National Irrigation Guide

National Part 652
Irrigation Guide
Engineering
United States
Department of Handbook
Agriculture
Natural
Resources
Conservation
Service
Irrigation Guide
(210-vi-NEH, September 1997) v

Part 652
Irrigation Guide
Issued September 1997
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vi (210-vi-NEH, September 1997)

Part 652
Preface Irrigation Guide
Irrigation is vital to produce acceptable quality and yield of crops on arid

climate croplands. Supplemental irrigation is also vital to produce accept-
able quality and yield of crops on croplands in semi-arid and subhumid
climates during seasonal droughty periods. The complete management of
irrigation water by the user is a necessary activity in our existence as a
society. Competition for a limited water supply for other uses by the public
require the irrigation water user to provide much closer control than ever
before. The importance of irrigated crops is extremely vital to the public's
subsistence.
Today's management of irrigation water requires using the best information

and techniques that current technology can provide in the planning, design,
evaluation, and management of irrigation systems. Support for many of the
values included in this chapter come from field research, established design
processes, and many system designs and evaluations over many years. Field
evaluations must always be used to further refine the planning, design,
evaluation, and management process. This design guide in the Natural
Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), National Engineering Handbook
series provides that current technology.
Irrigation Guide, Part 652, is a guide. It describes the basics and process for
planning, designing, evaluating, and managing irrigation systems. It pro-
vides the process for states to supplement the guide with local soils, crops,
and irrigation water requirement information needed to plan, design, evalu-
ate, and manage irrigation systems.
Irrigation Guide, Part 652, is a new handbook to the family of references in

the NRCS, National Engineering Handbook series. It is written for NRCS
employees who provide technical assistance to the water user with con-
cerns for both water quantity and quality. Other technical personnel for
Federal, State, private, and local agencies will also find the guide useful as a
basic reference when providing technical assistance relating to planning,
designing, evaluating, and managing irrigation systems. College and univer-
sity instructors will also find the guide useful as a classroom reference.
In addition to the irrigation Guide (part 652), chapters in the National

Engineering Handbook irrigation section (now part 623) describe:
• Soil-plant relationships and soil water properties that affect move-
ment, retention, and release of water in soil
• Irrigation water requirements
• Planning farm irrigation systems
• Measurement of irrigation water
• Design of pumping plants
• Design criteria and design procedures for surface, sprinkler, and
micro irrigation methods and the variety of systems for each method
that can be adaptable to meet local crop, water, and site conditions
and irrigation concerns
(210-vi-NEH, September 1997) i

Part 652
Acknowledgments Irrigation Guide
Part 652, Irrigation Guide, is an addition to the National Engineering Hand-

book series. The document was initially prepared by Elwin A. Ross, irriga-
tion engineer, NRCS, Engineering Division, Washington, DC, (retired) with
primary input and review from Leland A. Hardy, irrigation engineer,
Midwest National Technical Center, NRCS, Lincoln, Nebraska, (retired).
Principal NRCS staff who contributed to the development and review of

this publication were:
John Brenner, irrigation engineer, North Platt, Nebraska
Jerry Walker, irrigation engineer, Temple, Texas
Carl Gustafson, state conservation engineer, Amherst, Massachusetts
David Nelson, assistant state conservation engineer, Amherst,
Massachusetts
John Dalton, agricultural engineer, Bozeman, Montana (retired)
Jim Suit, state conservation engineer, Bozeman, Montana
State conservation engineers coordinated a multidiscipline (representing

soils, agronomy, water quality, and water management) review in all states.
William J. Carmack, national water management engineer, (retired),

Ronald L. Marlow, water management engineer, NRCS, Washington, DC,
and Thomas L. Spofford, irrigation engineer, NRCS, National Water and
Climate Center, Portland, Oregon provided leadership and coordination.
Editing and publication production assistance were provided by the Techni-

cal Publishing Team, NRCS, National Cartography and Geospatial Center,
Fort Worth, Texas. Final technical review was provided by Elwin A. Ross
and Leland A. Hardy.
ii (210-vi-NEH, September 1997)

Part 652
Irrigation Guide Irrigation Guide
Contents: Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 2 Soils
Chapter 3 Crops
Chapter 4 Water Requirements
Chapter 5 Selecting an Irrigation Method
Chapter 6 Irrigation System Design
Chapter 7 Farm Distribution Components
Chapter 8 Project and Farm Irrigation Water Requirements
Chapter 9 Irrigation Water Management
Chapter 10 Conservation Management Systems and Irrigation Planning
Chapter 11 Economic Evaluations
Chapter 12 Energy Use and Conservation
Chapter 13 Quality of Water Supply
Chapter 14 Environmental Concerns
Chapter 15 Resource Planning and Evaluation Tools and Worksheets
Chapter 16 Special Use Tables, Charts, and Conversions
Chapter 17 Glossary and References
Index
(210-vi-NEH, September 1997) iii

Chapter 1 Introduction Part 652
Chapter 1 Introduction Irrigation Guide
Contents: 652.0100 Purpose and objective 1–1
652.0101 Water and energy conservation 1–1
652.0102 Soil conservation, water quality, and pollution abatement 1–2
652.0103 Using the guide 1–3

(a) Using irrigation procedures ......................................................................... 1–3
(b) Using worksheets .......................................................................................... 1–3
652.0104 Irrigation guide outline 1–4

(a) General ........................................................................................................... 1–4
(b) Soil-water-plant data .................................................................................... 1–4
(c) Irrigation and distribution systems ............................................................ 1–4
(d) Irrigation planning and management ......................................................... 1–5
(e) Special tools .................................................................................................. 1–5
652.0105 Use of computers 1–6
652.0106 State supplement 1–6
(210-vi-NEH, September 1997) 1–7

1–i
Chapter 1 Introduction Irrigation Guide
652.0100 Purpose and 652.0101 Water and energy

objective conservation
The Irrigation Guide provides technical information Conservation irrigation is an integral part of a com-
and procedures that can be used for successful plan- plete farm management program of soil, water, air,
ning, design, and management of irrigation systems. It plant, and animal resources. It is a principal consider-
is a guide only and does not imply or set Natural ation in the NRCS Conservation Management System
Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) policy. approach to conservation planning on irrigated crop-
land, hayland, and pastureland. Irrigation must be
Irrigation systems should apply the amount of water complemented with adequate management of nutri-
needed by the crop in a timely manner without waste ents and pesticides, tillage and residue, and water.
or damage to soil, water, air, plant, and animal re- Proper water management results in conservation of
sources. This includes, but is not limited to, offsite water quantities, maintenance of onsite and offsite
water and air quality and desired impacts on plant and water quality, soil chemical management (salinity,
animal (including fish and wildlife) diversity. Other acidity, applied fertilizers, and other toxic elements),
beneficial uses of irrigation water are frost protection, and irrigation related erosion control.
crop quality, crop cooling, chemigation, desirable
saline and sodic balance maintenance, and leaching of For the farm manager, benefits must justify the costs
undesirable soil chemicals. of purchasing and operating the irrigation system and
the time required to adequately operate, manage, and
The Irrigation Guide includes current information and maintain the irrigation system while leaving a reason-
technical data on irrigation systems and hardware, able return on investment. For the groundskeeper,
automation, new techniques, soils, climate, water park or landscape superintendent, nursery grower, or
supplies, crops, tillage practices, and farming condi- homeowner, irrigation must maintain the desired
tions. Included are irrigation related technical data for growth of grass, ornamentals, flowers, and garden
soils and irrigation water requirements for crops. In crops while minimizing costs, labor, inefficient water
some instances statements are based on field experi- use, and nutrient and chemical losses.
ences of the primary authors.
Escalating costs of energy used for pumping makes
The objective of this guide is to assist NRCS employ- every acre-inch of excess water a concern to many
ees in providing sound technical assistance for the irrigators. Improving and maintaining pumping plants,
maintenance of soil productivity, conservation of irrigation equipment, irrigation application efficien-
water and energy, and maintenance or improvement of cies, and following an irrigation scheduling program
the standard of living and the environment. Basic data can lead to significant reductions in pumping costs.
used will help ensure the planned irrigation system is
capable of supplying the amount of water needed by Escalating costs of farm equipment, fuel, seed, fertil-
plants for planned production and quality during the izer, pesticide, and irrigation equipment also make
growing season. Procedures for optimizing use of every irrigation and field operation a financial concern
limited water supplies are also included. to the farmer. Field operations should be limited to
those necessary to grow a satisfactory crop. Conserva-
Planning for an irrigation system should take into tion irrigation typically reduces:
account physical conditions of the site, producer • Overall on-farm energy use
resources, cropping pattern, market availability, water • Soil compaction, which affects root develop-
quantity and quality, and effects on local environment. ment and water movement
Economics should provide the basis for sound conser- • Water quantities used
vation irrigation decisions, but may not be the ultimate • Opportunity for ground water and surface
consideration. This is because many other factors may water pollution
influence final decisions.

Irrigation Guide
Applying water too soon or in excess of crop needs

results in inefficient irrigation application. Too often 652.0102 Soil conserva-
irrigation decisionmakers subscribe to "when in doubt
irrigate," rather than scheduling irrigations based on tion, water quality, and
soil moisture monitoring and measured crop need. pollution abatement
Another factor leading to inefficient water use is the
use-it-or-lose-it perception. Some irrigators and irriga- Irrigation induced soil erosion is a problem on specific
tion districts feel they must divert and use all the soils in certain areas. Soil erosion can take the form of
water allocated to them whether they need it or not. wind erosion when smooth and bare ground occurs
This can result in less than desired crop yield and between harvest and new crop growth periods. Soil
product quality. It also increases leaching of nutrients, erosion by water can result from high application rates
toxic elements, and salts below the root zone and in the outer part of center pivot systems, excessive
increases the potential for erosion. furrow or border inflows, and uncontrolled tailwater
or runoff. The use of surface irrigation on moderately
The direct cost of water to irrigators, when the water steep to steep topography or leakage in the delivery
is supplied by irrigation companies or irrigation dis- system can also cause soil erosion by water.
tricts, varies between $5 and $600 per acre per year. In
many areas, however, water is relatively low in cost. Soil erosion can produce sediment loads in irrigation
Low cost water can lead to inefficient use if an irriga- ditches, drains, tailwater collection systems, roadside
tor uses a convenient application time rather than ditches, streams, and reservoirs. Sometimes it takes
providing the labor to fully manage the water. careful study of a site to realize that erosion is taking
place. Soil erosion on irrigated fields generally can be
controlled by careful planning, proper design, and
adequate water, soil, and residue management. Offsite
sediment damages are often a result of soil erosion from
cropland, tailwater ditches, and surface water drains.
Pollution of ground and surface water by agricultural

chemicals in irrigation water runoff or deep percola-
tion is an increasing problem. Higher amounts of
fertilizers are being used today than in the past.
Chemigation can improve the application of chemicals
through sprinkler systems, but can also create poten-
tial environmental problems through spills and im-
proper or careless application. Leached chemicals,
including salts in irrigation water, can degrade ground
and surface water qualities. All of these problems can
be minimized by proper planning, design, system
operation, and water management.
Inefficient irrigation can have offsite benefits. Wetland

habitat can be created from conveyance system leak-
age and application of excess irrigation water. How-
ever, excess irrigation water may contain undesirable
or toxic organic or inorganic chemicals. In some parts
of the United States, local, State, and Federal regula-
tions are such that no irrigation runoff or subsurface
drainage effluent from irrigation practices shall enter
public water. In these areas irrigation runoff must be
contained onsite, reused, or disposed of safely.
1–2 (210-vi-NEH, September 1997)

Irrigation Guide
A personal library or reference folder(s) containing

652.0103 Using the guide specific data and examples is recommended for tech-
nicians performing procedures. This library can be
used until computer software programs are available
The Irrigation Guide is prepared for local use; how- and can then be used as a reference when the proce-
ever, it is recognized that this guide may not directly dure is accomplished. Such a library or reference
apply to all areas. This guide contains sound water and folder(s) can contain the following types of material:
irrigation system management concepts. It is a dy- • Irrigation guide tables, charts, references,
namic document available in computer electronic files procedures, materials, and forms, including
or looseleaf form. As new, revised, or area-specific examples.
information becomes available, the guide can and • Tables for local climate, soils, crops, and plant
should be updated. Irrigation is a rapidly evolving water requirements.
science and industry. Frequent revisions and additions • Available tables and figures from the National
are expected. Engineering Handbook, Part 623, Irrigation.
• Information or aids from other sources for
planning, design, management, and system
(a) Using irrigation procedures evaluation.
• Previous jobs that have been designed, docu-
The best available procedures and data should always mented and approved.
be used, whether they are included in this irrigation
guide or available elsewhere, for example, from Agri-
cultural Research Service, Universities, Cooperative (b) Using worksheets
Extension Service, Bureau of Reclamation, or private
industry. The use of worksheets in this guide is optional. They
should only be used if they are advantageous in saving
Not all tables, charts, and procedures available in planning time and providing documentation. Only
other readily available references are duplicated in the those parts of the worksheets that apply to the particu-
guide. Also, areas of the guide that describe proce- lar job should be used. Blank master worksheets are
dures may not include all the processes and material included in chapter 15 of this guide.
needed to carry out the procedure. For instance, to
perform a side roll sprinkler system design requires
the use of National Engineering Handbook, Section 15,
Chapter 11. However, most references referred to in
the guide are available for field office use.

Irrigation Guide
Crops respond to irrigation when rainfall does not

652.0104 Irrigation guide maintain favorable soil moisture levels. When rainfall
events are spaced too far apart for optimum plant-
outline water conditions, plant biomass, yields, and quality are
affected. Knowledge of actual crop rooting depths,
water requirements at different growth stages, critical
(a) General moisture stress periods, crop temperature modifica-
tion effect, seed germination, and pesticide control are
Chapter 1, Introduction—This chapter introduces all necessary in determining when and how much
the irrigation guide, its purpose and contents. It also water to apply.
discusses water and energy conservation needs and
opportunities, soil conservation, water quality, and Chapter 4, Water Requirements—This chapter
pollution abatement concerns and opportunities. describes methods for determining crop evapotranspi-
ration (ETc) and net irrigation water requirement.
Water budget and balance analysis use are also de-
(b) Soil-water-plant data scribed. Estimated evapotranspiration values for peak
daily, monthly, and seasonal periods for locally grown
Chapter 2, Soils—This chapter describes soil basics: crops are included in the state supplement section.
soil surveys, physical soil characteristics, and the
relation of soil characteristics to different irrigation
methods and systems. Several soil properties directly
(c) Irrigation and distribution
influence the design, management, and operation of an
systems
irrigation system.
Chapter 5, Selecting an Irrigation Method (Sur-
Basic soil-water irrigation related parameters included face, Sprinkle, Micro, or Subsurface)—This
in chapter 2 are variables and are to be used as a guide chapter includes factors that affect irrigation method
only. The parameters include: selection and system adaptation. The factors are
• Estimated available water capacity by horizons largely functions of crop selection and rotation, soils,
or 1 foot (0.3 meter) increments topography, climate zone, tillage practices, labor
• Water intake characteristics for furrow and availability (including skills), economics, water avail-
border (basins) irrigation ability in quantity and quality, type of delivery sched-
• Intake rates or maximum application rates for ule, and the irrigation decisionmaker’s personal
sprinkle irrigation preference.
• Up-flux or upward water movement in soil
Chapter 6, Irrigation System Design—Criteria
Specific local soils and their characteristics pertaining and references for the implementation of the more
to irrigation are included in the state supplement commonly used irrigation methods and applicable
section. systems are included in this chapter.
Chapter 3, Crops—This chapter describes the crop
Chapter 7, Farm Distribution Components—This
characteristics pertaining to irrigation; i.e., growth
chapter describes alternatives and various compo-
characteristics, rooting depth, and moisture extraction
nents of the farm distribution system. Water measure-
patterns, Management Allowable Depletion (MAD)
ment should be a part of any distribution system as it
levels, and effects of temperature, sodicity, and salin-
is the key to proper water management.
ity. Management, including critical irrigation and
moisture stress periods for plants and other special
irrigation considerations, is included as a primary
irrigation tool.

Irrigation Guide
(d) Irrigation planning and saline water on salt tolerant crops, liquid waste from
management agricultural related processing and products, treated
municipal sewage effluent, and other low quality water
Chapter 8, Project and Farm Irrigation Water should be considered as an irrigation water source.
Requirements—Procedures for determining large
scale water requirements are described in this chapter. Chapter 14, Environmental Concerns—A direct
It also includes the application of water budget analy- relationship can be established between downstream
ses to group and project level water requirement water quality and irrigation. This relationship is pre-
versus availability. sented in chapter 14. Improper selection of an irriga-
tion method and system for a given site or the misman-
Chapter 9, Irrigation Water Management—Good agement of any system can result in poor water distri-
irrigation water management should be practiced with bution uniformity, soil erosion, excessive runoff, and
all irrigation application systems. New techniques for excessive deep percolation. Runoff can carry agricul-
irrigation scheduling and system automation are tural chemicals and plant nutrients in solution or
available and are a part of the information in this attached to soil particles (e.g., phosphates). Excess
chapter. Field and climatic data should be accurately irrigation water moving below the plant root zone
collected and an analysis of irrigation need, timing, (deep percolation) can carry soluble salts, nutrients
and application amount made available to the irrigator (nitrates), pesticides, and other toxic elements that
promptly. Procedures for establishing soil intake may occur in the soil profile. Excess irrigation water
characteristics and evaluation of existing irrigation are and whatever it contains in solution generally ends up
described. either as ground water recharge or returns to down-
stream surface water.
Chapter 10, Conservation Management Systems
and Irrigation Planning—This chapter contains
the basic steps for planning ecosystem-based resource (e) Special tools
management systems including irrigation system
planning. The planning process as it pertains to irri- Chapter 15, Resource Planning and Evaluation
gated cropland is described. Tools and Worksheets—Included in this chapter are
aids, tools, and processes that can facilitate irrigation
Chapter 11, Economic Evaluations—This chapter system planning, design, and evaluations. Example
includes the criteria that can be used in evaluating Irrigation Water Management or Irrigation Water
pumping plant operating costs. It also describes the Conservation Plans are also included. Master blank
procedures for making economical pipe size determi- worksheets are included to help the technician or
nations and other economic factors and processes that water user.
can be used in planning.
Chapter 16, Special Use Tables, Charts, and
Chapter 12, Energy Use and Conservation—This Conversions—This chapter contains special use
chapter reviews alternative energy sources and costs tables, charts, and conversion factors that are useful in
used in pumping and gives examples of irrigation the planning, design, and evaluation processes. En-
system comparison and tillage and residue manage- glish units are used along with metric conversions as
ment that relate to overall on-farm energy require- they reasonably apply. A complete metric conversion
ments. Improving water management almost always table relating to irrigation is included.
decreases water and energy use except where inad-
equate irrigation has occurred and more water is Chapter 17, Glossary and References—This
needed to meet yield and quality objectives. chapter contains a list and definition of the more
commonly used irrigation terms. Many terms are local,
Chapter 13, Quality of Water Supply—Quality of and some duplication is necessary. References avail-
water to be used for irrigation of crops is briefly de- able and used in irrigation system planning, design,
scribed in this chapter. To meet crop yield and quality management, and evaluation are included.
objectives, a reliable supply of high quality water is
desired. However, with proper management, applying

Irrigation Guide
652.0105 Use of computers 652.0106 State supplement
Only state approved computer software is available to

the field office for official use. These programs help to
facilitate planning, design, and evaluation of irrigation
systems and related components. The technician or
engineer is fully responsible for plan or design integ-
rity, adequate documentation, and obtaining necessary
reviews and engineering approval.
Information contained in this guide describes availabil-

ity and use of computer software for performing
certain tasks. Additions or revisions to the guide
including instructions or references to user manuals
will be made as new software becomes available.

