society is created and maintained through face-to-face, repeated, meaningful interactions among individuals (Carter & Fuller, 2016). Symbolic Interactionism assumes that individuals will act pragmatically in social situations by making judgments on, and reacting to, the way they perceive they should be seen by others in that situation (Hughes, 2016). This perspective supports the idea that social interaction is used to construct reality and that individuals interpret and respond to objects and others’ actions based on meaning that is created by interaction (Crawford et al., 2018). Symbolic Interactionism has been applied in various fields, including healthcare, where it has been used to guide research design and data collection through interviews and observation (Symons et al., 2019). In nursing practice, a combined symbolic interactionism/critical perspective approach assists nurses in providing high-quality care at the individual level while also addressing broader societal issues (Burbank & Martins, 2010). Furthermore, the application of symbolic interactionism concepts in interaction with elderly people gives them the feeling that they are active participants in the interaction process and as partners in the implementation of their health care intervention (Aldiabat, 2013). Symbolic Interactionism has also been utilized in the study of mental health, particularly in understanding the impact of violence and trauma on marginalized communities (Jones, 2021).

•Social constructionism investigates the process through which social phenomena are constructed and given meaning by individuals and society. It delves into how social structures are socially constructed and how individuals actively participate in shaping and defining them (Berger & Luckmann, 1967). This framework involves analysing the role of language, media, and discourse in constructing social realities (Hoffman, 1990). The concept of social constructionism has implications for knowledge and learning, as it offers different orientations and implications for understanding and responding to social phenomena (Cunliffe, 2008). Furthermore, social constructionism has been applied to various fields, including race scepticism, teaching and learning processes, and behaviour analysis (Glass, 2007; Hochman, 2022; Vaičiūnienė & Kazlauskienė, 2022). It has also been instrumental in understanding the social construction of morality, suicide, and race (Coyle & MacWhannell, 2002; Öbach, 1999).

•Critical Theory examines societal structures with a focus on critique and emancipation. An examination within this framework involves analysing how social structures perpetuate forms of domination and oppression. Researchers explore possibilities for social transformation and emancipation through a critical examination of existing structures. Critical Theory, as a framework, aims to analyse societal structures to identify and critique forms of domination and oppression, ultimately seeking possibilities for social transformation and emancipation (Allen, 2015). This approach involves a dialectical analysis of unsustainability, focusing on class, capitalism, and domination (Fuchs, 2021). Critical discourse analysis is used to unpack power structures and dominance in social work inquiry, shedding light on the diffuse and discursive nature of power (Leotti et al., 2021). Furthermore, critical theory emphasizes the importance of emancipation within the context of health disparities, particularly in nursing (Moreno-Lacalle & Locsin, 2019), and in feminist activism, where it intersects with gender and secularity (Brandt, 2019). Additionally, critical theory is applied to address water security issues, emphasizing the emancipatory intent of critical theory approaches (Harrington, 2014). The application of Critical Race Theory (CRT) and LatCrit Theory provides a framework for examining transformational resistance and the construct of student resistance, particularly in the context of race and leadership (Solórzano & Bernal, 2001). Moreover, intersectionality is incorporated into psychology to promote social justice and equity, emphasizing the need to address and critique societal structures to combat oppression (Rosenthal, 2016). Critical Management Studies (CMS) also aligns with critical theory, focusing on praxis and the ethical promise of challenging mainstream structures (Foster & Wiebe, 2010).