Chapter 2 Soils Part 652
Chapter 2 Soils Irrigation Guide
Contents: 652.0200 Introduction 2–1
652.0201 General 2–1

(a) Soil survey ...................................................................................................... 2–1
(b) Soil survey data base .................................................................................... 2–2
(c) Soil limitations for irrigation ....................................................................... 2–2
652.0202 Physical soil characteristics 2–4

(a) Soil properties and qualities ........................................................................ 2–4
(b) Soil-water holding capacity ......................................................................... 2–4
(c) Soil intake characteristics ......................................................................... 2–17
(d) Organic matter ............................................................................................ 2–28
(e) Soil depth ..................................................................................................... 2–28
(f) Slope ............................................................................................................. 2–29
(g) Water tables ................................................................................................. 2–29
(h) Soil erodibility ............................................................................................. 2–29
(i) Chemical properties ................................................................................... 2–31
(j) Saline and sodic soil effects ...................................................................... 2–31
(k) Soil reaction/acidity .................................................................................... 2–32
652.0203 Explanation of tables and data bases 2–34

(a) Soil surveys .................................................................................................. 2–34
(b) Soil properties ............................................................................................. 2–34
Tables Table 2–1 Available water capacity (AWC) by texture 2–5
Table 2–2 Correction of available water capacity for rock 2–6

fragment content
Table 2–3 Available water capacity adjustment factors 2–7
Table 2–4 Available water capacity adjustments because of salinity 2–10

2–i
Irrigation Guide
Table 2–5 General terms, symbols, and size of soil separates 2–11
for basic soil texture classes
Table 2–6 Soil intake ranges by surface texture 2–17
Table 2–7 Maximum net application amounts with zero potential 2–21
runoff for center pivot systems
Table 2–8 Maximum sprinkler application rate—periodic move 2–22

and fixed set sprinkler (for alfalfa-grass, grass, or
clean tilled with residue > 4,000 lb/ac)
Table 2–9 Soil intake family adjustment factors 2–23
Table 2–10a Amount of surface storage needed for no runoff— 2–25

Silty clay
Table 2–10b Amount of surface storage needed for no runoff— 2–25

Silty clay loam
Table 2–10c Amount of surface storage needed for no runoff— 2–26

Silt loam
Table 2–10d Amount of surface storage needed for no runoff—Loam 2–26
Table 2–10e Amount of surface storage needed for no runoff— 2–26

Fine sandy loam
Table 2–10f Amount of surface storage needed for no runoff— 2–26

Loamy fine sand
Table 2–10g Amount of surface storage needed for no runoff— 2–27

Fine sand
Table 2–11 Estimated effective basin surface storage 2–28
Table 2–12 Surface storage available for rough and cloddy 2–28
bare ground
Table 2–13 Surface storage available with residue 2–28
Table 2–14 Soil erodibility hazard (S K values) for surface irrigation 2–30
Table 2–15 Soil properties and design values for irrigation 2–34
2–36
2–ii (210-vi-NEH, September 1997)
Irrigation Guide
Figures Figure 2–1 Typical water release curves for sand, loam, and clay 2–9
Figure 2–2 Examples of soil structure 2–13
Figure 2–3 Intake families for border and basin irrigation design 2–18
Figure 2–4 Intake families for furrow irrigation design 2–19
Figure 2–5a Nomenclature—dike spacing and height; furrow 2–27

width and ridge height and spacing
Figure 2–5b Dike spacing, height, and surface storage capacity 2–27
Figure 2–6 Water table contribution to irrigation requirement, as 2–29

a function of soil type (texture) and water table depth
Figure 2–7 Example soil-water retention curves for clay loam soil 2–31
at varying levels of soil salinity—ECe
Figure 2–8 Threshold values of sodium adsorption ratio of 2–32

topsoil and electrical conductivity of infiltrating water
associated with the likelihood of substantial losses in
permeability
Figure 2–9 Effect of pH on nutrient availability in soils 2–33
Exhibits Exhibit 2–1 Soil properties, limits, and restrictive features 2–3
for irrigation
Exhibit 2–2 Process to determine total volume of water held 2–16

in a soil

2–iii
Chapter 2 Soils Irrigation Guide
652.0200 Introduction 652.0201 General
Plant response to irrigation is influenced by the physi- Soil consists of mineral and organic materials, cover-
cal condition, fertility, and biological status of the soil. ing much of the Earth’s surface. It contains living
Soil condition, texture, structure, depth, organic matter, air, and water, and can support vegetation.
matter, bulk density, salinity, sodicity, acidity, drain- People have altered the soil in many places. Soil is one
age, topography, fertility, and chemical characteristics of the resources of major concern to USDA and the
all determine the extent to which a plant root system Natural Resources Conservation Service. The soil
grows into and uses available moisture and nutrients functions as a storehouse for plant nutrients, as habi-
in the soil. Many of these factors directly influence the tat for soil organisms and plant roots, and as a reser-
soil’s ability to store, infiltrate, or upflux water deliv- voir for water to meet evapotranspiration (ET) de-
ered by precipitation or irrigation (including water mands of plants. It contains and supplies water, oxy-
table control). The irrigation system(s) used should gen, nutrients, and mechanical support for plant
match all or most of these conditions. growth.
Many conditions influence the value of these factors. Soil is a basic irrigation resource that determines how
The estimated values for available water capacity and irrigation water should be managed. The amount of
intake are shown as rather broad ranges. Working water the soil can hold for plant use is determined by
with ranges is a different concept than used in previ- its physical and chemical properties. This amount
ous irrigation guides. In the field, ranges are normal determines the length of time that a plant can be
because of many factors. The values in local soils data sustained adequately between irrigation or rainfall
bases need to be refined to fit closer to actual field events, the frequency of irrigation, and the amount and
conditions. The actual value may vary from site to site rate to be applied. Along with plant ET, it also deter-
on the same soil, season to season, and even throughout mines the irrigation system capacity system needed
the season. It varies throughout the season depending for desired crop yield and product quality.
on the type of farm and tillage equipment, number of
tillage operations, residue management, type of crop,
water quality, and even water temperature. (a) Soil survey
Soils to be irrigated must have adequate surface and NRCS is responsible for leadership of the National
subsurface drainage. Internal drainage within the crop Cooperative Soil Survey. Partners include other Fed-
root zone can be either natural or from an installed eral, State, and local agencies and institutions. Soil
subsurface drainage system. survey data and interpretations have information that
can be used for planning, design, and management
This guide describes ways to interpret site conditions decisions for irrigation.
for planning and design decisions. Where necessary,
actual field tests should be run to determine specific Soil map units represent an area on the landscape and
planning and design values for a specific field. Evalua- consist of one or more soils for which the unit is
tion results can also be used to fine tune individual named. Single fields are rarely a single map unit or a
irrigation system operations and management. When a single soil. Many soil map units include contrasting
particular soil is encountered frequently in an area, soil inclusions considered too minor to be a separate
efforts should be made to gather field data to verify map unit. Because of variations in soil properties that
the site conditions or to use in refining values in the exist in map units, additional onsite soils investiga-
guide. These field derived values should be added as tions are often needed.
support for data presented in the guide.

Irrigation Guide
Soil properties within a profile can be modified by (c) Soil limitations for irrigation
land grading, deep plowing, subsoiling, or other deep
tillage practices. Shallow tillage practices can affect Exhibit 2–1 displays soil limitations when determining
water infiltration and soil permeability rates. These the potential irrigability of a soil. It displays specific
property changes may not be reflected in the map unit limits and restrictive features for various soil proper-
description. Personnel doing irrigation planning are ties; however, it does not necessarily mean the soil
expected to obtain accurate onsite soil information to should not be irrigated. A restriction indicates there
make recommendations. Adjacent farms may need are limitations for selection of crops or irrigation
different recommendations for the same soil series method and will require a high level of management.
because different equipment, tillage practices, and Some restrictions may require such an excessive high
number of tillage operations are used. level of management that it may not be feasible to
irrigate that soil. Likewise, a deep well drained loamy
soil with minor restrictions can become nonirrigable
(b) Soil survey data base due to poor water management decisions and cultural
practices.
Soil survey data are available from the local National
Soil Information System (NASIS) Map Unit Interpreta-
tion Record (MUIR) soil data base on the Field Office
Computing System (FOCS). Irrigation related software
applications access this data base through a soil char-
acteristics editor to create point data located within a
field or operating unit. Where maximum and minimum
ranges of soil attribute data are contained in the data
base (for example, percent rock or available water
capacity), the editor can be used to select or input the
appropriate value. If a soil profile has been examined
in the field, then data for the profile are entered in-
stead of using the data base. Soil data points created in
this way can be used to create summary soil reports,
or the data can be used directly either manually or in
irrigation related software applications.

Irrigation Guide
Exhibit 2–1 Soil properties, limits, and restrictive features for irrigation1/
Property Limits Restrictive features
USDA surface texture COS, S, FS, VFS, High intake for surface irrigation
LCOS, LS, LFS, LVFS systems.
USDA surface texture SIC, C, CS Low intake for level basin and
center pivot irrigation systems.
Slope surface >3% Water runoff.
Weight percent of stone particles >25% Large stones, reduced plant root
>3" (weighted avg. to 40" depth) zone AWC.
Ponding + Soil air is removed.
Depth to high water table <3 ft Restricted plant root zone.

during growing season
Available water capacity <.05 in/in Limited soil water storage for
(weighted avg. to 40" depth) plant growth.
Wind erodibility group 1, 2, 3 Soil blowing damages young

plants, reduces crop yield and
quality.
Permeability, 0-60" <.02 in/hr Water percolates slowly.
Depth to bedrock <40 in Restricted plant root zone.
Depth to cemented pan <40 in Restricted plant root zone.
Erosion factor of surface, k >.35 Erodes easily.
Flooding Occasionally, frequently Soil air is removed, plants

damaged.
Salinity, 0-40" >1 dS/m Excess calcium and magnesium

ions.
Sodicity, 0-40" SAR >13 Excess sodium ions.
Calcium carbonate equivalent >40 Excess lime.

(% in thickest layer, 10-60" depth)
Sulfidic materials, Great Group Sulfaquents, sulfihemists Excess sulfur.
Soil reaction, pH, at any depth 0-60" <5.0 or >8.0 Too acid or too alkaline.
1/ Part 620, NRCS, National Soil Survey Handbook, 1993.

Irrigation Guide
consists of several components. It is the sum of

652.0202 Physical soil matric, solute, gravitational, and pressure potential.
Refer to the National Engineering Handbook (NEH),
characteristics Section 15, Chapter 1, Soil-Plant-Water Relationships
for a detailed explanation of this concept.
(a) Soil properties and qualities The soil-water potential concept will become more
integrated into field procedures as new procedures
Soil properties and qualities are important in design,
evolve. For practical reasons, the terms and concepts
operation, and management of irrigation systems.
of field capacity and permanent wilting point are
These properties include water holding capacity, soil
maintained. Units of bars and atmospheres are gener-
intake characteristics, permeability, soil condition,
ally used to express suction, tension, stress, or poten-
organic matter, slope, water table depth, soil erodibil-
tial of soil water.
ity, chemical properties, salinity, sodicity, and soil
reaction (pH).
(i) Field capacity—This is the amount of water a
well-drained soil holds after free water has drained
because of gravity. For coarse textured soil, drainage
(b) Soil-water holding capacity occurs soon after irrigation because of relatively large
pores and low soil particle surface tension. In fine
The potential for a soil to hold water is important in
textured soil, drainage takes much longer because of
designing and managing an irrigation system. Total
smaller pores and their horizontal shape. Major soil
water held by a soil is called water holding capacity.
properties that affect field capacity are texture, struc-
However, not all soil-water is available for extraction
ture, bulk density, and strata within the profile that
by plant roots. The volume of water available to plants
restrict water movement. Generally, fine textured soil
that a soil can store is referred to as available water
holds more water than coarse textured soil. Some
capacity.
soils, such as some volcanic and organic soils, are
unique in that they can retain significant volumes of
(1) Available Water Capacity (AWC) water at tensions less than one-tenth bar, thereby
This is the traditional term used to express the amount
giving them a larger available water capacity.
of water held in the soil available for use by most
plants. It is dependent on crop rooting depth and
An approximation of field capacity soil-water content
several soil characteristics. Units of measure are
level can be identified in the laboratory. It is the water
expressed in various terms:
retained in a soil when subjected to a tension of one-
• Volume unit as inches of water per inch or per
tenth atmosphere (bar) for sandy soils and one-third
foot of soil depth
atmosphere for other finer textured soils.
• Gravimetric percent by weight
• Percent on a volume basis
Field capacity water content level can be estimated in
the field immediately following a rain or irrigation,
In fine textured soils and soils affected by salinity,
after free water has drained through the soil profile.
sodicity, or other chemicals, a considerable volume of
Some judgment is necessary to determine when free
soil water may not be available for plant use.
water has drained and field capacity has been reached.
Free water in coarse textured soils (sandy) can drain
(2) Soil-water potential in a few hours. Medium textured (loamy) soils take
Soil-water potential is a more correct way to define
approximately 24 hours, while fine textured (clayey)
water available to plants. It is the amount of work
soils may take several days.
required per unit quantity of water to transport water
in soil. In the soil, water moves continuously in the
(ii) Permanent wilting point—This is the soil-
direction of decreasing potential energy or from higher
water content at which most plants cannot obtain
water content to lower water content. The concept of
sufficient water to prevent permanent tissue damage.
soil-water potential replaces arbitrary gravitational,
The lower limit to the available water capacity has
capillary, and hygroscopic terms. Total water potential
been reached for a given plant when it has so ex-

Irrigation Guide
hausted the soil moisture around its roots as to have Table 2–1 Available water capacity (AWC) by texture
irrecoverable tissue damage, thus yield and biomass
are severely and permanently affected. The water
Texture Texture AWC AWC Est.
content in the soil is then said to be the permanent symbol range range typical
wilting percentage for the plant concerned. AWC
(in/in) (in/ft) (in/ft)
Experimental evidence shows that this water content
point does not correspond to a unique tension of 15
COS Coarse sand .01 – .03 .1 – .4 .25
atmospheres for all plants and soils. The quantity of
S Sand .01 – .03 .1 – .4 .25
water a plant can extract at tensions greater than this
figure appears to vary considerably with plant species,
FS Fine Sand .05 – .07 .6 – .8 .75
root distribution, and soil characteristics. Some plants
VFS Very fine sand .05 – .07 .6 – .8 .75
show temporary plant moisture stress during hot
daytime periods and yet have adequate soil moisture.
LCOS Loamy coarse sand .06 – .08 .7 – 1.0 .85
In the laboratory, permanent wilting point is deter-
LS Loamy sand .06 – .08 .7 – 1.0 .85
mined at 15 atmospheres tension. Unless plant specific
data are known, any water remaining in a soil at
LFS Loamy fine sand .09 – .11 1.1 – 1.3 1.25
greater than 15 atmosphere tension is considered
LVFS Loamy very fine sand .10 – .12 1.0 – 1.4 1.25
unavailable for plant use.
COSL Coarse sandy loam .10 – .12 1.2 – 1.4 1.3
Major soil characteristics affecting the available water
SL Sandy loam .11 – .13 1.3 – 1.6 1.45
capacity are texture, structure, bulk density, salinity,
sodicity, mineralogy, soil chemistry, and organic
FSL Fine Sandy Loam .13 – .15 1.6 – 1.8 1.7
matter content. Of these, texture is the predominant
VFSL Very fine sandy loam .15 – .17 1.8 – 2.0 1.9
factor in mineral soils. Because of the particle configu-
ration in certain volcanic ash soils, these soils can
L Loam .16 – .18 1.9 – 2.2 2.0
contain very high water content at field capacity
SIL Silt loam .19 – .21 2.3 – 2.5 2.4
levels. This provides a high available water capacity
value. Table 2–1 displays average available water
SI Silt .16 – .18 1.9 – 2.2 2.0
capacity based on soil texture. Table 2–2 provides
SCL Sandy clay loam .14 – .16 1.7 – 1.9 1.8
adjustments to the available water capacity based on
percent rock fragments. Generally, rock fragments
CL Clay loam .19 – .21 2.3 – 2.5 2.4
reduce available water capacity.
SICL Silty clay loam .19 – .21 2.3 – 2.5 2.4
The available water capacity value shown on the Soil
SC Sandy clay .15 – .17 1.8 – 2.0 1.9
Interpretation Record (SOI-5) accounts for the esti-
SIC Silty clay .15 – .17 1.8 – 2.0 1.9
mated volume of coarse fragments for the specific soil
series. However, any additional coarse fragments
C Clay .14 – .16 1.7 – 1.9 1.8
found upon field checking must be accounted for.
Coarse fragments of volcanic material, such as pumice
and cinders, can contain water within the fragments
themselves, but this water may not be available for
plant use because of the restricted root penetration
and limited capillary water movement. A process to
adjust the available water capacity based on additional
field information is displayed in table 2–3.

Irrigation Guide
Table 2–2 Correction of available water capacity for rock fragment content 1/
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - % coarse fragments (by volume) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Soil 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 65 70
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - % passing #10 sieve (by weight)- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 85 70 55 45 35 25 20 20
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Available water capacity (in/in)- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Clay .14-.16 .12-.14 .11-.12 .09-.10 .08-.09 .06-.07 .05-.06 .04-.05 .03-.04
Silty clay .15-.17 .13-.15 .11-.13 .10-.11 .08-.10 ..07-.08 .06-.07 .05-.06 .04-.05
Sandy clay .15-.17 .13-.15 .12-.14 .10-.11 .08-.09 .07-.08 .06-.07 .04-.05 .04
Silty clay loam .19-.21 .17-.19 .15-.17 .13-.15 .11-.13 .09-.11 .08-.09 .06-.07 .06
Clay loam .19-.21 .17-.19 .15-.17 .13-.15 .11-.13 .09-.11 .08-.09 .06-.07 .06
Sandy clay loam .14-.16 .12-.14 .11-.13 .10-.11 .08-.10 .07-.08 .06-.07 .05-.06 .04-.05
Silt loam .19-.21 .17-.19 .15-.17 .13-.15 .11-.13 .09-.11 .08-.09 .06-.07 .06
Loam .16-.18 .14-.16 .13-.14 .11-.13 .10-.11 .08-.09 .07-.08 .05-.06 .05
Very fine sandy loam .15-.17 .13-.15 .12-.14 .10-.12 .09-.10 .07-.09 .07-.08 .05-.06 .04-.05
Fine sandy loam .13-.15 .12-.14 .10-.12 .09-.11 .08-.09 .06-.08 .06-.07 .04-.05 .04-.05
Sandy loam .11-.13 .10-.12 .09-.10 .07-.09 .07-.08 .05-.07 .05-.06 .04-.05 .03-.04
Loamy very fine sand .10-.12 .09-.11 .08-.10 .07-.08 .06-.07 .05-.06 .04-.05 .03-.04 .03-.04
Loamy fine sand .09-.11 .08-.10 .07-.09 .06-.07 .05-.07 .04-.06 .04-.05 .03-.04 .03
Loamy sand .06-.08 .05-.07 .05-.06 .04-.06 .04-.05 .03-.04 .03-.04 .02-.03 .02
Fine sand .05-.07 .04-.06 .04-.06 .03-.05 .03-.04 .03-.04 .02-.03 .02-.03 .01-.02
1/ Use this chart only when NASIS or more site specific information is not available. Compiled by NRCS, National Soil Survey Laboratory,
Lincoln, Nebraska.

Irrigation Guide
Table 2–3 Available water capacity adjustment factors 1/
"+" "–"
Modifying factor Increased Decreased
(%) AWC AWC
Rock content Rocks decrease soil and pore space volume
Sodicity Sodium salts disperse clays, decreases soil

aggregation and destroys structure increasing
soil density.
Salinity Increased salt concentration makes it more

difficult for the plant to take in water by
osmosis. The tension required to extract
water from the soil is increased.
Organic matter In general, OM increases aggregation

(0 to +10%) and improves soil structure, decreases
soil density, and increases AWC. In
sandy soils, OM provides fine particles,
which effectively reduces average
particle size.
Soil structure Granular, blocky, columnar and Single grain (sand - large sized pores release
(–10% to +10%) Prismatic (low density) large proportion of gravitational water).
Massive or platy (usually high density).
Compaction (–20% to 0) Compaction increases soil density, reduces

pore space and decreases permeability.
Restrictive layers Restrictive layers in the subsoil can Restrictive layers can restrict root develop
(0 to +10%) effectively increase AWC of upper ment and water movement lower in the soil
layers after an irrigation or rain. Water, profile.
held up by the restrictive layer, has the
potential to be all or partially used by
the plants.
See footnote at end of table.

Irrigation Guide
Table 2–3 Available water capacity adjustment factors 1/—Continued
"+" "–"
Modifying factor Increased Decreased
(%) AWC AWC
Soil condition—the soil's Good soil condition results in decreased Poor soil condition results in increased soil
physical condition related soil density, increased soil micro- density, a more massive soil structure,
to tillage, micro-organism organism activity, increased pore space. decreased pore space, decreased soil
activity, erosion. micro-organism activity.
(–10% to +10% )
Depth within the soil In general, with increased depth, soils be-
come
profile (–5% per foot) more consolidated or dense, are affected by
mineralization, have less structure and or-
ganic matter.
Vegetative cover Root penetration improves soil

(0 to +5%) structure and condition, and
decreases soil density.
1/ Density can make AWC differences of –50% to +30% compared to average densities. Dense soils have low available water capacity because
of the decreased pore space.

Irrigation Guide
Different soils hold water and release it differently. Allowed soil-water depletion is a management deci-
When soil-water content is high, very little effort is sion based on the type of crop grown, stage of crop
required by plant roots to extract moisture. As each growth, total AWC of the soil profile, rainfall patterns,
unit of moisture is extracted, the next unit requires and the availability of the pumped or delivered water.
more energy. This relationship is referred to as a soil It is referred to as the Management Allowed Depletion,
moisture release characteristic. Figure 2–1 shows or MAD level. See Chapter 3, Crops, for MAD levels for
water release curves for typical sand, loam, and clay optimum yield and quality of most crops. The conven-
soils. The tension in the plant root must be greater tional concepts of total soil volume AWC and MAD do
than that in the soil at any water content to extract the not apply to microirrigation where root volumes and
soil water. Typically with most field crops, crop yield wetted volumes are restricted.
is not affected if adequate soil water is available to the
plant at less than 5 atmospheres for medium to fine NEH, Section 15, Chapter 1, Soil-Plant-Water Relation-
textured soils. ships provides an excellent and thorough description
of soil-water relationships; therefore, the information
At soil-water tensions of more than about 5 atmo- included here is quite limited.
spheres, plant yield or biomass is reduced in medium
to fine textured soils.
Salts in the soil-water solution decrease the amount of

water available for plant uptake. Maintaining a higher
soil-water content with more frequent irrigations Figure 2–1 Typical water release curves for sand, loam,
relieves the effect of salt on plant moisture stress. and clay
Table 2–4 displays AWC values adjusting for effect of
salinity versus texture. ECe is defined as the electrical
conductivity of the soil-water extract corrected to Field capacity
100
77 °F (25 °C). Units are expressed in millimhos per
centimeter (mmho/cm) or deci Siemen per meter (dS/
Permanent wilting point - 15 bars

m). 1 mmho/cm = 1dS/m. See section 652.0202(i) for 80
Available water (%)
30% level
additional information.
60
Tension levels for field capacity and wilting point in 50% level
table 2–4 are assumed. Cla
40 y
Loa
m
AWC is the major soil factor in irrigation scheduling.
Only a partial depletion of the AWC should be allowed. 20 Sand
For most field crops and loamy soils, 50 percent is
allowed to be depleted to limit undue plant moisture 0
stress. For most vegetables, 30 percent depletion is 0 2 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 16
desirable. As an example, data from figure 2–1 pro- Soil water potential (-bars)
vides the following approximate potential (tension)
levels for three general soil types: Texture Tension level (atmospheres or bars)
@ field capacity @ Perm. wilting point
Soil Tension at Tension at Depletion at 5
50% depletion 30% depletion bars tension
Course 0.1 15.0
Medium & fine 0.33 15.0
clay 4.5 bars 2.5 bars 55%
loam 2 bars 1.2 bars 70%
sand < 1 bars < 1 bars 84%

Irrigation Guide
Table 2–4 Available water capacity adjustments because of salinity 1/
Soil texture - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Electrical conductivity (ICe x 103)- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Available water capacity (inch/inch) 2/ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
clay .14-.16 .13-.15 .12-.14 .11-.13 .10-.12 .09-.11 .07-.08 .04-.05

silty clay .15-.17 .14-.16 .13-.15 .12-.14 .11-.12 .09-.11 .07-.08 .05-.06
sandy clay .15-.17 .14-.16 .13-.15 .12-.14 .11-.12 .09-.11 .07-.08 .05-.06
silty clay loam .19-.21 .18-.20 .17-.18 .15-.17 .14-.15 .12-.13 .09-.10 .06-.07
clay loam .19-.21 .18-.20 .17-.18 .15-.17 .14-.15 .12-.13 .09-.10 .06-.07
sandy clay loam .14-.16 .13-.15 .12-.14 .11-.12 .09-.11 .08-.09 .06-.07 .03-.04
silt loam .19-.21 .18-.20 .17-.18 .15-.17 .14-.15 .12-.13 .09-.10 .06-.07
loam .16-.18 .15-.17 .14-.16 .13-.15 .12-.13 .10-.11 .08-.09 .05-.06
very fine sandy loam .15-.17 .14-.16 .13-.15 .12-.14 .11-.12 .09-.11 .07-.08 .05-.06
fine sandy loam .13-.15 .12-.14 .11-.13 .11-.12 .09-.11 .08-.09 .06-.07 .04-.05
sandy loam .11-.13 .10-.12 .10-.11 .09-.11 .08-.09 .07-.08 .05-.06 .03-.04
loamy very fine sand .10-.12 .10-.11 .09-.11 .08-.09 .07-.08 .06-.07 .04-.05 .02-.03
loamy fine sand .09-.11 .09-.10 .08-.10 .07-.09 .06-.08 .06-.07 .04-.05 .03-.04
loamy sand .06-.08 .06-.08 .05-.07 .05-.06 .04-.06 .04-.05 .03-.04 .02-.03
fine sand .05-.07 .05-.07 .04-.06 .04-.06 .04-.05 .03-.04 .02-.03 .02
1/ Compiled by NRCS National Soil Survey Laboratory, Lincoln, Nebraska.

2/ 15 mmhos conductivity results in 75 to 95 percent reduction in available water capacity.

Irrigation Guide
(3) Soil texture Table 2–5 General terms, symbols, and size of soil
Soil texture refers to the weight proportion of the soil separates for basic soil texture classes
(USDA, SCS 1993)
separates (sand, silt, and clay) for the less than 2 mm
fraction, as determined from a laboratory particle size
Texture Soil Symbol
distribution analysis. It defines the fineness or coarse-
ness of a soil. Particle sizes larger than 2 mm are
classed as rock or coarse fragments and are not used Sandy soils:
to define texture. Table 2–5 shows terms and symbols Coarse Sands
used in describing soil textures. Coarse Sand COS
Sand S
Fine textured soils generally hold more water than Fine sand FS
coarse textured soils. Medium textured soils actually Very fine sand VFS
have more available water for plant use than some
clay soils. Water in clay soils can be held at a greater Loamy sands
tension that reduces its availability to plants. Loamy coarse sand LCOS
Loamy sand LS
Figure 1–2, of NEH, Part 623, Chapter 1, Soil-Plant- Loamy fine sand LFS
Water Relationship, displays what is commonly re- Loamy very fine sand LVFS
ferred to as the USDA textural triangle. It describes
the proportions of sand, silt, and clay in the basic
textural classes. Texture determines the amount of Loamy soils:
surface area on soil particles within the soil mass. Clay Moderately coarse Coarse sandy loam COSL
and humus both exist in colloidal state and have an Sandy loam SL
extremely large surface area per unit weight. They Fine sandy loam FSL
carry surface electrical charges to which ions and
water are attracted. Medium Very fine sandy loam VFSL
Loam L
The USDA Soils Manual includes the following general Silt loam SIL
definitions of soil textural classes in terms of field Silt SI
experience. These definitions are also specifically
Moderately fine Clay loam CL
used in estimating soil-water content by the feel and
Sandy clay loam SCL
appearance method. See Chapter 9, Irrigation Water
Silty clay loam SICL
Management and Chapter 15, Irrigation Water Manage-
ment Plan.
Clayey soils:
Sand—Sand is loose and single-grained. The indi- Fine Sandy clay SC
vidual grains can be readily seen and felt. Squeezed in Silty clay SIC
the hand when dry, sand falls apart when pressure is Clay C
released. Squeezed when moist, it forms a cast, but
crumbles when touched.
Size of soil separates:
Sandy loam—A sandy loam is soil containing a high
percentage of sand, but having enough silt and clay to Texture Size (mm) Texture Size (mm)
make it somewhat coherent. The individual sand
grains can be readily seen and felt. Squeezed when GR > 2.0 FS 0.25 – 0.10
dry, a sandy loam forms a cast that falls apart readily. VCOS 2.01.0 VFS 0.10 – 0.05
If squeezed when moist, a cast can be formed that COS 1.0 – 0.5 SI 0.05 – 0.002
bears careful handling without breaking. MS 0.5 – 0.25 C < 0.002

Irrigation Guide
Loam—A loam is soil having a relatively even mix- (4) Soil structure
ture of different grades of sand, silt, and clay. It is Soil structure is the arrangement and organization of
friable with a somewhat gritty feel, but is fairly soil particles into natural units of aggregation. These
smooth and slightly plastic. Squeezed when dry, it units are separated from one another by weakness
forms a cast that bears careful handling, and the cast planes that persist through cycles of wetting and
formed by squeezing the moist soil can be handled drying and cycles of freezing and thawing. Structure
freely without breaking. influences air and water movement, root development,
and nutrient supply.
Silt loam—A silt loam is soil having a moderate
amount of fine sand with a small amount of clay. Over Structure type refers to the particular kind of grouping
half of the particles are silt size particles. When dry, a that predominates in a soil horizon. Single-grained and
silt loam appears cloddy, but the lumps can be readily massive soils are structureless. In single-grained soils,
broken. When pulverized, it feels soft and floury. When such as loose sand, water percolates rapidly. Water
wet, the soil runs together readily and puddles. Either moves very slowly through most clay soils. A more
dry or moist, silt loam forms a cast that can be handled favorable water relationship occurs in soils that have
freely without breaking. When moist and squeezed prismatic, blocky and granular structure. Platy struc-
between thumb and finger, it does not ribbon, but has ture in fine and medium soils impedes the downward
a broken appearance. movement of water. See figure 2–2. Structure can be
improved with cultural practices, such as conservation
Clay loam—A clay loam is moderately fine-textured tillage, improving internal drainage, liming or adding
soil that generally breaks into clods or lumps that are sulfur to soil, using grasses in crop rotation, incorpo-
hard when dry. When the moist soil is pinched be- rating crop residue, and adding organic material or soil
tween the thumb and finger, it forms a thin ribbon that amendments. Structure can be destroyed by heavy
breaks readily, barely sustaining its own weight. The tillage equipment or excess operations.
moist soil is plastic and forms a cast that bears much
handling. When kneaded in the hand, clay loam does Texture, root activity, percent clay, percent organic
not crumble readily, but works into a heavy compact matter, microbial activity, and the freeze-thaw cycle all
mass. play a part in aggregate formation and stability. Some
aggregates are quite stable upon wetting, and others
Clay—A clay is fine-textured soil that usually forms disperse readily. Soil aggregation helps maintain
very hard lumps or clods when dry and is very sticky stability when wet, resist dispersion caused by the
and plastic when wet. When moist soil is pinched impact from sprinkler droplets, maintain soil intake
between thumb and finger, it forms a long flexible rate, and resist surface water and wind erosion. Irriga-
ribbon. Some clays that are very high in colloids are tion water containing sodium can cause dispersing of
friable and lack plasticity at all moisture levels. soil aggregates. See discussion of SAR in Section
652.0202(i). Clay mineralogy has a major influence on
Organic—Organic soils vary in organic matter con- soil aggregation and shrink-swell characteristics. See
tent from 20 to 95 percent. They generally are classi- NEH, part 623, chapter 1, for additional discussion.
fied on the degree of decomposition of the organic
deposits. The terms muck, peat, and mucky peat are
commonly used. Muck is well-decomposed organic
material. Peat is raw, undecomposed, very fibrous
organic material in which the original fibers constitute
all the material.

Irrigation Guide
Figure 2–2 Examples of soil structure
Platy—The units are flat and plate-

like. They are generally oriented
horizontal. (Soil Survey Manual,
fig. 3-26, p. 159)
Prismatic—The individual units are

bounded by flat to rounded vertical
faces. Units are distinctly longer
vertically, and the faces are typically
casts or molds of adjoining units.
Vertices are angular or subrounded;
the tops of the prisms are somewhat
indistinct and normally flat. (Soil
Survey Manual, fig. 3-27, p. 159)

Irrigation Guide
Figure 2–2 Examples of soil structure—Continued
Columnar—The units are similar to

prisms and are bounded by flat or
slightly rounded vertical faces. The
tops of columns, in contrast to those
of prisms, are very distinct and
normally rounded. (Soil Survey
Manual, fig. 3-28, p. 160)
Blocky—The units are block like or

polyhedral. They are bounded by
flat or slightly rounded surfaces that
are casts of the faces of surrounding
peds. Typically, blocky structure
units are nearly equi-dimensional,
but grade to prisms and plates. The
structure is further described as
angular blocky (with sharp corners)
and subangular blocky (with
rounded corners). (Soil Survey
Manual, fig. 3-29, p. 161)

Irrigation Guide
Figure 2–2 Examples of soil structure—Continued
Granular—The units are approxi-

mately spherical or polyhedral and
are bounded by curves or irregular
faces. (Soil Survey Manual, fig. 3-30,
p. 161)

Irrigation Guide
(5) Soil bulk density have less total pore space than silt and clay soils.
Refers to the weight of a unit volume of dry soil, which Gravitational water flows through sandy soils much
includes the volume of solids and pore space. Units faster because the pores are much larger. Clayey soils
are expressed as the weight at oven-dry and volume at hold more water than sandy soils because clay soils
field capacity water content, expressed as grams per have a larger volume of small, flat-shaped pore spaces
cubic centimeter (g/cc) or pounds per cubic foot that hold more capillary water. Clay soil particles are
(lb/ft3). Soil is composed of soil particles, organic flattened or platelike in shape, thus, soil-water tension
matter, water, and air. is also higher for a given volume of water. When the
percent clay in a soil increases over about 40 percent,
(6) Soil pore space AWC is reduced even though total soil-water content
Bulk density is used to convert water measurements may be greater. Permeability and drainability of soil
from a weight basis to a volume basis that can be used are directly related to the volume and size and shape
for irrigation related calculations. Many tools are avail- of pore space.
able to measure bulk density in the field as well as in the
laboratory. They are described in Chapter 9, Irrigation Uniform plant root development and water movement
Water Management. Exhibit 2–2 displays the process to in soil occur when soil profile bulk density is uniform,
determine the total volume of water held in a soil. a condition that seldom exists in the field. Generally,
soil compaction occurs in all soils where tillage imple-
Pore space allows the movement of water, air, and ments and wheel traffic are used. Compaction de-
roots. Dense soils have low available water capacity creases pore space, decreasing root development,
because of decreased pore space. Density can make oxygen content, and water movement and availability.
AWC differences of –50 percent to +30 percent com- Other factors affecting soil bulk density include freeze/
pared to average densities. Sandy soils generally have thaw process, plant root growth and decay, worm-
bulk densities greater than clayey soils. Sandy soils holes, and organic matter.
Exhibit 2–2 Process to determine total volume of water held in a soil
Let: Db = bulk density Schematic:

Dp = particle density (specific gravity)
Ws = weight of soil solids (oven dry)
Ww = weight of soil water
Vs = volume of solids Air Va
Vp = volume of pores (both air & water) Vp
Vw = volume of water Ww Water Vw
Vs + V p = total soil volume V
W
Ws Ws
( )
Db = Ws Solids Vs
Dp = D b × Vs = D b Vs + Vp
Vs + Vp Vs
Vs D Vs D
= b % Solids = × 100 = b × 100
Vs + Vp D p Vs + Vp Dp
D  Ww
% pore space = 100 −  b × 100 % water = × 100
 Dp  Ws
Vw W
% volume of water = × 100 = w × D b × 100
Vs + Vp Ws
% volume of water × 12 in/ft

Volume of water (in/ft) =
100

Irrigation Guide
(c) Soil intake characteristics Soil intake characteristics directly influence length of
run, required inflow rate, and time of set that provide a
Soil intake/water infiltration is the process of water uniform and efficient irrigation without excessive deep
entering the soil at the soil/air interface. NEH, Part percolation and runoff. Table 2–6 displays estimated
623, Chapter 1, Soil-Plant-Water Relationship provides soil infiltration characteristics for border, furrow and
detailed discussion of the water infiltration process. fixed set or periodic move sprinkler irrigation systems
based on surface soil texture.
Infiltration rates change during the time water is
applied, typically becoming slower with elapsed time. For surface systems, water is considered ponded
They typically decrease as the irrigation season where it is 2 to 8 inches deep. Water infiltration for
progresses because of cultivation and harvest equip- borders and basins is vertically downward. For fur-
ment. This is especially true if operations are done at rows, infiltration is vertically downward, horizontal,
higher soil-water content levels. Preferential flow and upward into furrow ridges. More field testing has
paths, such as cracks and wormholes, influence infil- been done for borders than for furrows; therefore,
tration and permeability. Infiltration rates are also intake estimates for borders are more readily avail-
affected by water quality; for example, suspended able. These intake characteristics can be converted for
sediment, temperature, sodicity, and SAR, affect use with furrows, but the intake process differences
water surface tension. must be accounted for in the conversion.
Soil intake characteristics affect design, operation, and Figure 2–3 displays intake groupings used for design-
management of surface irrigation systems. ing border and basin and contour surface irrigation
systems. Figure 2–4 displays intake groupings used for
(1) Surface irrigation systems designing furrow irrigation systems. Furrow intake
The water infiltration capability of a soil is referred to characteristics differ from border and basin intake
as soil intake characteristic. For surface irrigation characteristics because of the direction of water
systems, intake characteristic is expressed by the movement near the soil surface and the percent of soil
equation: surface covered by water.
b
F = aTo + c
where: Table 2–6 Soil intake ranges by surface texture 1/
F = Cumulative intake for an opportunity time

period (inches) Soil - - - - - - - - - - - Intake characteristics - - - - - - - - - - - -
a = Intercept along the cumulative intake axis texture Sprinkle Furrow Border & basin
To = Opportunity time (minutes)
b = Slope of cumulative intake vs. time curve
C, SIC .1 – .2 .1 – .5 .1 – .3
c = Constant (commonly 0.275)
SC, SICL .1 – .4 .2 – .8 .25 – .75
(See NEH, Part 623, Chapter 4, Border Irrigation, and CL, SCL .1 – .5 .2 – 1.0 .3 – 1.0
Chapter 5, Furrow Irrigation.) SIL, L .5 – .7 .3 – 1.2 .5 – 1.5
VFSL, FSL .3 – 1.0 .4 – 1.9 1.0 – 3.0
SL, LVFS .3 – 1.25 .5 – 2.4 1.5 – 4.0
LFS, LS .4 – 1.5 .6 – 3.0 2.0 – 4.0
FS, S .5 + 1.0 + 3.0 +
CS 1.0 + 4.0 + 4.0 +
1/ These are estimates based on soil texture. They should be used
only where local data are not available.

Irrigation Guide
Figure 2–3 Intake families for border and basin irrigation design
10 100 1000
8
Cumulated intake, F (inches)
4.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.3 0.1
1
10 20 30 50 70 100 200 300 500 700 1000 2000 3000 5000
Time, T (minutes)
F = aT b + c
o
F = cumulative intake for an opportunity time T period (inches)
a = intercept along the cumulative intake axis
To = opportunity time (minutes)
b = slope of cumulative intake vs. time curve
c = constant (commonly 0.275)

Irrigation Guide
Figure 2–4 Intake families for furrow irrigation design 1/
10
2.0
1.5
0
0.9
1.0 0
4 0 0.7
0.8 0
0 0.5
0.6 0
Cumulative intake, F (inches)
0.4
0 .45 0
5 0.3
0.3
5 0
0.2 0.2
5
2 0.1
0
0.1
5
0.0
30 40 50 60 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 1500 2000
Time, T (minutes)
F = aT b + c
o
F = cumulative intake for an opportunity time T period (inches)
a = intercept along the cumulative intake axis
To = opportunity time (minutes)
b = slope of cumulative intake vs. time curve
c = constant 2/ (commonly 0.275)
1/ Source: NEH, Section 15, Chapter 5, Furrow Irrigation.

2/ Constant can be adjusted based on local information.