•Exchange Theory emphasizes the rational choices individuals make in social interactions. Exchange Theory, also known as Social Exchange Theory, is a sociological and psychological theory that emphasizes the rational choices individuals make in social interactions (Lawler et al., 2008). This theory involves analysing social structures by examining patterns of exchange and cooperation, and it explores how individuals calculate the costs and benefits of their actions within social structures (Lawler et al., 2008). Social exchange theory conceptualizes the exchange of resources between individuals and groups in an interaction situation, providing a framework for understanding relationships, interactions, and transactions (Moyle et al., 2010). It is based on the premise that individuals engage in interactions based on an anticipation of a favoured reaction and are influenced by past interactions (Sukumaran & Lanke, 2020). The theory is rooted in the concept of rational choice, which is the theory behind making rational decisions and choices (Chatterjee, 2022). Rational choice theory is based on the idea of rationality as a normatively justified correspondence between interests and choices (Landa, 2006). It is also associated with the structural theory of rational choice, which derives from the interpretation of rational choice theory and offers an account of rational choice based on the conception of rationality as a normatively justified correspondence between interests and choices (Cudd, 2005). Social exchange theory is also linked to the concept of power in social relationships. Within social exchange theory, interactions are understood in terms of the flow of benefits or reinforcers between individuals (Lamb, 1991). Additionally, the theory clarifies two critical features of social exchange: dynamic interaction behaviours and the power in structural relationships to maintain interdependent relationships among the exchangers in a social exchange (Ren & Ma, 2021). Moreover, social exchange theory has been applied in various contexts, such as in understanding client-nurse practitioner interaction in healthcare settings (Byrd, 2006), the provision of social services considering social exclusion dimensions (Čižikienė & Urmanavičienė, 2018), and the influence of social networks on care-seeking behaviour and treatment adherence in healthcare (Nagarajan & Das, 2019). It has also been used to analyse interactions in multiagent systems, allowing the modelling of interactions as service exchange processes between pairs of agents (Farias et al., 2013). An examination within this framework involves analysing social structures by examining patterns of exchange and cooperation. Researchers explore how individuals calculate the costs and benefits of their actions within social structures.

•Feminist Theory focuses on examining gender-based inequalities and power relations. Feminist theory is a critical framework that delves into the analysis of gender-based inequalities and power dynamics within social structures. This examination involves understanding how social structures contribute to the perpetuation of gender inequalities and exploring the intersections of gender with other social categories in shaping these structures (Pennick, 2020). Feminist theory has been influential in various disciplines, providing insights into power dynamics, gender roles, and social inequalities (Beauvoir, 2023). One of the key aspects of feminist theory is its emphasis on the structural relationship between women’s social status, gender inequality, and various social phenomena. This perspective highlights the impact of gender on social structures and the implications for individuals within these structures (McIntosh, 1991). Additionally, feminist theory has contributed to understanding the social construction of gender and the complexities of gender identity. By examining women’s social roles and lived experiences, feminist theory has developed interdisciplinary theories to address issues related to gender inequality and the social construction of sex and gender (Shields, 2008). Furthermore, feminist theory has been instrumental in critiquing patriarchal power relations and advocating for the redistribution of resources to address material and economic inequalities. This perspective underscores the need to challenge existing power structures and address the marginalization of unpaid reproductive work, gender wage gaps, and the valuation of masculine and feminine work and skills (Nash, 2008). Intersectionality, a concept enriched by feminist theories, provides a more nuanced understanding of power relations by considering how gender intersects with race, class, age, nationality, and ethnicity to shape individuals’ identities and experiences. This intersectional approach acknowledges the interconnected nature of social categories and their influence on power dynamics (Aldoory, 2005).