Irrigation Guide
(2) Sprinkler irrigation systems rate significantly. This condition is most likely to
For sprinkle irrigation, infiltration is referred to as occur on soils that are
either an intake rate or maximum application rate, • sodic,
expressed as inches per hour (in/hr). Application rates • poorly graded,
and timing vary according to type of sprinkler or spray • bare,
head. With impact heads, water on the ground surface • contain low organic matter,
is at a single point only with each head rotation. With • have little or no surface residue, and
spray heads, water is on the ground surface continu- • have limited vegetation canopy.
ously, but at very shallow depth. Soil surface storage is
important where water is applied in short time peri- Table 2–7 displays the estimated maximum net appli-
ods; i.e., the outer end of low pressure center pivot cation amounts and rates for center pivot systems. The
laterals. table displays the sprinkler intake group and the
amount of soil surface storage needed to apply an
Caution should be used when comparing average allowable irrigation amount. All systems are consid-
sprinkler application rates with published soil infiltra- ered to be 1,320 feet in length. The following systems
tion values. Some of the problems include: are compared in the table:
• Low angle nozzles apply proportionally more • High pressure impact heads with a peak rate of
water in the area nearest the nozzle. 1.0 in/hr.
• Peak instantaneous application rates under • Medium pressure impact heads with a peak
continuously self-moving sprinkler laterals can rate of 1.5 in/hr.
be very high. However, when expressed as an • Low pressure impact heads with a peak rate of
average hourly rate over the total irrigated 2.5 in/hr.
area, these rates may appear quite low. For • Low pressure spray, two direction system with
example: A 1-inch irrigation application being peak rate of 3.5 in/hr.
made at the outer end of a quarter mile long • Low pressure spray, one direction system with
Low Pressure In Canopy center pivot lateral peak rate of 6.0 in/hr.
can apply water at instantaneous rates exceed-
ing 50 inches per hour for 2 to 10 minutes, but Values for various slopes for the maximum allowable
the average hourly rate is considerably less. In net application amount without additional storage
medium and fine textured soils, the amount created by special practices, are:
infiltrated during the application period can be
very low. Field Approximate soil
slope surface storage
Adequate soil surface storage is required to limit (%) (in)
translocation of water within the field and perhaps
field runoff during the infiltration process. Sprinkler 0-1 0.5
systems should be designed with application rates that 1-3 0.3
do not exceed the soil intake rate unless soil surface 3-5 0.1
storage or other considerations are made. >5 0.0
Water droplet impact on a bare soil surface from The infiltration process is different when using sprin-
sprinkler systems can cause dispersion of some soils. kler and border (or furrow) irrigation. With border
The bigger the droplets, the more the potential disper- irrigation, a small head or depth of water (pressure) is
sion and microcompaction of soil particles. Bigger placed on the soil surface. With sprinkler and microir-
droplets are generally a result of inadequate operating rigation, the soil surface remains mostly unsaturated.
pressure or long distances from the nozzle to the point The association with sprinkle application rate and
of impact. This action forms a dense and less perme- border intake family is through surface texture.
able thin surface layer that can reduce the infiltration

Irrigation Guide
Table 2–7 Maximum net application amounts with zero potential runoff for center pivot systems
Border Typical Pressure & Maximum allowable net application amount

intake application sprinkler
group rate 1/ type - - - - - - - - - - - - surface storage- - - - - - - - - - - -
0.0 2/ 0.1 0.3 0.5
(in/hr) (in) (in) (in) (in)
A (0.1) 1.0 High-impact 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.1

1.5 Medium-impact 0.2 0.3 0.7 0.9
2.5 Low-impact 0.1 0.3 0.6 0.8
3.5 Low-spray 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7
2 direction
6.0 Low-spray 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7
1 direction
B (0.3) 1.0 High-impact 0.8 1.2 1.3 2.2
1.5 Medium-impact 0.5 0.7 1.2 1.7
2.5 Low-impact 0.2 0.5 0.8 1.2
3.5 Low-spray 0.2 0.3 0.7 1.0
2 direction
6.0 Low-spray 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.8
1 direction
C (0.5) 1.0 High-impact 2.0 2.5 3.3 4.0
1.5 Medium-impact 1.0 1.4 1.9 2.5
2.5 Low-impact 0.4 0.7 1.2 1.6
3.5 Low-spray 0.3 0.5 0.9 1.3
2 direction
6.0 Low-spray 0.1 0.3 0.7 0.9
1 direction
D (1.0) 1.0 High-impact 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
1.5 Medium-impact 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
2.5 Low-impact 1.4 1.9 2.6 3.2
3.5 Low-spray 0.6 1.1 1.7 2.2
2 direction
6.0 Low-spray 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.3
E (1.5 +) No general restrictions within practical design criteria.

Local experience may dictate specific restrictions.
1/ If higher rates are used, the application amounts should be appropriately reduced. The rates shown are not
necessarily the maximum allowable application rate.
2/ Estimated soil surface storage (without additional storage created by special practices, such as pitting,
damming, diking, and contour furrows).

Irrigation Guide
Table 2–8 displays estimated maximum sprinkler Table 2–9 gives information that can be used to refine
application rates for fixed set or periodic move sprin- infiltration values. Field measurements and local
kler systems. It is recognized that border intake fami- experience should be used to support or change pub-
lies or groups do not relate to the infiltration process lished values.
using sprinkle irrigation. However, many field techni-
cians are familiar with soils identified by these groups,
so they are used for familiarity.
Table 2–8 Maximum sprinkler application rate—periodic move and fixed set sprinkler (for alfalfa-grass, grass, or clean
tilled with residue > 4,000 lb/ac)
Sprinkler Design - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Net sprinkler application (in) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

intake slope
group (%) ≤1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
A 0.4 or less 0.70 0.25 0.15 0.15

0.75 to 1.25 0.45 0.20 0.15 0.10
2.0 0.35 0.20 0.15 0.10
3.0 0.30 0.20 0.15 0.10
5.0 to 8.0 0.25 0.15 0.15 0.10
B 0.40 or less 1.70 0.70 0.50 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.25
0.75 to 1.25 1.20 0.60 0.45 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.25
2.0 1.00 0.60 0.45 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.30 0.25 0.25
3.0 0.80 0.55 0.45 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.30 0.25 0.25
5.0 to 8.0 0.70 0.50 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.25 0.25
C 0.40 or less 2.75 1.15 0.85 0.75 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.50
0.75 to 1.25 2.05 1.05 0.85 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.50
2.0 1.65 1.00 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.55 0.55 0.50 0.50
3.0 1.40 0.95 0.75 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.55 0.50 0.50
5.0 to 8.0 1.15 0.85 0.75 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.50 0.45
D 0.40 or less 5.40 2.40 1.85 1.60 1.45 1.35 1.25 1.20 1.15
0.75 to 1.25 4.00 2.25 1.80 1.55 1.40 1.30 1.25 1.20 1.15
2.0 3.30 2.10 1.75 1.55 1.40 1.30 1.25 1.20 1.15
3.0 2.90 2.00 1.70 1.50 1.40 1.30 1.20 1.15 1.10
5.0 to 8.0 2.40 1.85 1.60 1.40 1.35 1.25 1.20 1.15 1.10
E All slopes No restrictions within practical design criteria

Cover adjustment for clean tilled crops Note: Sprinkler intake groups are based on major soil texture
• with 3,000 to 4,000 lb/ac, use 90% of above groups, as follows:
• with 2,000 to 3,000 lb/ac, use 80% of above A—Border intake family - 0.1
• with 1,000 to 2,000 lb/ac, use 70% of above B—Border intake family - 0.3
• with less than 1,000 lb/ac, use 60% of above C—Border intake family - 0.5
D—Border intake family - 1.0
Includes the following reduction of intake for surface storage: E—Border intake family - 1.5 +
0.75 to 1.25 = 0.4 in
2.0 = 0.3 in
3.0 = 0.2 in
5.0 to 8.0 = 0.0 in

Irrigation Guide
Table 2–9 Soil intake family adjustment factors
Texture Fine textured soils generally have slower intake rates than coarse textured soils.
Structure The arrangement of soil particles into aggregates affects intake as follows:
• Single grain or granular structure = most rapid intake
• Blocky or prismatic structure = moderate intake
• Massive or platy structure = slowest intake
Bulk density Dense soils have grains tightly packed together. The effect of density on intake can be –50% to
+30% from the typical.
Modifying factors:
Modifying factor "+" "–"

(%) Increased Decreased
intake rate intake rate
Initial water content Low initial water content. High initial water content.
–20% to +20%
Organic content High organic content improves soil Low organic content provides for a more
–10% to +10% structure and promotes good massive soil structure.
condition.
Compaction Compaction results in higher density with

–50% to 0 less pore space to hold water.
Hardpan Hardpan (a very dense layer).

–50% to 0
Gravel or coarse sand The soil layer above an abrupt boundary of

layer, near surface coarse material must be saturated before
–30% to 0 water will move into the coarse material
below.
Salinity and sodicity Calcium salts can flocculate Sodium salts can disperse and puddle the
–20% to +10% the surface soil. soil.
Surface crusting Surface sealing.

–20% to 0
Sediments in the Colloidal clays and fine sediment can

irrigation water accumulate on the soil surface.
–20% to 0 1/
Cracking Cracking increases initial intake. On highly expansive soils, intake rate can
–40% to +40% Intake rate can be high until cracks be very slow after cracks close because
close because of added moisture the soil particles swell.
causing soil particles to swell.
See footnote at end of table.

Irrigation Guide
Table 2–9 Soil intake family adjustment factors—Continued
Modifying factor "+" "–"

(%) Increased Decreased
intake rate intake rate
Vegetative cover Root penetration promotes improved Bare soil tends to puddle under sprinkler
–20% to +20% soil structure and lower soil density. systems using large droplet sizes increasing
Worm activity increases providing soil density at the soil surface.
macropores for water to follow.
Soil condition Good soil condition reduces Poor soil condition increases soil density,
(physical condition of soil density. restricts root development, and restricts
the soil related to micro- worm activity.
organism activity and
erosion) –10% to +10%
Ripping, subsoiling Ripping when soil is dry can break up

0 to +20% hardpans, shatter dense soils, and in
general improve the soil condition
below plow depth. The effect is
temporary unless the cause of
increased density is eliminated.
Soil erosion Erosion exposes subsurface layers that are

–20% to 0 lower in organic content, have poor
structure, can have increased salinity or
sodicity, and generally have higher density.
1/ This estimate may need local adjustment.

Irrigation Guide
Center pivot systems, because of their configuration, Surface storage must be available throughout the
have higher application rates in the outer fourth of the irrigation season. Tables 2–10a through 2–10g display
circle. The longer the pivot lateral, the higher the the surface storage needed for various sprinkler intake
application rate in the outer portion. To maintain their groups for continuous/self-moving sprinkler systems.
usefulness on medium or fine textured and sloping These tables are based on surface soil texture.
soils, surface storage is essential to prevent transloca-
tion of applied water. Surface storage can be provided Figures 2–5a and 2–5b provide a process to estimate
by: surface storage for reservoir tillage (constructing in-
• Soil surface roughness or cloddiness developed row dikes or dams and small reservoirs) of varying
from tillage equipment spacing, widths, and heights. Figure 2–5a provides
• In-furrow chiseling or ripping dike nomenclature.
• Crop residue on the soil surface
• Basin tillage Figure 2–5b provides the maximum capacity of applied
• Permanent vegetation depth of irrigation water as a function of dike height
• Any combination of these and bottom width of reservoir. This figure was devel-
oped for furrow slope of 1 percent only.
Table 2–10a Amount of surface storage needed for no Table 2–10b Amount of surface storage needed for no
runoff—Silty clay (sprinkler intake rate runoff—Silty clay loam (sprinkler intake
group = 0.1 - 0.2 in/hr) rate group = 0.1 - 0.4 in/hr)
Application - - - - - - - Total amount of application - - - - - - - - - Application - - - - - - - Total amount of application - - - - - - - - -

sprinkler rate - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (inches) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - sprinkler rate - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (inches) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
(in/hr) 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 (in/hr) 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
1 0.0 0.4 0.7 1.1 1.6 2.0 1 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2
2 0.1 0.5 0.9 1.4 1.8 2.2 2 0.0 0.3 0.7 1.0 1.4 1.8
3 0.1 0.5 1.0 1.4 1.9 2.4 3 0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
4 0.1 0.6 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.4 4 0.1 0.5 0.9 1.3 1.7 2.2
5 0.1 0.6 1.1 1.5 2.0 2.5 5 0.1 0.5 0.9 1.4 1.8 2.2
6 0.2 0.6 1.1 1.5 2.0 2.5 6 0.1 0.5 1.0 1.4 1.9 2.3
10 0.2 0.6 1.1 1.6 2.1 2.6 10 0.1 0.6 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.4
25 0.2 0.7 1.2 1.7 2.1 2.6 25 0.2 0.7 1.1 1.6 2.1 2.6
50 0.2 0.7 1.2 1.7 2.2 2.7 50 0.2 0.7 1.2 1.7 2.1 2.6
100 0.2 0.7 1.2 1.7 2.2 2.7 100 0.2 0.7 1.2 1.7 2.2 2.7
200 0.2 0.7 1.2 1.7 2.2 2.7 200 0.2 0.7 1.2 1.7 2.2 2.7

Irrigation Guide
Table 2–10c Amount of surface storage needed for no Table 2–10e Amount of surface storage needed for no
runoff—Silt loam (sprinkler intake rate group runoff—Fine sandy loam (sprinkler intake
= 0.1 - 0.6 in/hr) rate group = 0.3 - 1.0 in/hr)

(in/hr) 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 (in/hr) 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
2 0.0 0.1 0.4 0.7 1.0 1.4 2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.3
3 0.0 0.3 0.6 1.0 1.3 1.7 3 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.5 0.7 1.0
4 0.0 0.1 0.7 1.1 1.5 1.9 4 0.0 0.1 0.4 0.7 1.0 1.3
5 0.0 0.1 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 5 0.0 0.2 0.5 0.9 1.2 1.6
6 0.1 0.5 0.9 1.3 1.7 2.1 6 0.0 0.3 0.6 1.0 1.3 1.7
10 0.1 0.5 1.0 1.4 1.9 2.3 10 0.1 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
25 0.2 0.6 1.1 1.6 2.0 2.5 25 0.1 0.6 1.0 1.5 1.9 2.4
50 0.2 0.7 1.2 1.6 2.1 2.6 50 0.2 0.6 1.1 1.6 2.1 2.5
100 0.2 0.7 1.2 1.7 2.2 2.7 100 0.2 0.7 1.2 1.6 2.1 2.6
200 0.2 0.7 1.2 1.7 2.2 2.7 200 0.2 0.7 1.2 1.7 2.2 2.7
Table 2–10d Amount of surface storage needed for no Table 2–10f Amount of surface storage needed for no
runoff—Loam (sprinkler intake rate group = runoff—Loamy fine sand (sprinkler intake
0.2 - 0.7 in/hr) rate group = 0.4 - 1.5 in/hr)

(in/hr) 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 (in/hr) 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
4 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.8 4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4
5 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 5 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.8
6 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.7 1.0 1.4 6 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.0
10 0.0 0.3 0.7 1.1 1.4 1.8 10 0.0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.3 1.6
25 0.1 0.5 1.0 1.4 1.8 2.3 25 0.1 0.5 0.9 1.3 1.8 2.2
50 0.2 0.6 1.1 1.5 2.0 2.5 50 0.2 0.6 1.1 0.5 2.0 2.4
100 0.2 0.7 1.1 1.6 2.1 2.6 100 0.2 0.7 1.1 1.6 2.1 2.6
200 0.2 0.7 1.2 1.7 2.2 2.6 200 0.2 0.7 1.2 1.7 2.1 2.6

Irrigation Guide
Table 2–10g Amount of surface storage needed for no Figure 2–5a Nomenclature—dike spacing and height;
runoff—Fine sand (sprinkler intake rate furrow width and ridge height and spacing
group = 0.5 in/hr +)
1= dike spacing
Application - - - - - - - Total amount of application - - - - - - - - - H= furrow ridge height
sprinkler rate - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (inches) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - h= dike height
(in/hr) 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Wb = furrow width
Furrow dike
S= furrow ridge spacing
or dam
1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1
3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.4
10 0.0 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.9 1.2 H
25 0.1 1.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0

h
50 0.1 0.6 1.0 1.4 1.9 2.3
100 0.2 0.6 1.1 1.6 2.0 2.5 Wb Furrow ridge
or bed
200 0.2 0.7 1.2 1.6 2.1 2.6 S
Figure 2–5b Dike spacing, height, and surface storage capacity (maximum capacity of applied depth of irrigation water as a
function of dike height and bottom width of reservoir for field slope of 1%; for slopes other than 1%, divide
storage volume by actual percent slope)
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
Storage volume (cubic feet)
13
12
h
11 dt
wi h
10 to
m
dt
h dt
t
wi wi
bo m
9
n ch t to
m
otto
8 6-i bo hb
1 ch nc
-in 8-i
7 12
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Dike height (inches)

Irrigation Guide
Table 2–11 displays estimates of effective surface (d) Organic matter

storage for various tillage operations for basin storage
on level or nearly level slopes. These estimates are Soil organic matter is the organic fraction of the soil. It
based on averages from many field measurements. includes plant and animal residue at various stages of
Tables 2–12 and 2–13 can be used to estimate effective decomposition and cells and tissues of soil organisms.
surface storage with cloddy bare ground and residue Organic matter directly influences soil structure, soil
only on level or nearly level slopes. condition, soil bulk density, water infiltration, plant
growth and root development, permeability, available
water capacity, biological activity, oxygen availability,
Table 2–11 Estimated effective basin surface storage nutrient availability, and farmability, as well as many
other factors that make the soil a healthy natural
resource for plant growth. Organic matter has a high
Tillage operation Effective storage depth (in) cation adsorption capacity, and its decomposition
releases nitrogen, phosphorous, and sulfur. Site specific
organic matter values should always be used for plan-
Basin tillage 1.2 ning and managing irrigation systems. Published values
Reservoir (dammer-diker) 0.75 often are from sites that were managed quite differently.
Subsoiler 0.16
Field cultivator 0.12
(e) Soil depth
Depth is the dimension from the soil surface to bed-
Table 2–12 Surface storage available for rough and rock, hardpan, water table; to a specified soil depth; or
cloddy bare ground
to a root growth restrictive layer. The deeper the soil
and plant roots, the more soil-water storage is avail-
Slope (%) Surface storage (in) able for plant use. Crop rooting depth and the resulting
total AWC control the length of time plants can go
between irrigations or effective rainfall events before
0.5 0.5
reaching moisture stress. Equipment compaction
2.0 0.3 layers or natural occurring impervious layers restrict
4.0 0.1 the downward movement of water and root penetra-
4.5 0 tion. Providing artificial drainage of poorly drained
soils increases soil depth for potential root develop-
ment. Adequate soil drainage must be present for
sustained growth of most plants.
Table 2–13 Surface storage available with residue
An abrupt change in soil texture with depth can re-
strict downward water movement. For example, a
Residue (%) Surface storage (in) coarse sand underlying a medium or fine textured soil
requires saturation at the interface before substantial
water will move into the coarser soil below. When a
0 0.0 coarse textured soil abruptly changes to a medium or
10 .01 fine textured soil with depth, a temporary perched
20 .03 water table develops above the slower permeable soil.
Stratified soils or shallow soils over hardpans or
30 .07 bedrock can also hold excess gravitational water at
40 .12 the interface. The excess water can move upward
50 .18 because of the increased soil particle surface tension
60 .24 (suction) as the soil water in the upper profile is used
by plants. Thus, an otherwise shallow soil with low
70 .35 total AWC can have characteristics of a deeper soil.

Irrigation Guide
(f) Slope hazard for surface irrigation. It is based on soil struc-

ture, permeability, percent organic matter, percent silt
Slope (field) gradient is the inclination of the soil and very fine sand, and field slope. Three classes
surface from the horizontal, expressed as a percent- indicate degree of erosion hazard on irrigated crop-
age. For example, a 1.5 percent slope is a 1.5-foot rise land for planning surface irrigation. For erosion factor
or fall in 100 feet horizontal distance. In planning K, see section II of the Field Office Technical Guide.
irrigation systems, slope is important in determining
the type of irrigation system best suited to the site. It is
also important in determining optimum and maximum
application rates (or streamflow rates) for applying
water.
Erosion potential from excessive surface irrigation

flows increases as the slope and slope length increase.
Potential runoff from sprinkler systems also increases
as the slope increases, thus raising the opportunity for
Figure 2–6 Water table contribution to irrigation
erosion to occur. requirement, as a function of soil type
(texture) and water table depth
(g) Water tables

Soil type Line number
Water tables can be a barrier for root development Sticky clay 1
because of restricted oxygen availability. Through Loamy sand 2
planned water table control and management, shallow Clay 3
Peat 4
ground water can supply all or part of the seasonal Clay loam 5
crop water needs. The water must be high quality, salt Sandy loam 6
free, and held at or near a constant elevation. The Fine sandy loam 7
water table level should be controlled to provide water 1
according to crop needs. Figure 2–6 displays approxi-
mate water table contribution, based on soil texture
and depth to water table. Some stratified soils respond 0.5
Steady state upward flow rate, in/d
poorly to water table control because of the restric-

tions to water movement. The NRCS computer model 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0.3
DRAINMOD can be used to analyze water tables and
subsurface water movement. Documentation for the 0.2
program includes definitions of factors.
0.1
(h) Soil erodibility

0.05
The erodibility of a soil should be considered in the
planning stage of any irrigation system. The rate and
0.03
method at which water is applied should be controlled
so that it will not cause excessive runoff and erosion. 0.02
Factors influencing soil erosion, such as stream size

for surface systems, surface storage because of resi- 0.01
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 1 2 3 5 10
due, microbasins, and vegetative cover, are not related
to soil properties. Table 2–14 shows soil erodibility Water table depth, ft

Irrigation Guide
Table 2–14 Soil erodibility hazard (S K values) for surface irrigation
Slope - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - USLE "K" values - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

(%) .10 .15 .17 .20 .24 .28 .32 .37 .43 .49 .55 .64
0.1 .01 .02 .02 .02 .02 .03 .03 .04 .04 .05 .06 .06
0.2 .02 .03 .03 .04 .05 .06 .06 .07 .09 .10 .11 .13
Slight
0.3 .03 .05 .05 .06 .07 .08 .10 .11 .13 .15 .17 .19
0.4 .04 .06 .07 .08 .10 .11 .13 .15 .17 .20 .22 .26
0.5 .05 .08 .09 .10 .12 .14 .16 .19 .22 .25 .28 .32
1.0 .10 .15 .17 .20 .24 .28 .32 .37 .43 .49 .55 .64
1.5 .15 .23 .26 .30 .36 .42 .48 .56 .65 .74 .83 .96
Moderate
2.0 .20 .30 .34 .40 .48 .56 .64 .74 .86 .98 1.10 1.28
3.0 .30 .45 .51 .60 .72 .84 .96 1.12 1.29 1.47 1.65 1.92
4.0 .40 .60 .68 .80 .96 1.12 1.28 1.48 1.72 1.96
5.0 .50 .75 .85 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60
6.0 .60 .90 1.02 1.20 1.44 1.68
7.0 .70 1.05 1.19 1.40 1.68
Severe
8.0 .80 1.20 1.36 1.60
9.0 .90 1.35 1.53
10.0 1.0 1.50
Hazard class S K value
Slight < 0.2

Moderate 0.2 - 1.0
Severe > 1.0
Where:
S = Slope in direction of irrigation
K = USLE Soil Erodibility

Irrigation Guide
(i) Chemical properties ECe is the electrical conductivity of soil-water extract

corrected to 77 °F (25 °C), usually expressed in units
Soil is formed primarily from the decomposition of of mmho per centimeter or deci-Siemens per meter.
rocks. Exposure of the rock surface to water, oxygen, 1 mmho/cm = 1 dS/m
organic matter, and carbon dioxide brings about
chemical alterations on the rock material. Oxidation, As water is evaporated from the soil surface or used
reduction, hydration, hydrolysis, and carbonation by plants, salts and sodic ions within the soil-water
contribute to rock disintegration and creation of new solution are left behind either on the ground surface or
chemical compounds and solutions. The chemical and within the soil profile. Accumulated saline salts can be
mineralogical composition of the soil vary with re- reduced by leaching with excess water through the
spect to depth or horizon. Weathering intensity de- soil profile. This may need to be done regularly to
creases with depth from the surface. The longer the maintain a proper salt balance for desirable plant
weathering has proceeded, the thicker the weathered growth. Figure 2–7 displays the effect of soil salinity
layer and the greater the difference from the original on AWC on a clay loam soil.
material. In mineral soils, organic matter content
generally decreases with depth. A detailed description of soil and water salinity and
sodicity is given in the American Society of Civil
The colloidal fraction (diameter less than 0.001 mm) of Engineers Report No. 71, Agricultural Salinity Assess-
the soil plays an important part in the chemistry of the ment and Management (ASCE 1990), and in the Na-
soil. Microbiological activity is greatest near the sur- tional Engineering Handbook, Part 623, Chapter 2,
face where oxygen, organic matter content, and tem- Irrigation Water Requirements (USDA 1993).
perature are the highest.
Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR), is the standard mea-
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) is the total amount sure of the sodicity of a soil or quality of the irrigation
of cations held in a soil in such a way that they can be water. It replaces the previously used exchangeable
removed by exchanging with another cation in the sodium percentage (ESP).
natural soil solution, expressed in milliequivalents per
100 grams of oven-dry soil (meq/100 gm). The cation
exchange capacity is a measure of the ability of a soil
to retain cations, some of which are plant nutrients. It
is affected primarily by the kind and amount of clay
and organic matter. Soils that have low CEC hold
fewer cations and may require more frequent applica- Figure 2–7 Example soil-water retention curves for clay
loam soil at varying levels of soil salinity—
tions of fertilizers than soils with high CEC. See NASIS ECe
MUR data base or SCS-SOI-5 for CEC estimates for
specific soil series. Electrical conductivity
35 of the saturated-soil extract
Volumetric water content, %
16
(j) Saline and sodic soil effects 30 12
8
4
Wilting point
Salt affected soils are generally classified as follows, 1

using electrical conductivity of the soil-water extract, 25
ECe, as the basis:
Salinity ECe 20
Very Slight 0 – 4 dS/m

Slight 4 – 8 dS/m 15
Moderate 8 – 16 dS/m 0 5 10 15
Strong > 16 dS/m Soil water potential, bars

Irrigation Guide
SAR is calculated from the concentration of sodium, (k) Soil reaction/acidity

calcium, and magnesium ions in the soil-water extract
or irrigation water. See Chapter 3, Crops, and Chapter Soil reaction is the degree of acidity of a soil, ex-
13, Quality of Water Supply, for discussion of plant pressed as a pH value. Soil reaction is significant in
effects and quality of irrigation water. Sodium salts crop production and in soil management because of
decrease the ability of the soil to infiltrate water be- the effect on solubility and availability of nutrients. A
cause of soil structure dispersion or defloculation. change in the degree of reaction may increase the
Figure 2–8 displays losses in permeability because of solubility of other nutrients. This affects the amount of
SAR and electrical conductivity of irrigation water. nutrients in the soil solution available for plant use,
which significantly affects plant growth and crop yield.
Figure 2–9 graphically displays the effect of pH on
nutrient availability in soils.
Figure 2–8 Threshold values of sodium adsorption ratio of topsoil and electrical conductivity of infiltrating water associated
with the likelihood of substantial losses in permeability
30
25
Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) in topsoil
Area of likely
permeability
hazard
20
15
Area of unlikely
permeability hazard
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Electrical conductivity of infiltrating water, mmho/cm

Irrigation Guide

,,,,,,,

,,

,,,
,
Figure 2–9 Effect of pH on nutrient availability in soils (the wider the bar, the more available is the nutrient)
Nutrient availability in soils: The wider the bar, the more available is the nutrient.
Very Very

,,,,,,,
Medium Slightly Slightly Medium

,,,,

Strongly acid slightly slightly Strongly alkaline
acid acid acid alkaline alkaline alkaline
Nitrogen
Phosphorus

,,,,,,,

,,

,,,
Potassium
Sulphur
Calcium

,,,,,,,
,,,

,,,

,,
Magnesium
Iron

,,,,,,,

,,,,,,

,,,
Manganese
Boron
Copper and zinc

Molybdenum
Fungi
Bacteria and actinomycetes
4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0
pH

Irrigation Guide
652.0203 Explanation of 652.0204 State supplement

tables and data bases
(a) Soil surveys
State Soil Survey Database (SSSD) is a regional data
base included in state soil survey data. It provides the About (number) different soil series are irrigated in
soil data base for the Field Office Computer System (state). These series are described in published or
(FOCS). SSSD has two major data sets: Map Unit interim soil survey reports that cover approximately
Interpretations Record (MUIR) and Soils Interpreta- ________ percent of the potentially irrigable and
tions Record (SIR) by soil series. From these, the existing irrigated area in the state. Soil series and
NRCS soil interpretation record SCS-SOI-5 is devel- interpretations are also available in Section II of the
oped and summaries of interpretations made. Field Office Technical Guide.
National Soils Information System (NASIS) is the next

generation of SSSD. When activated, NASIS will con- (b) Soil properties
tain county specific values instead of ranges. In addi-
tion, it will provide metadata (data about data). For Table 2–15 displays soil properties and design values
example: Was county specific available water capacity for irrigation, by soil series, for all the irrigated or
for those soil series and texture measured, calculated, potentially irrigated soils in ____(state)____. Values
or estimated. displayed are interpreted data taken from Section II of
the Field Office Technical Guide, or represent actual
field or laboratory tests. Soils specifically having field
or laboratory test data are also indicated.
Table 2–15 Soil properties and design values for irrigation 1/
Soil series Depth Texture(s) Depth to AWC Depth - - - Cumulative AWC - - - - - - - Intake 2/ - - - - Max sprink
name water table Low Med. High Furrow Border appl. rate
(in) (ft) (in/in) (ft) (in) (in) (in) If If (in/hr)
E
Fairdale 0–8 SIL, L 3–5 .18 – .22 1 2.1 2.3 2.6 .2 – 1.0 .1 – 1.0 .25 -.4
PL
8 – 30 SIL, L .16 – .20 2 4.0 4.5 5.0

M
30 – 45 SICL, L .15 – .19 3 5.9 6.6 7.3

45 – 60 S, GR - LS, GR .03 – .04 4 7.3 8.2 9.1
A
5 7.7 8.2 9.1

X
E
1/ Having specific field or laboratory test data.

2/ Range of estimated intake is provided. Use a mid value for trial designs.

Chapter 3 Crops Part 652
Chapter 3 Crops Irrigation Guide
Contents: 652.0300 Purpose and objective 3–1

(a) Soil condition ................................................................................................ 3–1
(b) Nutrient management ................................................................................... 3–1
(c) Soil, water, pest, nutrient, and crop residue management ...................... 3–1
652.0301 Crop growth characteristics 3–2

(a) Response to water, crop yield, and quality ................................................ 3–2
(b) Critical growth periods ................................................................................ 3–2
(c) Irrigation related management .................................................................... 3–7
(d) Rooting depth and moisture extraction patterns ...................................... 3–8
652.0302 Crop and irrigation system water requirements 3–12

(a) Crop evapotranspiration ............................................................................ 3–12
(b) Irrigation frequency .................................................................................... 3–12
(c) Net irrigation requirement ......................................................................... 3–12
(d) Gross irrigation requirement ..................................................................... 3–13
652.0303 Reduced irrigation and restricted water supply 3–14
652.0304 Adapted irrigation systems 3–15
652.0305 Temperature—effects and management 3–16

(a) High temperatures ...................................................................................... 3–16
(b) Low temperatures ....................................................................................... 3–16
652.0306 Salinity and sodicity effects 3–17

(a) General ......................................................................................................... 3–17
(b) Measuring salinity and sodicity concentration ....................................... 3–17
(c) Effects of salinity on yields ....................................................................... 3–17
(d) Effect of salinity and sodicity on AWC .................................................... 3–17
(e) Management practices for salinity and sodicity control ........................ 3–18
(f) Toxic elements ............................................................................................ 3–18
652.0307 Crop data bases 3–19
(210-vi-NEH, September 1997) 3–i

3–21
Irrigation Guide
Tables Table 3–1 Critical periods for plant moisture stress 3–3
Table 3–2 Adapted irrigation methods 3–6
Table 3–3 Recommended Management Allowable Depletion (MAD) 3–7

for crop growth stages (% of AWC) growing in loamy soils
Table 3–4 Depths to which the roots of mature crops will extract 3–8
available soil water from a deep, uniform, well drained
soil under average unrestricted conditions
Table 3–5 Irrigation system vs. crops grown 3–15
Figures Figure 3–1 Root distribution systems—deep homogenous soils 3–9

with good water management and no soil restrictions
Figure 3–2 Typical water extraction pattern in uniform soil profile 3–10
Figure 3–3 Effect of root development on soils with depth 3–11

limitations
3–22
Chapter 3 Crops Irrigation Guide
(b) Nutrient management

652.0300 Purpose and
A healthy plant uses water more efficiently than a
objective plant that lacks nutrients and trace elements. Total
water use by a healthy plant is greater than that for a
plant deprived of nutrients. However, the yield per unit
The purpose of irrigation is to supplement natural of water is much greater for healthy plants.
precipitation so that moisture requirements of crops
being grown are met. Crop response to irrigation Soil fertility is maintained with proper nutrient man-
varies with soils, fertility, type of plants, stage of agement by maintaining proper soil reaction (pH level)
growth, and local climate. Where crop stress caused and by using an appropriate cropping system. Liming
by moisture shortage is prevented by proper and may be needed on acid soil. On saline soils, leaching of
timely irrigation, other factors can become inhibitors excess salts is generally needed. On sodic soils, both
to desirable yield and quality. soil amendments and leaching may be needed. Soil
tests, field observations, planned yield and quality, and
Knowledge of how plants respond to, and use, soil field experience help determine the type and amount
water throughout their growing season is essential to of fertilizers and other elements to use. Using excess
successfully design and manage an irrigation system. fertilizer or poor application timing can result in
Continuous plant uptake of soil nutrients has a poten- movement of chemicals below the root zone into the
tial for improving ground water quality. Profitable crop ground water or off the field.
production is generally the objective of agriculture.
With proper management, soils (or water) affected by
salinity or sodicity can sustain plant growth in perpe-
tuity. Irrigation provides the insurance for high quality
(c) Soil, water, pest, nutrient, and
and desirable quantity crops at reduced risk in semi-
crop residue management
arid, subhumid, and humid areas. It is a necessity in
Optimum production requires the operator to control
arid regions. The effect of irrigation both onsite and
weeds and insects, use high quality seed of adapted
offsite on soil, water, air, plant, and animal resources
varieties, apply fertilizer according to plant needs, and
along with human considerations needs to be consid-
practice good soil and water management during all
ered.
parts of the growing season. Crops grown should be
selected to fit the soil, water, climate, irrigation sys-
tem, farm equipment, and market availability. Plant
(a) Soil condition population can generally be increased when practicing
good soil, water, pesticide, nutrient, and crop residue
For desirable crop growth, good soil condition is key management.
to optimum soil aeration, water infiltration, permeabil-
ity, and uniform root development. It also helps reduce
runoff and potential soil erosion. Good soil condition
can be maintained or improved by eliminating excess
tillage operations, avoiding field operations while soil-
water content is high, using organic material or crop
residue, and using grass and legumes in rotation. To
reduce opportunity of soil compaction on irrigated
pastures, livestock should be excluded during and
after irrigation until adequate soil surface dry-out
occurs.

Irrigation Guide
(b) Critical growth periods

652.0301 Crop growth
Plants must have ample moisture throughout the
characteristics growing season for optimum production and the most
efficient use of water. This is most important during
critical periods of growth and development. Most
(a) Response to water, crop yield, crops are sensitive to water stress during one or more
and quality critical growth periods in their growing season. Mois-
ture stress during a critical period can cause an irre-
Water is only one component needed to achieve de- versible loss of yield or product quality. Critical peri-
sired crop yield and quality. A practical definition for ods must be considered with caution because they
water use efficiency is the amount of yield per unit of depend on plant specie as well as variety. Some crops
area per unit of water, e.g., 6 bushels of wheat per acre can be moderately stressed during noncritical periods
per acre-inch of applied water. Such yield water use with no adverse effect on yields. Other plants require
comparison units can provide a basis for comparison mild stress to set and develop fruit for optimum har-
when improvements are made. vest time (weather or market).
Maintaining soil water within a desirable depletion The need for an irrigation should be determined by an
range (preferably less than 5 bars tension) generally onsite examination of the soil for water content or by
provides the expected yield and quality. The effect on any irrigation scheduling method for which basic data
yield and quality depends on how severe and during have been established. Using only plant appearance as
which period of crop growth water deficit occurs. the moisture deficit symptom can lead to misinterpre-
Applying excess irrigation water over and above that tation, which generally results in reduction of yield
necessary to grow a successful crop will not increase and product quality. When the plant appears to be dry,
yields and generally reduces yields. it may already be in a moisture stress condition. Some
plants temporarily wilt to conserve moisture during
Other factors, such as the lack of available nutrients, otherwise high evapotranspiration periods of the day.
trace elements, and uncontrolled pest activity, may Dry appearance may also be caused by other problems
limit crop yield. Excess irrigation water can leach (lack of nutrients, insect activity, disease, lack of
essential plant nutrients and some pesticides and their essential trace elements). Critical water periods for
metabolites below the root zone. This is especially
most crops and other irrigation considerations are
true with nitrates, which are quite mobile in water.
displayed in table 3–1. Irrigation scheduling techniques
Excess irrigation water percolating below the root
are described in more detail in Chapter 9, Irrigation
zone can pollute ground water.
Water Management.

Irrigation Guide
Table 3–1 Critical periods for plant moisture stress
Crop Critical period Comments
Alfalfa hay At seedling stage for new seedlings, just Any moisture stress during growth period
after cutting for hay, and at start of reduces yield. Soil moisture is generally
flowering stage for seed production. reduced immediately before and during
cutting, drying, and hay collecting.
Beans, dry Flowering through pod formation. Sensitive to over-irrigation.
Beans, green Blossom through harvest.
Broccoli During head formation and enlargement.
Cabbage During head formation and enlargement.
Cauliflower During entire growing season.
Cane berries Blossom through harvest.
Citrus During entire growing season. Blossom and next season fruit set occurs
during harvest of the previous crop.
Corn, grain From tasseling through silk stage Needs adequate moisture from germination
and until kernels become firm. to dent stage for maximum production.
Depletion of 80% or more of AWC may be
allowed during final ripening period.
Corn, silage From tasseling through silk stage and Needs adequate moisture from germination
until kernels become firm. to dent stage for maximum production.
Corn, sweet From tasseling through silk stage until

kernels become firm.
Cotton First blossom through boll maturing Any moisture stress, even temporary, ceases
stage. blossom formation and boll set for at least 15
days after moisture again becomes available.
Cranberries Blossom through fruit sizing.
Fruit trees During the initiation and early development Stone fruits are especially sensitive
period of flower buds, the flowering and to moisture stress during last 2
fruit setting period (maybe the previous weeks before harvest.
year), the fruit growing and enlarging
period, and the pre-harvest period.
Grain (small) During boot, bloom, milk stage, early head Critical period for malting barley is at soft
development and early ripening stages. dough stage to maintain a quality kernel.

Irrigation Guide
Table 3–1 Critical periods for plant moisture stress—Continued
Grapes All growth periods especially during fruit See vine crops.
filling.
Peanuts Full season.
Lettuce Head enlargement to harvest. Water shortage results in a sour and strong
lettuce. Crop quality at harvest is controlled
by water availability to the plant, MAD
15 – 20% is recommended.
Melons Blossom through harvest.
Milo Secondary rooting and tillering to boot

stage, heading, flowering, and grain
formation through filling.
Onions, dry During bulb formation. Maintain MAD 30 – 35% of AWC. Let soil dry
near harvest.
Onions, green Blossom through harvest. Strong and hot onions can result from mois-
ture stress.
Nut trees During flower initiation period, Pre-harvest period is not key because nuts
fruit set, and midseason growth. form during midseason period.
Pasture During establishment and boot stage to Maintain MAD less than 50%. Moisture stress
head formation. immediately after grazing encourages fast
regrowth.
Peas, dry At start of flowering and when pods are

swelling.
Peas, green Blossom through harvest.
Peppers At flowering stage and when peppers are

in fast enlarging stage.
Potato Flowering and tuber formation to harvest. Sensitive to irrigation scheduling. Restrict
MAD to 30 – 35% of AWC. Low quality tubers
result if allowed to go into moisture stress
during tuber development and growth.
Radish During period of root enlargement. Hot radishes can be the result of moisture
stress.
Sunflower Flowering to seed development.

Irrigation Guide
Table 3–1 Critical periods for plant moisture stress—Continued
Sorghum grain Secondary rooting and tilling to boot stage,

heading, flowering, and grain formation
through filling.
Soybeans Flowering and fruiting stage.
Strawberries Fruit development through harvest.
Sugar beets At time of plant emergence, following Frequent light applications during early
thinning, and about 1 month after growth period. Temporary leaf wilt on hot
emergence. days is common even with adequate soil water
content. Excessive fall irrigation lowers sugar
content, but soil moisture needs to be
adequate for easy beet lifting.
Sugarcane During period of maximum vegetative

growth.
Tobacco Knee high to blossoming.
Tomatoes When flowers are forming, fruit is setting,

and fruits are rapidly enlarging.
Turnips When size of edible root increases Strong tasting turnips can be the result of
rapidly up to harvest. moisture stress.
Vine crops Blossom through harvest.
Watermelon Blossom to harvest.

Irrigation Guide
Table 3–2 Adapted irrigation methods
Crop Management - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Adapted irrigation methods - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

depth - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Surface - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Sprinkler Micro- Subirr.
- - - - - - level - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - graded - - - - - - - - - -
(ft) border furrow border furrow corrug.
Alfalfa 5 x x x x x x
Beans, dry 3 x x x x x
Beans, green 3 x x x
Cane berries 3 x x x x x x
Citrus 3 x x x x
Corn, grain 4 x x x x
Corn, silage 4 x x x x
Corn, sweet 3 x x x x
Cotton 3 x x x x
Grain, small 4 x x x x x x x
Cranberries 2 x x
Grass, seed 3 x x x x x x
Grass, silage 3 x x x x x x
Milo (sorghum) 3 x x x x
Nursery stock 0-3 x x x x x x x
Orchard 5 x x x x x x x
Pasture 3 x x x x x
Peanuts 3 x x x x
Peas 3 x x x x x
Potatoes 3 x x x x
Safflower 5 x x x x x
Sugar beets 5 x x x
Sunflower 5 x x x x x
Tobacco 3 x x
Tomatoes 2 x x x x x
Turf, sod 2 x x x
Turf 2 x x x x
Vegetables 1/ x x x x x x
Vegetables 2/ x x x x x x x
1/ 1-foot depth—Lettuce, onions, spinach.
2/ 2-foot depth—Cabbage, brussel sprouts, broccoli, cauliflower.
3/ 3-foot depth—Turnips, parsnips, carrots, beets, green beans.
4/ 4-foot depth—Squash, cucumber, melons.