•Postmodernism critiques grand narratives and challenges the idea of stable social structures. Postmodernism challenges the idea of stable social structures and critiques grand narratives, emphasizing the fragmented and fluid nature of social structures. This examination involves analysing the impact of globalization, technology, and cultural shifts on traditional social structures. Postmodernism is characterized by its scepticism towards metanarratives and totalizing explanations of human experience (Walker & Vaida, 2014). It criticizes modernism and offers a different perspective in contrast to institutions and structures built with a modernist perspective (Doru et al., 2022). The postmodern social condition is featured by the development of new media technologies, which challenge traditional authorities and contribute to the fragmentation and fluidity of identity (Wang & Morais, 2014). Furthermore, postmodernism challenges essentialistic modes of social analysis, including theories linking schooling to the capitalist socio-economic system (Slott, 2002). The impact of postmodernism on various fields is evident. In social work, there is a challenge to evidence-based and scientific evaluation of knowledge from a postmodern/critical theory perspective (Drake & Hodge, 2022). Similarly, in social policy, there is a growing debate over the usefulness of postmodernism for social policy analysis (Penna & O’Brien, 1996). Postmodernism also influences the concept of national security, demanding a comprehensive approach based on postmodern culture’s value dimension (Kryvyzyuk et al., 2021). Moreover, postmodernism has entered the study of social policy, prompting debate over its usefulness for social policy analysis (Carter, 1998). The influence of postmodernism extends to cultural and societal aspects. It has led to a shift in contemporary culture, embracing the new male and challenging traditional masculinity norms (Connor et al., 2021). Additionally, postmodernism has implications for community colleges, requiring a clear mission to match diffuse boundaries and greater thoughtfulness about growth and measurement to match new challenges of organizational fragmentation and inconsistency (Bergquist, 1998). Furthermore, postmodernism has implications for music therapy, leading to a more politically aware and democratized approach (Gross, 2023).

•Rational Choice Theory assumes individuals act in their self-interest and make rational decisions. This theory forms the basis for analysing how social structures are influenced by individual choices and behaviours, and how rational decision-making shapes social institutions and structures. The influence of rational choice on social structures has gained traction in various fields such as sociology, criminology, and political science. The application of rational choice theory in sociology has been explored extensively, with researchers emphasizing its compatibility with macro-level theories of social structure (Hechter & Kanazawa, 1997). Additionally, the incorporation of social identity into rational choice theory has been proposed as a direction for further development in this area (Satō, 2013). Furthermore, the framework explains how organizational actors produce rationality by linking micro processes of intraorganizational decision-making to macro-social institutional forces, and by adding rational choice theory as an institutional component of rational decision-making praxis (Cabantous & Gond, 2011). In the context of criminology, rational choice, deterrence, and social learning theories have been interconnected, highlighting the significance of rational choice in understanding criminal behaviour and decision-making processes (Akers, 1990, 2017). Moreover, the rational choice perspective has been applied to explain the rationality of action and choice, emphasizing individual social action and the rationality of action and choice (Bulle & Morin, 2014). The influence of rational choice theory extends beyond sociology and criminology, as it has been applied in various fields such as political science, economics, and psychology. For instance, the theory has been utilized to explain collective decision-making in organizational settings, shedding light on how individual choices are combined into collective decisions (Cristani et al., 2019). Additionally, the theory has been examined in the context of investment decision-making, highlighting evidence on rationality and behavioural biases in this domain (Kumar & Goyal, 2016). While rational choice theory provides a valuable framework for understanding individual decision-making and its impact on social structures, it is essential to acknowledge its limitations. For instance, the theory has been critiqued for its idealized assumptions about individual behaviour and the neglect of social relations in influencing decision-making processes (Granovetter, 2002). Furthermore, the theory’s application in diverse fields necessitates a nuanced understanding of its implications and the need for complementary theoretical perspectives to enhance its explanatory power (Tello et al., 2010).

•Systems Theory views society as a complex system with interconnected parts. The concept of Systems Theory provides a framework for understanding society as a complex system with interconnected parts, where changes in one part can have a significant impact on the entire structure. This theory emphasizes the analysis of how social structures maintain equilibrium and adapt to changes (Bertalanffy & Sutherland, 1974). It posits that society can be viewed as a system with various interconnected components, and any alteration in one part can lead to repercussions throughout the entire system (Ginkel et al., 2020). This interconnectedness and interdependence of social structures are essential for maintaining equilibrium and adapting to changes (Folke et al., 2010). Systems Theory has been applied to various fields, including geography, psychology, and sociology, to understand the dynamics of complex social-ecological systems (Adams, 2021; Cumming et al., 2006; Huggett, 1982). The theory has also been used to analyse the legal system as a complex network, shedding light on the relationship between laws and society (Lee et al., 2019). Moreover, it has been employed to study the dynamics of