Irrigation Guide
(c) Irrigation related management Table 3–3 Recommended Management Allowable

Depletion (MAD) for crop growth stages
(% of AWC) growing in loamy soils 1/,2/
Determining when to irrigate a specific crop requires
the selection of a Management Allowable Depletion
Crop - - - - - - - - -- Crop growth stage - - - - - - - - - -
(MAD) of the available soil water. MAD is defined as Estab- Vege- Flowering Ripening
the percentage of the available soil water that can be lishment tative yield maturity
depleted between irrigations without serious plant formation
moisture stress. MAD is expressed as:
• a percentage of the total Available Water Con-
Alfalfa hay 50 50 50 50
tent (AWC) the soil will hold in the root zone,
Alfalfa seed 50 60 50 80
• a soil-water deficit (SWD) in inches, or
Beans, green 40 40 40 40
• an allowable soil-water tension level.
Beans, dry 40 40 40 40
Citrus 50 50 50 50
Different crops tolerate different soil-water depletion
Corn, grain 50 50 50 50
levels at different stages of growth without going into
Corn, seed 50 50 50 50
moisture stress. Some crops have critical growth
Corn, sweet 50 40 40 40
periods during only one stage of growth, while others
Cotton 50 50 50 50
have critical periods during several stages of growth.
Cranberries 40 50 40 40
Garlic 30 30 30 30
MAD should be evaluated according to crop needs,
Grains, small 50 50 40 3/ 60
and, if needed, adjusted during the growing season.
Grapes 40 40 40 50
Values of MAD, during the growing season are typi-
Grass pasture/hay 40 50 50 50
cally 25 to 40 percent for high value, shallow rooted
Grass seed 50 50 50 50
crops; 50 percent for deep rooted crops; and 60 to 65
Lettuce 40 50 40 20
percent for low value deep rooted crops.
Milo 50 50 50 50
Mint 40 40 40 50
Recommended MAD values by soil texture for deep
Nursery stock 50 50 50 50
rooted crops are:
Onions 40 30 30 30
• Fine texture (clayey) soils 40%
Orchard, fruit 50 50 50 50
• Medium texture (loamy) soils 50%
Peas 50 50 50 50
• Coarse texture (sandy) soils 60%
Peanuts 40 50 50 50
Potatoes 35 35 35 50 4/
Table 3–2 displays adapted irrigation methods for
Safflower 50 50 50 50
various crops, and table 3–3 lists recommended MAD
Sorghum, grain 50 50 50 50
levels by crop development stages for a few crops.
Spinach 25 25 25 25
Caution: Medium to fine textured soils can reduce
Sugar beets 50 50 50 50
MAD values given in this table.
Sunflower 50 50 50 50
Tobacco 40 40 40 50
Vegetables
1 to 2 ft root depth 35 30 30 35
3 to 4 ft root depth 35 40 40 40
For medium to fine textured soils:

1/ (Most restrictive MAD) Some crops are typically not grown on
these soils.
2/ Check soil moisture for crop stress point approximately one-
third of the depth of the crop root zone.
3/ From boot stage through flowering.
4/ At vine kill.

Irrigation Guide
(d) Rooting depth and moisture Table 3–4 Depths to which the roots of mature crops
will extract available soil water from a deep,
extraction patterns uniform, well drained soil under average
unrestricted conditions (depths shown are
The soil is a storehouse for plant nutrients, an environ- for 80% of the roots)
ment for biological activity, an anchorage for plants,
and a reservoir for water to sustain plant growth. The Crop Depth Crop Depth
amount of water a soil can hold available for plant use (ft) (ft)
is determined by its physical properties. It also deter-
mines the frequency of irrigation and the capacity of
the irrigation system needed to ensure continuous Alfalfa 5 Peas 2-3
crop growth and development. Asparagus 5 Peppers 1-2
Bananas 5 Potatoes, Irish 2-3
The type of root system a plant has is fixed by genetic Beans, dry 2-3 Potatoes, sweet 2-3
factors. Some plants have tap roots that penetrate Beans, green 2-3 Pumpkins 3-4
deeply into the soil, while others develop many shal- Beets, table 2-3 Radishes 1
low lateral roots. The depth of the soil reservoir that Broccoli 2 Safflower 4
holds water available to a plant is determined by that Berries, blue 4-5 Sorghum 4
plant’s rooting characteristics and soil characteristics Berries, cane 4-5 Spinach 1-2
including compaction layers and water management. Brussel sprouts 2 Squash 3-4
The distribution of the plant roots determines its Cabbage 2 Strawberries 1-2
moisture extraction pattern. Figure 3–1 shows typical Cantaloupes 3 Sudan grass 3-4
root distribution for several field and vegetable crops. Carrots 2 Sugar beets 4-5
Typical rooting depths for various crops grown on a Cauliflower 2 Sugarcane 4-5
deep, well drained soil with good water and soil man- Celery 1-2 Sunflower 4-5
agement are listed in table 3–4. Chard 1-2 Tobacco 3-4
Clover, Ladino 2-3 Tomato 3
For annual crops, rooting depths vary by stage of Cranberries 1 Turnips 2-3
growth and should be considered in determining the Corn, sweet 2-3 Watermelon 3-4
amount of water to be replaced each irrigation. All Corn, grain 3-4 Wheat 4
plants have very shallow roots early in their develop- Corn seed 3-4
ment period; therefore, only light and frequent irriga- Corn, silage 3-4
tions are needed. Because roots will not grow into a Cotton 4-5 Trees
dry soil, soil moisture outside the actual root develop- Cucumber 1-2 Fruit 4-5
ment area is needed for the plant to develop a full root Eggplant 2 Citrus 3-4
system in the soil profile. Excess moisture in this area Garlic 1-2 Nut 4-5
will also limit root development. Grains & flax 3-4
Grapes 5 Shrubs & misc. trees
For most plants, the concentration of moisture absorb- Grass pasture/hay 2-4 for windbreaks
ing roots is greatest in the upper part of the root zone Grass seed 3-4 < 10 ft tall 2 – 3+
(usually in the top quarter). Extraction is most rapid in Lettuce 1-2 10 – 25 ft tall 3 – 4+
the zone of greatest root concentration and where the Melons 2-3 > 25 ft tall 5+
most favorable conditions of aeration, biological Milo 2-4
activity, temperature, and nutrient availability occur. Mustard 2 Other
Water also evaporates from the upper few inches of Onions 1-2 Turf (sod & lawn) 1 - 2
the soil; therefore, water is diminished most rapidly Parsnips 2-3 Nursery stock 1-3
from the upper part of the soil. This creates a high soil- Peanuts 2-3 Nursery stock pots
water potential gradient.

Irrigation Guide
Figure 3–1 Root distribution systems—deep homogenous soils with good water management and no soil restrictions
Alfalfa
Onion irrigated
Potato
Spinach
1' 1' 1' 1'
2' 2' 2' 2'
3' 3' 3' 3'
4' 4' 4' 4'

1' 2' 3' 4' 5' 1' 2' 3' 1' 2' 3'
5'
6'
7'
Sugar beet Sugar beet Mature corn
sandy soil with irrigated 8'
layers of clay
2nd and 4th ft. 9'
1' 2' 3'
1'
Red clover
1' 2' mature
2' 3'
3' 4'
4' 5' 1'
5' 6' 2'

1' 2' 3' 1' 2' 3'
3'
4'
Lima bean 5'

1' 6'
1' 2' 3'
2'
Strawberry
3'
1' 4'
2' 5' 1'
3' 6' 2'
4' 7' 3'
1' 2' 3'
5' 8'
1' 2' 3' 4' 5' 6' 7' 1' 2' 3' 4' 5' 6' 7' 8' 9'
Wheat
Tomato Cucumber
1'
1' 1' 2'
2' 2' 3'
3' 3' 4'
4' 4' 5'
1' 2' 3' 4' 5' 6' 7' 1' 2' 3' 4' 5' 6' 1' 2'

Irrigation Guide
In uniform soils that are at field capacity, plants use Numerous soil factors may limit the plant’s genetic
water rapidly from the upper part of the root zone and capabilities for root development. The most important
more slowly from the lower parts. Figure 3–2 shows factors are:
the typical water extraction pattern in a uniform soil. • soil density and pore size or configuration,
About 70 percent of available soil water comes from • depth to restrictive layers and tillage pans,
the upper half of a uniform soil profile. Any layer or • soil-water status,
area within the root zone that has a very low AWC or • soil condition,
increased bulk density affects root development and • soil aeration,
may be the controlling factor for frequency of irriga- • organic matter,
tions. • nutrient availability,
• textural or structural stratification,
Figure 3–3 illustrates the effect on root development • water table,
of some limitations in a soil profile. Variations and • salt concentrations, and
inclusions are in most soil map units, thus uniformity • soil-borne organisms that damage or destroy
should not be assumed. Field investigation is required plant roots.
to confirm or determine onsite soil characteristics
including surface texture, depth, slope, and potential Root penetration can be extremely limited into dry
and actual plant root zone depths. soil, a water table, bedrock, high salt concentration
zones, equipment and tillage compaction layers, dense
Soil texture, structure, and condition help determine fine texture soils, and hardpans. When root develop-
the available supply of water in the soil for plant use ment is restricted, it reduces plant available soil-water
and root development. Unlike texture, structure and storage and greatly alters irrigation practices neces-
condition of the surface soil can be changed with sary for the desired crop production and water con-
management. servation.
,,,

Root penetration is seriously affected by high soil
,,,
Figure 3–2 Typical water extraction pattern in uniform densities that can result from tillage and farm equip-
soil profile ment. Severe compacted layers can result from heavy
farm equipment, tillage during higher soil moisture
level periods, and from the total number of operations
,,,
,,,

during the crop growing season. In many medium to
fine textured soils, a compacted layer at a uniform
tillage depth causes roots to be confined to the upper 6
D/4 40% extraction here to 10 inches. Roots seek the path of least resistance,
extraction depth-D
thus do not penetrate a compacted dense layer except

Root zone water
D/4 30% here through cracks. Every tillage operation causes some
D/4 20% here compaction. Even very thin tillage pans restrict root
development and can confine roots to a shallow depth,
D/4 10% thereby limiting the depth for water extraction. This is
probably most common with row crops where many
field operations occur and with hayland when soils are
at high moisture levels during harvest.
Note: Approximately 70 percent of water used by plants is
removed from the upper half of the plant root zone.
Optimum crop yields result when soil-water tensions in
this area are kept below 5 atmospheres. Very thin tillage
pans can restrict root development in an otherwise
homogenous soil. Never assume a plant root zone.
Observe root development of present or former crops.

Irrigation Guide
Compaction layers can be fractured by subsoiling Figure 3–3 Effect of root development on soils with
when the soil is dry. However, unless the cause of depth limitations
compaction (typically tillage equipment itself), the
number of operations, and the method and timing of

,,

the equipment’s use are changed, compaction layers
will again develop. Only those field operations essen-
tial to successfully growing a crop should be used.
Extra field operations require extra energy (tractor
fuel), labor, and cost because of the additional wear
and tear on equipment. The lightest equipment with

,, ,,
the fewest operations necessary to do the job should
be used.
For site specific planning and design, never assume a High water table
plant root zone depth. Use a shovel or auger to ob- Dry soil at or below
wilting percentage
serve actual root development pattern and depth with

cultural practices and management used. The previous
crops or even weeds will generally show root develop-
ment pattern restrictions. See NEH Part 623, (Section
15), Chapter 1, Soil-Plant-Water Relationship, and
Chapter 2, Irrigation Water Requirements, for addi-
tional information.
Severe compacted layer

(may be < .25 inch thick) Rock

Irrigation Guide
Frequency can be estimated by dividing the MAD by

652.0302 Crop and irriga- the estimated or measured evapotranspiration of the
crop as follows:
tion system water require-
ments Irrigation frequency (days) =
(
MAD inches )
Crop ET rate (in/day)
(a) Crop evapotranspiration A much higher quality product is produced if the MAD
level is kept less than 35 percent in some crops, such
Plants need water for growth and cooling. Small as potatoes, pecans, vegetables, and melons. This is
apertures (stomata) on the upper and lower surfaces also true for mint.
of the leaves allow for the intake of carbon dioxide
required for photosynthesis and plant growth. Water Several methods are available for irrigation scheduling
vapor is lost to the atmosphere from the plant leaves (determining when to irrigate and how much to apply).
by a process called transpiration. Direct water evapo- They are described in Chapter 9, Irrigation Water
ration also occurs from the plant leaves and from the Management.
soil surface. The total water used by the specific crop,
which includes direct evaporation from plant leaves
and the soil surface and transpiration, is called crop (c) Net irrigation requirement
evapotranspiration (ETc). Processes to determine
local crop evapotranspiration are described in NEH, The net amount of water to be replaced at each irriga-
Part 623, Chapter 2, Irrigation Water Requirements, tion is the amount the soil can hold between field
and in Chapter 4, Water Requirements, of this guide. capacity and the moisture level selected when irriga-
tion is needed (MAD). Maintaining the same soil
moisture level throughout the growing season is not
(b) Irrigation frequency practical and probably not desirable. Ideally, an irriga-
tion is started just before the selected MAD level is
How much and how often irrigation water must be reached or when the soil will hold the irrigation appli-
applied depends on the soil AWC in the actual plant cation plus expected rainfall. The net amount of water
root zone, the crop grown and stage of growth, the required depends on soil AWC in the plant root zone
rate of evapotranspiration of the crop, the planned soil and the ability of a particular crop to tolerate moisture
Management Allowable Depletion (MAD) level, and stress. If the MAD level selected is 40 percent of AWC
effective rainfall. More simply put; it depends on the in the root zone (Soil-water Deficit = 40%), it is neces-
crop, soil, and climate. sary to add that amount of water to bring the root zone
up to field capacity. For example if the total soil AWC
Never assume a plant root zone for management in the root zone is 8 inches and MAD = 40%:
purposes. Check actual root development pattern and Net irrigation = 40% × 8 in
depth. See section 652.0301(d).
= 3.2 in
Once a MAD is selected, determining when to irrigate In semihumid and humid areas, good water managers
simply requires estimation or measurement of when do not bring the soil to field capacity with each irriga-
the soil moisture reaches that level. Coarse textured tion, but leave room for storage of expected rainfall.
and shallow soils must be irrigated more frequently When rainfall does not occur, the irrigation frequency
than fine textured deep soils because fine textured must be shortened to keep the soil moisture within the
deep soils store more available water. The moisture MAD limit. It is a management decision to let MAD
use rate varies with the crop and soil. It increases as exceed the ability of an irrigation system to apply
the crop area canopy increases, as humidity decreases water. For example, if a center pivot sprinkler system
and as the days become longer and warmer. applies a net of 1 inch per cycle, let MAD be equal to 1
inch plus expected rainfall. MAD for a surface irriga-
tion system will be typically greater as heavier applica-
tions are required for best uniformity across the field.

Irrigation Guide
(d) Gross irrigation requirement For a given irrigation method and system, irrigation
efficiency varies with the skill used in planning, de-
The gross amount of water to be applied at each signing, installing, and operating the system. Local
irrigation is the amount that must be applied to assure climatic and physical site conditions (soils, topogra-
enough water enters the soil and is stored within the phy) must be assessed. To assure that the net amount
plant root zone to meet crop needs. No irrigation of soil water is replaced and retained in the root zone
system that fully meets the season crop evapotranspi- during each irrigation, a larger amount of water must
ration needs is 100 percent efficient. Not all water be applied to offset the expected losses. The gross
applied during the irrigation enters and is held in the amount to be applied is determined by the equation
plant root zone. Also, all irrigation systems have a shown at the bottom of this page.
distribution uniformity less than 100 percent. Applying
too much water too soon (poor irrigation water man- For more information on irrigation and system require-
agement) causes the greatest overuse of water. Irriga- ments, see Chapter 4, Water Requirements; NEH Part
tion systems and management techniques are available 623, Chapter 2, Irrigation Water Requirements; and the
that reduce the avoidable losses. They are described in West National Technical Center publication, Farm
chapters 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 of this guide. Irrigation Rating Index (FIRI), A method for planning,
evaluating and improving irrigation management.
Unavoidable losses are caused by:
• Unequal distribution of water being applied
over the field.
• Deep percolation below the plant root zone in
parts of the field.
• Translocation or surface runoff in parts of the
field.
• Evaporation from the soil surface; flowing and
ponded water.
• Evaporation of water intercepted by the plant
canopy under sprinkler systems.
• Evaporation and wind drift from sprinklers or
spray heads.
• Nonuniform soils.
Gross irrigation amount (in) =

Net amount to be replaced in ( )
Overall irrigation efficiency of system imcluding management (%)
Management Allowable Depletion (MAD)
=
Overall irrigation efficiency

Irrigation Guide
Risk is less when growing crops on deep, high AWC,

652.0303 Reduced irriga- loamy soils and in climatic areas that have adequate
rainfall for the crop. The risk is greater when growing
tion and restricted water crops on low AWC soils even in areas that have ad-
supply equate rainfall during the growing season. When
growing high value crops, an irrigation system and
adequate water supply are highly desirable for insur-
Several opportunities are available to the irrigator in ance against potential crop loss. A detailed economic
semiarid, subhumid, and humid areas for reduced analysis should be completed to provide estimates of
irrigation water application: optimum net benefits. The analysis should include cost
• Maximizing effective rainfall. of water, pumping costs, reduced yields caused by
• Deficit or partial season irrigation. reduced crop water use, and reduced tillage operation
• Selection of crops with low water requirements costs. Subsequent management decisions should be
during normal high water use periods; i.e., based on this analysis. See chapter 11 for additional
small grains, (or accept the risk of drought discussion.
periods).
• Selection of drought resistant crops and variet- In some areas irrigation water delivery systems, in-
ies that provide yields based on water availabil- cluding management, limit on-farm water management
ity, i.e., alfalfa hay, grass pasture (accept the improvements. Rotational delivery systems have the
reduced yields caused by drought periods). lowest on-farm water management potential, while on
• Irrigate just before critical growth period(s) of demand delivery systems have the highest.
the crop to minimize critical plant moisture
stress during those periods. Improving both management and the irrigation system
• Use state-of-art irrigation scheduling tech- can reduce the amount of water applied and more
niques that use local area climate and onsite effectively use existing water supplies. Improving
rainfall data, and field-by-field soil moisture water management, including irrigation scheduling
status monitoring. and adequate water measurement, is always the first
• Use tillage practices that allow maximum recommended increment of change. Improving exist-
surface storage and infiltration of rainfall ing irrigation systems is the next. Unless the existing
events, reducing runoff and soil surface irrigation system is unsuitable for the site, crop grown,
evaporation. or water supply, converting to another irrigation
• Follow an intensive crop residue management method seldom produces benefits equal to improve-
and mulch program and minimize tillage to ments in water management. See Chapter 5, Selecting
reduce soil surface evaporation. an Irrigation Method, for additional information on
• Reduce irrigated acreage to that which can be selecting and applying the best method or system for
adequately irrigated with the available water the site.
supply.

Irrigation Guide
See Chapter 5, Selecting an Irrigation Method, Chapter

652.0304 Adapted irriga- 6, Irrigation System Design, and chapters 3, 4, 5, 7, and
11 of the National Engineering Handbook, Part 623
tion systems (section 15) for more information on adapted irriga-
tions systems.
All crops can be efficiently irrigated by more than one
irrigation method and system. Crops grown and their
cultural requirements aid in determining the irrigation Table 3–5 Irrigation system vs. crops grown
method and system used. Crops can be placed in
broad categories as follows: Irrigation system - - - Crop category - - -
1 2 3 4
Category 1. Row or bedded crops:
sugar beets, sugarcane, potatoes,
pineapple, cotton, soybeans, corn, Surface
sorghum, milo, vegetables, vegetable Basins, borders x x x
and flower seed, melons, tomatoes, and Furrows, corrugations x x x
strawberries.
Contour levee - rice x x
Category 2. Close-growing crops (sown, drilled,
or sodded): Sprinkler
small grain, alfalfa, pasture, and turf. Side (wheel) roll lateral x x
Hand move lateral x x x
Category 3. Water flooded crops: Fixed (solid) set x x
rice and taro.
Center pivot, linear move x x
Category 4. Permanent crops: Big guns - traveling, stationary x x
orchards of fruit and nuts, citrus
groves, grapes, cane berries, blueber- Micro
ries, cranberries, bananas and papaya Point source x
plantations, hops, and trees and shrubs Line source x x
for windbreaks, wildlife, landscape,
and ornamentals. Basin bubbler x
Mini sprinklers & spray heads x
A comparison of irrigation system versus crops that
can be reasonably grown with that system is displayed Subirrigation x x x x
in table 3–5.

Irrigation Guide
(b) Low temperatures

652.0305 Temperature—
When temperatures drop below the critical tempera-
effects and management ture, damage can occur to both annual and perennial
plants. If ambient air temperature and humidity are
severely low, permanent damage to fruit, citrus, and
Crop yield and quality can be negatively affected by nut trees can occur. When it drops below freezing, the
temperature extremes, both cold and hot. Application developing buds and flowers on fruit and berry plants
of water in a timely manner can provide some degree can be damaged. Temporary freeze back of new
of protection. Water can also be applied to cool plants growth in grasses and legumes can occur, and healthy
to maintain product quality, to delay bud development, annual plants can be killed or damaged beyond recov-
and to provide frost protection of buds, flowers, and ery.
young fruit.
Water can be applied to provide frost protection to
about 25 °F. Sprinkler/spray systems that apply water
(a) High temperatures overhead onto the plant canopy are typically used.
This allows a protective layer of ice to build up on the
Extremely high temperatures can leaves, blossoms, and buds. Frost protection involves
• put plants into a temporary plant moisture heat release caused by changing water to ice. The
stress, process must be understood to determine the applica-
• hasten untimely fruit development and ripen- tion rate and timing of water for adequate frost protec-
ing, tion. Some limited success has been attained with
• cause moisture stress in ripening fruit, under-tree spray systems and surface flooding sys-
• sunburn berries and other fruit, tems.
• overheat bare soils during seed germination
(i.e., lettuce), and See NEH, Part 623 (Section 15), Chapter 2, Irrigation
• overheat standing water in basin irrigation. Water Requirements, for further information.
Water used for temperature modification as a crop and
soil coolant is typically applied with a sprinkler/spray
system.

Irrigation Guide
corrected to a standard temperature of 77 °F (25 °C).

652.0306 Salinity and sod- 1 mmho/cm = 1 dS/m.
icity effects Salt molecules in solution produce electrically-charged
particles called ions. Ions can conduct an electrical
current. The greater the concentration of ions in a
(a) General solution, the greater the electrical conductivity of the
solution.
In arid areas nearly all irrigation water and soils con-
tain salts, some of which are toxic to plants and ani-
To measure sodicity in soil, the Sodium Adsorption
mals. When water is removed from the soil profile by
Ratio (SAR) is used. It is a measure of the ratio of
plant transpiration and soil surface evaporation, salts
sodium to calcium plus magnesium present.
remain in the soil profile and on the soil surface. If the
soil-water solute is high in sodium, the soil becomes Na
SAR =
sodic. All other ionic concentrations in solution (i.e., 1
calcium, magnesium, potassium) cause salinity. These  Ca + Mg  2
 
conditions are particularly common where most of the  2 
crop water requirement comes from irrigation. The
problem eventually becomes serious if
• irrigation or natural precipitation is not
sufficient to leach the accumulating salts, (c) Effects of salinity on yields
• water and soil management are less than
adequate, Crop yields and quality are reduced when salinity
• soil and water amendments are inadequate, or levels exceed a certain threshold. See NEH, Part 623,
• the soil is poorly drained. Irrigation, Chapter 1, Soil-Plant-Water Relationships
(table 1–8), and Chapter 2, Irrigation Water Require-
Salinity and sodicity problems can also develop as a ments. The information presented provides two essen-
result of saline seeps, use of poor quality irrigation tial parameters for expressing salt tolerance:
water including flooding by brackish water near the • The salinity threshold level above which re-
ocean, or by using drainage water from upslope irriga- duced yield will occur
tion. As salt concentrations increase above a threshold • The percent yield reduction per unit salinity
level, the growth rate, mature size of crops, and prod- increase beyond the threshold level
uct quality progressively decrease.
Principal objectives of water management are to (d) Effect of salinity and sodicity
maintain soil tilth, soil-water content, and salinity and on AWC
sodicity levels suitable for optimum plant growth. A
natural occurring internal drainage or an installed Plants extract water from the soil by exerting an
drainage system within the usable soil profile is essen- adsorptive force or tension greater than the attraction
tial. See Chapter 13, Quality of Water Supply, for of the soil matrix for water. As the soil dries, remain-
additional information. ing water in the soil profile is held more tightly by soil
particles. Salts also attract water. The combination of
drying soils and elevated salt concentrations results in
(b) Measuring salinity and less water at a given tension being available for plant
sodicity concentration uptake. The reduction in water available to the crop as
salinity increases is evident in figure 2–7, chapter 2,
A method has been developed to measure and quantify which shows the volumetric water content versus soil-
salinity and sodicity levels in soils. Thus, the salinity of water potential for a clay loam soil at various degrees
a soil can be determined by measuring the electrical of soil salinity, ECe. Table 2–4 provides a process to
conductivity, ECe, of the soil-water extract expressed estimate AWC based on texture and ECe of 0 to 15
in millimhos per centimeter or decisiemens per meter, mmho/cm.

Irrigation Guide
If the salt content of the soil cannot be maintained or Where possible, leaching events should be planned
reduced to a point compatible with the optimum yield when soil nitrate levels are low. The leaching require-
of a crop, a more salt-tolerant crop should be grown or ment for salinity control can be minimized with good
the operator must accept reduced yields. Most often, irrigation water management and with adequately
salinity or sodicity is not maintained below plant designed, installed, and operated irrigation water
thresholds because less than adequate soil and water delivery and application systems.
management practices are followed.
Drainage outflow with high salt concentrations can be
disposed of through use of evaporation ponds (the
(e) Management practices for salts remain), or often water can be directly reused as
salinity and sodicity control an irrigation water supply for applications where
saline water is acceptable, such as irrigation of salt-
The major objective of salinity management is to keep tolerant plants or for industrial uses. In some areas
soil salinity and sodicity below thresholds for seed drainage outflow with high salt concentration may not
germination, seedling establishment, crop growth, and be allowed to be released to public waters without a
quality while minimizing the salt loading effects of point-discharge permit, or it must be desalted. In most
drainage outflow. Procedures that require relatively high salt content water reuse operations, the salt
minor changes in management are: moves and precipitates out at another spot. It does not
• Improved irrigation water management go away.
• Improved crop residue management
• Adding soil and water amendments When irrigating with high salt content water, internal
• Selection of more salt-tolerant crops soil drainage and leaching are required to maintain an
• Leaching with additional irrigation water acceptable salt balance for the plants being grown.
• Preplant irrigations The salt concentration in drainage outflow can be
• Changing of seed placement on the furrow bed quite high, and concern for safe disposal still exists.
Some saline and sodic tolerant crops require high
Maintaining a higher soil-water content decreases soil- quality water for germination and establishment. Once
water tension; thereby, increasing water available to the crop is established, poorer quality water can be
plants. Alternatives that require significant adjust- used. Generally, water containing different saline-
ments are: sodic concentrations should not be mixed.
• Changing the water supply
• Changing irrigation methods
• Land leveling for improvements to surface (f) Toxic elements
drainage and irrigation water distribution
• Modifying the soil profile Toxicity problems can be the same or different from
• Providing for internal drainage those of salinity and sodicity because they can occur
between the plant and the soil and may not be caused
ASCE Report No. 71, Agricultural Salinity Assessment by osmotic potential or water stress. Toxicity normally
and Management (1990) gives specific recommenda- results when certain ions are present in the soil or
tions regarding salinity and sodicity assessment and absorbed with soil-water, move with the plant transpi-
management. ration stream, and accumulate in the leaves at concen-
trations that cause plant damage. It also can result
Irrigated agriculture cannot be sustained without from water sprayed directly on leaf surfaces. The
adequate leaching and internal drainage to control extent of the damage depends on the specific ion
buildup of calcium, sodium, and other toxic ions in the concentration, crop sensitivity, crop growth stage, and
soil profile. Where subsurface drainage systems are crop water use rate and time.
installed to improve downward water movement and
removal of the required leaching volume, soluble salts The usual toxic ions in irrigation water include chlo-
plus other agricultural chemicals and fertilizers move ride, sodium, and boron. Excessive chlorine in domes-
with the drainage water. They have the potential to tic water systems and salts from water softeners in
move to streams, wetlands, estuaries, and lakes. home systems can also be a problem. Not all crops are

Irrigation Guide
sensitive to these ions, but some crops are very sensi-

tive. Chemical analysis of plant tissue, soil-water 652.0307 Crop data bases
extract, and irrigation water is most commonly used to
identify toxicity problems.
The Field Office Computer System (FOCS) includes a
The affect of toxic elements (i.e., selenium) on water- plant data base that is site specific and can be used
fowl from drainage outflow has also been observed in directly by applications for planning and designing
several areas. Toxic elements that occur naturally in irrigation systems.
the soil (i.e., selenium and boron) in high concentra-
tions or were used as pesticide control in past years
(i.e., arsenic and mercury) are of great concern. Irriga-
tion water that deep percolates below the plant root
zone can potentially carry these dissolved toxic ele-
ments downslope into the ground water and can
eventually flow into wetlands, estuaries, streams, and
lakes.
See NEH Part 623, Chapter 2, Irrigation Water Require-

ments, for further information on management of soil
salinity and sodicity and on assessment of boron and
other toxic elements.

Irrigation Guide
652.0308 State supplement

Chapter 4 Water Requirements Part 652
Chapter 4 Water Requirements Irrigation Guide
Contents: 652.0400 General 4–1
652.0401 Methods for determining crop evapotranspiration 4–1

(a) Direct measurement of crop evapotranspiration ..................................... 4–1
(b) Estimated crop evapotranspiration—ETc ................................................. 4–1
652.0402 Crop evapotranspiration 4–3

(a) Daily crop ET rate for system design ......................................................... 4–3
652.0403 Net irrigation water requirement 4–3
652.0404 Management allowable soil-water depletion 4–7
652.0405 Auxiliary water requirements (other needs) 4–7
652.0406 Water table contribution 4–8
652.0407 Water requirements for soil-water budget/balance analysis 4–8

(a) Example soil-water budget .......................................................................... 4–9
Tables Table 4–1 Example tabular display—crop evapotranspiration using 4–5

FAO Blaney-Criddle equation
Table 4–2 Example soil-water budget 4–10
Figures Figure 4–1 Example monthly crop evapotranspiration, arid climate 4–6
in normal year
Figure 4–2 Example monthly crop evapotranspiration, subhumid 4–6

climate in normal year

4–i
Chapter 4
Chapter 4 RequirementsPart
Water Requirements
Water 652
Irrigation Guide
652.0400 General 652.0401 Methods for

determining crop evapo-
Determination of irrigation water requirements re- transpiration
quires a measurement or estimate of the rate of crop
water use. Daily and weekly crop water use estimates
are needed to schedule irrigation applications and (a) Direct measurement of crop
determine minimum system capacities. Seasonal or evapotranspiration
annual water use is required to size irrigation reser-
voirs and diversion facilities and to establish water Direct measurement methods for ETc include:
rights. Therefore, a procedure to determine both short- • aerodynamic method
and long-term rates of water use is necessary. Chapter • detailed soil moisture monitoring
2, Irrigation Water Requirements, NEH, Part 623, • lysimetry
describes the processes needed to determine crop • plant porometers
evapotranspiration and irrigation water requirements • regional inflow-outflow measurements
for a crop, field, farm, and project.
All these methods require localized and detailed mea-
Crop evapotranspiration (ETc), sometimes called crop surements of plant water use. Detailed soil moisture
consumptive use, is the amount of water that plants monitoring in controlled and self-contained devices
use in transpiration and building cell tissue plus water (lysimeters) is probably the most commonly used.
evaporated from an adjacent soil surface. Crop evapo- Little long-term historical data outside of a few ARS
transpiration is influenced by several major factors: and university research stations are available. Use of
plant temperature, ambient air temperature, solar lysimetry is discussed in more detail in Chapter 2,
radiation (sunshine duration/intensity), wind speed/ Irrigation Water Requirements, NEH, Part 623. The use
movement, relative humidity/vapor pressure, and soil- of soil moisture monitoring devices to monitor crop
water availability. Daily, weekly, monthly, and sea- ET is described in NEH, Part 623, Chapter 1, Plant-
sonal local crop water use requirements must be Soil-Water Relationships.
known. These data are essential for planning, design-
ing, and operating irrigation systems and for making
irrigation management decisions, such as determining (b) Estimated crop evapo-
when and how much to irrigate. transpiration—ETc
Seasonal water requirements, in addition to crop water More than 20 methods have been developed to esti-
needs, may also include water used for preplant irriga- mate the rate of crop ET based on local climate fac-
tion, agricultural waste application, leaching for salt tors. The simplest methods are equations that gener-
control, temperature control (for frost protection, bud ally use only mean air temperature. The more complex
delay, and cooling for product quality), chemigation, methods are described as energy equations. They
facilitation of crop harvest, seed germination, and dust require real time measurements of solar radiation,
control. ambient air temperature, wind speed/movement, and
relative humidity/vapor pressure. These equations
have been adjusted for reference crop ET with lysim-
eter data. Selection of the method used for determin-
ing local crop ET depends on:
• Location, type, reliability, timeliness, and
duration of climatic data;
• Natural pattern of evapotranspiration during
the year; and
• Intended use intensity of crop evapotranspira-
tion estimates.

Irrigation Guide
Although any crop can be used as the reference crop, The intended use, reliability, and availability of local
clipped grass is the reference crop of choice. Some climatic data may be the deciding factor as to which
earlier reference crop research, mainly in the West, equation or method is used. For irrigation scheduling
used 2-year-old alfalfa (ETr). With grass reference crop on a daily basis, an energy method, such as the Pen-
(ETo) known, ET estimates for any crop at any stage man-Monteith equation, is probably the most accurate
of growth can be calculated by multiplying ETo by the method available today, but complete and reliable
appropriate crop growth stage coefficient (kc), usually local real time climatic data must be available. For
displayed as a curve or table. The resulting value is irrigation scheduling information on a 10+ day average
called crop evapotranspiration (ETc). The following basis, use of a radiation method, such as FAO Radia-
methods and equations used to estimate reference tion, or use of a local evaporation pan, may be quite
crop evapotranspiration, ETo, are described in detail in satisfactory.
Part 623, Chapter 2, Irrigation Water Requirements
(1990). The reference crop used is clipped grass. Crop For estimation of monthly and seasonal crop water
coefficients are based on local or regional growth needs, a temperature based method generally proves
characteristics. The following methods are recom- to be quite satisfactory. The FAO Modified Blaney-
mended by the Natural Resources Conservation Ser- Criddle equation uses long-term mean temperature
vice (NRCS). data with input of estimates of relative humidity, wind
movement, and sunlight duration. This method also
(1) Temperature method includes an adjustment for elevation. The FAO Radia-
• FAO Modified Blaney-Criddle (FAO Paper 24) tion method uses locally measured solar radiation and
• Modified Blaney-Criddle (SCS Technical Re- air temperature.
lease No. 21). This method is being maintained
for historical and in some cases legal signifi-
cance. See appendix A, NEH, Part 623, Chapter
2, Irrigation Water Requirements.
(2) Energy method

• Penman-Monteith method
(3) Radiation method

• FAO Radiation method (FAO Paper 24)
(4) Evaporation pan method

The FAO Modified Blaney-Criddle, Penman-Monteith,
and FAO Radiation equations represent the most
accurate equations for these specific methods. They
are most accurately transferable over a wide range of
climate conditions. These methods and equations are
also widely accepted in the irrigation profession today
(ASCE 1990).

Irrigation Guide
652.0402 Crop evapo- 652.0403 Net irrigation

transpiration water requirement
Monthly and seasonal crop ET data for (state) was The net irrigation water requirement is defined as the
developed using the ______________ equation(s). Crop water required by irrigation to satisfy crop evapotrans-
planting and harvest dates were determined by using piration and auxiliary water needs that are not pro-
local long-term mean temperature data and verified vided by water stored in the soil profile or precipita-
with university extension and local growers. The tion. The net irrigation water requirement is defined as
process provides: (all values are depths, in inches):
• Estimated crop ET and net irrigation require- Fn = ETc + A w − Pe − GW − ∆SW
ments by month and by season
• Amount of effective rainfall where:
• Estimated planting and harvest dates for all Fn = net irrigation requirement for period consid-
local crops ered
ETc = crop evapotranspiration for period consid-
Note: The following crop ET and related tables and ered
maps can be included to replace or simplify crop ET Aw = auxiliary water—leaching, temperature
calculations. These maps and tables would be locally modification, crop quality
developed, as needed. Pe = effective precipitation during period consid-
• Crop evapotranspiration tables, curves, and
ered
maps
GW = ground water contribution
• Climatic zone maps with peak month ET
∆SW = change in soil-water content for period
• Precipitation maps
considered
• Wind speed maps
• Relative humidity tables or maps
Effective precipitation is defined as that portion of
• Net solar radiation tables or maps
precipitation falling during the crop growing period
that infiltrates the soil surface and is available for
plant consumptive use. It does not include precipita-
(a) Daily crop ET rate for system tion that is lost below the crop root zone (deep perco-
design lation), surface runoff, or soil surface evaporation.
Estimates of daily or weekly crop ET rates are neces- Along with meeting the seasonal irrigation water
sary to adequately size distribution systems. They are requirement, irrigation systems must be able to supply
used to determine the minimum capacity requirements enough water during shorter periods. The water sup-
of canals, pipelines, water control structures, and ply rate generally is expressed in acre inches per hour
irrigation application systems. Daily ET rates also or acre inches per day and can be easily converted to
influence the administration of wells, streams, and cubic feet per second or gallons per minute (1 ft3/s = 1
reservoirs from which irrigation water is diverted or ac-in/hr = 450 gpm). The simplified equation can be
pumped. To provide the required flows, daily (or used:
several day averages) crop ET rate for the peak month
QT = DA
must be used.
where:
Estimated daily crop ET is not the average daily use
Q = flow rate, acre-inch per hour
for longer time periods. Daily crop ET is best esti-
T = time, hours
mated using real time day-specific information and the
D = depth, inches (water applied or crop ET)
appropriate ET equation.
A = area, acres

Irrigation Guide
The irrigation system must be able to supply net water Table 4–1 displays an example calculation and tabular
requirements plus expected losses of deep percola- method of presenting monthly crop ET, effective
tion, runoff, wind drift, and evaporation. It must ac- precipitation (Re), and net irrigation requirement
count for the efficiency of the irrigation decisionmaker (NIR) for pasture grass using FAO Blaney-Criddle
to schedule the right amount of water at the right time equation. When determining crop ET from TR-21
and the ability of an irrigation system to uniformly (Modified Blaney-Criddle), crop ET was calculated
apply that water across a field. Net and gross water and displayed using normal and dry years. Normal
application and system capacity are related by an year (50% chance occurrence) precipitation would be
estimated or measured application efficiency: equaled or exceeded in 1 out of 2 years. Dry year (80%
Fn Cn chance of occurrence) precipitation would be equaled
Fg = Cg = or exceeded 8 out of 20 years.
Ea Ea
This process carried through the many computer
where: software programs that were developed and became
Fg = gross application, inches available in many states. However, computer software
Fn = net application, inches programs that have been developed when using FAO
Ea = application efficiency, expressed as decimal Blaney-Criddle equation, do not contain the normal
Cg = gross system capacity, gallons per minute and dry years calculation process. The normal and
Cn = net system capacity, gallons per minute dry year concept for determining crop ET can still be
used; however, basic input data of precipitation must
The designer must also account for system down time, be adjusted. Long-term mean data are typically dis-
i.e., moving of sprinklers, break downs, and water played in NOAA climate data publications, and a
used on another field or by another irrigator, such as frequency analysis must be obtained or provided to
in a rotation delivery schedule. For sprinkler systems, determine dry year precipitation. This concept can
it is common to use 22 hours per day or 6 days per also apply to determination of crop ET during wet
week for actual water application time. years.
The most conservative method of designing irrigation Figure 4–1 displays monthly crop ET and monthly
system capacity is to provide enough capacity to meet effective precipitation for an arid climate condition
the maximum expected or peak evapotranspiration where effective precipitation during growing season is
rate of the crop. This normally is the peak daily rate, minimal. Figure 4–2 shows monthly crop ET and
but can be any selected period. In the most conserva- effective precipitation for a subhumid climate condi-
tive case, rainfall and stored soil moisture are not tion where effective precipitation can meet crop ET
considered. This design procedure relies on determin- during the early and latter part of the growing season.
ing the distribution of crop ET during the year for the
principle irrigated crops. The crop ET for the peak Note: Where precipitation exceeds crop evapotranspi-
day, week, and month also varies from year to year. A ration, an opportunity exists for leaching of nutrients
frequency or risk analysis can be provided whereby and pesticides. This may occur if soil moisture is at
system capacity and related cost reduction may be field capacity so that precipitation will provide the
realized. Where effective rainfall and maximum avail- excess soil water available for leaching. These displays
able soil-water storage are used, further reduction of are then basic water budgets in graphic form.
system capacity and water supply may be realized.
See NEH, Part 623, Chapter 2, Irrigation Water Re-

quirements, for further information on determining net
irrigation requirement.

Irrigation Guide
Table 4–1 Example tabular display—crop evapotranspiration using FAO Blaney-Criddle equation
Owner John Irrigator Location Redmond Latitude 44°16' Elevation 1/ 2500 ft
Crop Pasture Crop curve number used 17 Planting date Apr 17 Harvest date Oct 24
Item April May June July Aug Sep Oct Total
Mean temp (°F) 44.2 50.8 58.8 64.3 64.0 56.3 48.3
Mean precip (in) 0.53 0.66 0.80 0. 46 0.52 0.39 0.58 3.94
Effective precip—Re (in) 0.37 0.44 0.59 0.34 0.38 0.24 0.35 2.71
Ratio sun/cloud .70 .70 .90 .90 .90 .70 .70

Rel hum (%) 20-50 20-50 20-50 20-50 20-50 20-50 20-50
Ave wind (mph) 4-10 4-10 4-10 4-10 4-10 4-10 4-10
Crop ET (in/mo) 0.76 3.55 6.41 7.47 6.43 3.27 1.23 29.12
Net irrig req—NIR (in/mo) 0.39 3.11 5.82 7.13 6.05 3.03 0.88 26.41
1/ Crop ET is corrected downwards 10% per 1,000 meters above sea level.

Irrigation Guide
Figure 4–1 Example monthly crop evapotranspiration, arid climate in normal year
7 Crop ET
Precip
6
Evaportranspiration-inches
0
April May June July August Sept Oct
Month
Figure 4–2 Example monthly crop evapotranspiration, subhumid climate in normal year
Crop ET
6
Precip
Evaportranspiration-inches
0
April May June July August Sept Oct
Month

Irrigation Guide
652.0404 Management 652.0405 Auxiliary water

allowable soil-water requirements (other needs)
depletion
In addition to crop evapotranspiration water require-
Management Allowable Depletion (MAD) is generally ments, irrigation systems can also meet special needs
defined for each local crop. It is a grower’s manage- of crops and soils. These other uses need to be consid-
ment decision based on yield and product quality ered when determining the seasonal water require-
objectives whether or not to fine tune generalized ments and minimum system capacities. Auxiliary uses
MAD values. MAD is the greatest amount of water to include the following and are described in more detail
be removed by plants before irrigation so that undesir- in NEH, Part 623, Chapter 2, Irrigation Water Require-
able crop water stress does not occur. Historically, an ments:
allowable depletion of between 30 and 60 percent of • Leaching requirement for salinity and sodicity
the soil Available Water Capacity (AWC) has been management
used for management purposes. See Chapter 3, Crops, • Frost protection (fruits, citrus, berries,
for summary of recommended MAD levels for various vegetables)
crops. Estimated irrigation frequency, in days, is based • Bud delay
on the MAD level for the AWC in the total crop root • Crop and soil cooling
zone and the estimated crop ET. • Wind erosion and dust control
• Chemigation
Irrigation frequency, in days, can be determined by: • Plant disease control
• Seed germination
MAD × Total AWC for crop root zone in inches
Daily ETc rate in inches/day

Irrigation Guide
652.0406 Water table 652.0407 Water require-

contribution ments for soil-water
budget/balance analysis
Upward flow of water from a water table can be used
to meet part of or all the seasonal crop water require- The components of a soil-water budget/balance analy-
ment. Reasonable estimates need to be made of the sis must include all water going in and all water going
water supplied by a water table. See figure 2–6 in out of an area for the period of consideration. The
chapter 2 of this guide. Methods to predict upward basic purpose for such an analysis is to determine the
soil-water flow rates (upflux) from a water table are location of all water applied. Generally a soil-water
given in NEH Part 623, Chapter 2, Irrigation Water budget analysis is determined for a period involving a
Requirements, and in the water table management month, an irrigation season, a year, or maybe even for
software program DRAINMOD. Soil parameters re- an average over several years. Availability of climatic
quired for these procedures are quite variable and may data may also dictate the time period for the analysis.
require field data to evaluate specific sites. For example, if long-term mean temperature is the
only reliable data available, determining monthly and
seasonal water requirements may be the most accu-
rate analysis that can be done. This would dictate a
reasonably accurate analysis period of a month or
longer.
If complete and reliable daily climatic data (tempera-

ture, solar radiation, wind movement, and relative
humidity) are available nearby, then a daily soil-water
accounting or balance can be developed because
accurate daily water requirements can be estimated.
The soil-water budget/balance analysis process is a
tool that can be used for determining gross water
applied and contributions of irrigation water and
precipitation to downstream surface water and ground
water. The soil-water budget/balance can be displayed
in equation form as follows (sum may be positive if
soil water is stored in the plant root zone):
Fg = ETc + A w + D P + RO + SDL − P − GW − ∆SW
where:
Fg = Gross irrigation water applied during the
period considered
ETc = Crop evapotranspiration during the period
considered
Aw = Water applied for auxiliary purposes during
the period considered
Dp = Deep percolation below the root zone from
irrigation and precipitation
RO = Surface runoff that leaves the site from
irrigation and precipitation

Irrigation Guide
SDL = Spray, drift losses, and canopy intercept Table 4–2 displays a simple and basic soil-water bud-
evaporation from sprinkler irrigation system get using assumed and estimated values. The input
during the period considered data can be refined to whatever degree is necessary
P = Total precipitation during the period with field observations or measurements, or both. In
considered this table, a water surplus of 1.7 inches for the season
GW = Ground water contribution to the crop root is indicated, and the water will go into deep percola-
zone during the period tion below the root zone.
∆SW = Change in soil-water content within the crop
root zone during the period A soil-water budget can be developed for planning
purposes or as an evaluation tool. As the example
Note: Only those factors that apply to the site under shows, the consultant can use any level of accuracy
consideration need to be used. Typically all factors desired or necessary.
would not be used for an analysis of one site.
Generally the soil-water budget analysis can be (a) Example soil-water budget
thought of as supporting a planning process where the
soil-water balance analysis can be thought of as sup- A simplified soil-water budget would be displayed
porting an operational process. With appropriate soil- using the following assumptions:
water content monitoring, accurate estimated daily • Crop is grain corn.
crop ET and measurement of system inflow and sur- • Mature rooting depth = 48 inches.
face outflow, a reliable daily soil-water balance can be • Total AWC = 8.0 inches.
developed. These daily values can be summarized for • MAD = 50%.
any desirable longer period that data are available. • Soil profile is at field capacity at start of
season.
The period of reliable climatic data is key to the soil- • Sprinkler irrigation system with gross
water budget/balance analysis. For development of a application for each irrigation = 6.0 inches.
soil-water balance, only immediate past events are • Application efficiency of 67% providing a net
evaluated. It is not an irrigation scheduling tool. For application = 4.0 inches.
example, a soil-water balance is an analysis process of • DU = 100% with no surface runoff.
what water went where for the last year, last month, • Precipitation infiltration for all season = 70%
last week, last event, or from some specific date up to of total.
the present time. Each rainfall and irrigation event • No contribution from a shallow water table.
versus daily crop ET and soil-water content change
can be evaluated. It requires appropriate and current All crop ET, irrigation, and precipitation units are in
monitoring of soil-water content, irrigation water inches.
applied, onsite rainfall measurement, runoff, and full
climatic data for daily crop ET determination. Additional and more detailed examples of a soil-water
budget and a soil-water balance are in Chapter 8,
For development of a soil-water budget, historic Project and Farm Irrigation Water Requirements.
climate data along with estimated or measured soil-
water content, irrigation flows, and losses would be
used. The time period for an analysis for an average
condition is whatever is necessary to provide reliable
data. As an example, a site with fairly consistent
climate from year to year, but with a rather short
number of years record, might provide satisfactory
results. Whereas a site with wide ranging climate from
year to year might require a much longer period of
record. An analysis showing the average for the last 5
years, or for a specific year of importance, could use
climate data for that specific period only.

Irrigation Guide
Table 4–2 Example soil-water budget

Month Crop Soil Precipitation Irrigations - - - Water - -
ET water total effect 1/ no. net def. surplus
used water (–) (+)
applied
May 2.3 2.3 3.0 2.1 0 0 0.2

June 4.8 5.0 2.0 1.4 1 4.0 0.4
July 8.1 8.1 0 0 2 8.0 0.1
Aug 6.6 6.7 0 0 2 8.0 1.3
Sept 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 0 0 1.0
Total 23.8 24.1 4.5 5 20 1.7 2/

1/ Assuming all effective precipitation infiltrated into the soil.
2/ Typically lost to deep percolation. The total is in inches.

Chapter 5 Selecting an Irrigation Method Part 652
Chapter 5 Selecting an Irrigation Irrigation Guide
Method
652.0501 Methods and systems to apply irrigation water 5–2
652.0502 Site conditions 5–3
652.0503 Selection of irrigation method and system 5–4
652.0504 Adaptability and limitations of irrigation methods and systems 5–6
Tables Table 5–1 Site conditions to consider in selecting an irrigation 5–3

method and system
Table 5–2 Typical life and annual maintenance cost percentage 5–5
for irrigation system components
Table 5–3 Factors affecting the selection of surface irrigation systems 5–7
Table 5–4 Factors affecting the selection of periodic move, fixed, 5–8
or solid set sprinkler irrigation systems
Table 5–5 Factors affecting the selection of continuous/self moving 5–9

sprinkler irrigation systems
Table 5–6 Factors affecting the selection of micro irrigation systems 5–10
Table 5–7 Factors affecting the selection of subirrigation systems 5–11
Table 5–8 Slope limitations for surface irrigation systems 5–12
Table 5–9 Slope limitations for sprinkler irrigation systems 5–12

5–i
Chapter 5 Selecting an Irrigation
IrrigationMethod
Guide
operator both need to be aware of the applicability,

652.0500 General capability, and limitations of all irrigation methods and
systems that could be used on a specific site.
Irrigation application method and system selection Political, legal, and regulatory issues are of primary
should result in optimum use of available water. The importance. Included are such issues as land reform,
selection should be based on a full awareness of water rights, containment of runoff and drainage
management considerations, such as water source and water, taxation, financial incentives from govern-
cost, water quantity and quality, irrigation effects on ments, zoning and site application, and construction
the environment, energy availability and cost, farm permits. These issues must be fully understood at the
equipment, product marketability, and capital for beginning of the selection process.
irrigation system installation, operation, and mainte-
nance. The purpose of this chapter is to provide neces- The Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS)
sary planning considerations for selecting an irrigation Field Office Technical Guide, section V, displays the
method and system. Most widely used irrigation meth- conservation effects of irrigation methods and systems
ods and systems with their adaptability and limitations and their related components. These should be refer-
are described. Also see National Engineering Hand- enced during the planning and design process. They
book (NEH), part 623 (section 15), chapters 3, 4, 5, 6, will provide insight as to the effects of surface irriga-
7, 8, 9, and 11. tion on ground and surface water quantity and quality,
and on wildlife.
In some areas, operators are accustomed to a particu-
lar irrigation method and system of applying water.
They continue to install and use this common system
even though another system may be more suitable,
apply water more efficiently with better distribution
uniformity, be more economical to install and operate,
and have fewer negative impacts on ground and sur-
face water.
The consultant and irrigation decisionmaker should

compare applicable methods and systems on common
grounds. These can include:
• Gross irrigation water needs
• Energy requirements
• Effects on quantity and quality of ground water
and downstream surface water
• Installation and annual operating costs
• Labor skills needed
Generally more than one irrigation method and system

can be installed and efficiently operated on a specific
site. The owner’s or operator’s desire, rather than
economics and water application uniformity, may be
key to the selection. To get acceptable irrigation
efficiencies (minimize losses), management skills
required of the operator and flexibility of available
labor must be considered. Local regulations may
provide the motivation to select and manage a specific
irrigation system that would provide the least negative
effect on ground and surface water. Whatever basis is
used for the decision, the consultant and owner or

Irrigation Guide
Each irrigation method and irrigation system has

652.0501 Methods and specific site applicability, capability, and limitations.
Broad factors that should be considered are:
systems to apply irrigation • Crops to be grown
water • Topography or physical site conditions
• Water supply
• Climate
The four basic irrigation methods, along with the many • Energy available
systems to apply irrigation water, include: surface, • Chemigation
sprinkle, micro, and subirrigation: • Operation and management skills
• Environmental concerns
Surface—Water is applied by gravity across the soil • Soils
surface by flooding or small channels (i.e., basins, • Farming equipment
borders, paddies, furrows, rills, corrugations) • Costs
Sprinkle—Water is applied at the point of use by a

system of nozzles (impact and gear driven sprinkler or
spray heads) with water delivered to the sprinkler
heads by surface and buried pipelines, or by both.
Sprinkler irrigation laterals are classed as fixed set,
periodic move, or continuous or self move. Sprinkler
irrigation systems include solid set, handmove laterals,
sideroll (wheel) laterals, center pivot, linear move
(lateral move), and stationary and traveling gun types.
Low Energy Precision Application (LEPA) and Low
Pressure In Canopy (LPIC) systems are included with
sprinkler systems because they use center pivots and
linear move irrigation systems.
Micro—Water is applied to the point of use through

low pressure, low volume discharge devices (i.e., drip
emitters, line source emitters, micro spray and sprin-
kler heads, bubblers) supplied by small diameter
surface or buried pipelines.
Subirrigation—Water is made available to the crop

root system by upward capillary flow through the soil
profile from a controlled water table.

Irrigation Guide
Local laws—Laws regarding tailwater runoff reuse,

652.0502 Site conditions reuse pits, and quality of tailwater (runoff).
Type and amount of effluent—Animal, municipal,

Table 5–1 displays the site and other local conditions and industrial waste.
that must be considered in selecting an irrigation
method and system. Other factors to consider include: Water rights, allocations, and priority.
Farm, land, and field—Field size(s) and shape, Availability of funds for improvements.
obstructions, topography, flood hazard, water table,
and access for operation and maintenance. Sociological factors (i.e., grandpa and dad did it that
way)—Available technical ability and language skills
Energy and pumping plant—Type, availability, of laborers.
reliability, parts and service availability, and pumping
efficiency. Time and skill level of management personnel.
Environmental effects—On quantity and quality of

surface and ground water for water removal and for
return flows, on local air quality, on local and regional
wildlife and fish.
Table 5–1 Site conditions to consider in selecting an irrigation method and system
Crop Soil Water Climate
Crops grown & rotation AWC Quality Wind

Water requirement Infiltration rate salts, toxic elements Rainfall
Height Depth sediment Frost conditions
Cultural practices to water table organic materials Humidity
Pests to impervious layer fish, aquatic creatures Temperature extremes
Tolerance to spray Drainage Quantity Rainfall frequency
Toxicity limitations surface Reliability Evaporation from:
Allowable MAD level subsurface Source plant leaves and stems
Climate Control Condition stream soil surface
frost protection Uniformity reservoir Solar radiation
cooling Stoniness well
Diseases & Control Slope (s) delivery point
Crop quality Surface texture Delivery schedule
Planned yield Profile textures frequency
Structure duration
Fertility rate
Temporal properties

Irrigation Guide
plant nutrients and pesticides are lost to deep percola-

652.0503 Selection of irri- tion below the root zone. In cranberry bogs, sprinklers
can be used for irrigation, frost control, and chemical
gation method and system application, or bogs can be flooded for irrigation and
frost control. Lettuce, carrots, onions, and other such
crops can be germinated with portable fixed set sprin-
With the current demand for other uses of high quality
kler laterals with furrows used to apply water the
water, the irrigation decisionmaker must provide good
balance of the growing season.
irrigation water management; including maximizing
beneficial water use, providing good distribution
Where ample water is available during the early part of
uniformity, minimizing water losses, and using an
the growing season, but becomes deficient during the
appropriate irrigation scheduling method. For ex-
peak water use period, a surface flood system (i.e.
ample, it has been demonstrated that micro systems
borders) can be used in the spring and a sprinkler
can be economically used on high value annual and
system used during peak water use. Several benefits
perennial crops. However, high quality water from a
can be realized with both irrigation methods:
suitably treated or filtered source is required to mini-
• Reduced energy use compared to pumping the
mize emitter plugging, especially when using buried
full flow for the full season
laterals having line-source emitters. Any properly
• Maximized water use efficiency during the
designed, installed, and managed irrigation method
peak water use period
and system, that is suitable to the site, has the poten-
tial to apply the proper amount of water uniformly
This scenario works well where surface water with
across the field. However, one or more systems can be
gravity flow is available to the field and both a good
less costly and easier to manage.
surface flood system and sprinkler system are avail-
able or can be economically installed.
Local regulatory standards and criteria for irrigation
efficiency, maximum water duty, or maximum water
Sprinkler irrigation systems are adaptable for use on
losses may strongly recommend the selection of one
most crops and on nearly all irrigable soils. Particular
or two specific irrigation systems so that water is
care is needed in the design and operation of a sprin-
applied without excessive negative impacts on local
kler system with low application rates (0.15 to .25 in/
water quantity and quality. The fact that the best
hr) and on soils (generally fine textured) with low
planned, designed, and installed system can still be
infiltration rates. Principal concerns with low applica-
grossly mismanaged must also be recognized. Avail-
tion rates are time of set, increased system cost, ac-
ability of irrigation equipment replacement parts,
ceptable distribution uniformity, wind drift, evapora-
repair service, skilled labor for system operation, and
tion, and system operational requirements.
irrigation water availability and timing must be consid-
ered. Minimizing total annual operating energy require-
For example, with an application rate of 0.15 inch per
ments should be a basic part of the decisionmaking
hour, time of set would have to be nearly 30 hours to
process.
apply a net irrigation application of 3 inches. It is
recommended that sprinkler systems apply water at a
Two irrigation methods (i.e., sprinkle and surface) and
rate greater than 0.15 inch per hour for improved wind
systems for the same field can be efficiently used with
resistance. In areas of high temperature, wind, or both,
different crops and even a single crop for one season.
minimum application rate and volume should be
For example, with an annual crop such as corn on high
higher because of potential losses from evaporation
intake soils, early season shallow irrigations can be
and wind drift. For frost control, where evaporation
provided to the shallow rooted corn plants by
and wind drift potential are low, an application rate of
handmove or sideroll (wheel) sprinkler laterals. After
0.10 to 0.15 inch per hour is common. See NEH, Part
the corn gets too tall for the moving of laterals and the
623 (Section 15), Chapter 11, Sprinkle Irrigation.
water infiltration rate is slowed by tillage equipment
compaction, furrow irrigation can then be used for the
remainder of the season. Compared to a full irrigation
season using furrows, less water is applied and fewer

Irrigation Guide
Most irrigation application methods and systems can Table 5–2 displays estimated typical life and annual
be automated to some degree. More easily automated maintenance for irrigation system components. Also,
are micro systems, center pivot sprinkler systems, see chapter 11 of this guide for additional information
solid set sprinkler systems, level furrow and basin on developing and comparing typical capital and
systems, graded border systems, subsurface systems, operating costs for selected irrigation systems.
and graded furrow systems using automated ditch
turnouts, cutback, cablegation, and surge techniques.
Table 5–2 Typical life and annual maintenance cost percentage for irrigation system components
System and components Life (yr) Annual System and components Life (yr) Annual
maint. maint.
(% of cost) (% of cost)
Sprinkler systems 10 - 15 2-6 Surface & subsurface systems 15 5

Handmove 15 + 2
Side or wheel roll 15 + 2 Related components
End tow 10 + 3 Pipelines
Side move w/drag lines 15 + 4 buried thermoplastic 25 + 1
Stationary gun type 15 + 2 buried steel 25 1
Center pivot—standard 15 + 5 surface aluminum 20 + 2
Linear move 15 + 6 surface thermoplastic 5+ 4
Cable tow 10 + 6 buried nonreinforced concrete 25 + 1
Hose pull 15+ 6 buried galv. steel 25 + 1
Traveling gun type 10 + 6 buried corrugated metal 25 + 1
Fixed or solid set buried reinforced PMP 25 + 1
permanent 20 + 1 gated pipe, rigid, surface 10 + 2
portable 15 + 2 surge valves 10 + 6
Sprinkler gear driven, 5 - 10 6
impact & spray heads Pumps
Valves 10 - 25 3 pump only 15 + 3
w/electric motors 10 + 3
Micro systems 1/ 1 - 20 2 - 10 w/internal combustion engine 10 + 6
Drip 5 - 10 3
Spray 5 - 10 3 Wells 25 + 1
Bubbler 15 + 2 Linings
Semi-rigid, buried 10 - 20 2 nonreinforced concrete 15 + 5
Semi-rigid, surface 10 2 flexible membrane 10 5
Flexible, thin wall, buried 10 2 reinforced concrete 20 + 1
Flexible, thin wall, surface 1-5 10
Emitters & heads 5 - 10 6 Land grading, leveling 2/
Filters, injectors, valves 10 + 7 Reservoirs 3/
1/ With no disturbance from tillage and harvest equipment.
2/ Indefinite with adequate maintenance.
3/ Indefinite with adequate maintenance of structures, watershed.

Irrigation Guide
652.0504 Adaptability and

limitations of irrigation
methods and systems
Tables 5–3 through 5–7 display factors that affect the

adaptation and operation of various irrigation methods
and systems. In these tables, the + indicates positive
effects or provides good reasons for preference of
selection, the – indicates negative effects or provides
possible reasons for not choosing this alternative
(another method or system should be considered), and
the 0 indicates neutral effect or should provide no
influence on selection.
Tables 5–8 and 5–9 give recommended slope limita-

tions for surface and sprinkler irrigation systems.

Irrigation Guide
Table 5–3 Factors affecting the selection of surface irrigation systems
Item - - - - - Level 1/- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Graded - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Contour - - - - - -

border furrow border furrow furrow corrug levee furrow ditch
basin reg mod 2/
Crop
Field—close growing 0 0 0 – – 0 0 – 0
Field—row 0 0 – 0 + – 0 –
Vegetable—fresh – 0 – 0 + – – 0 –
Vegetable—seed – 0 – 0 + – – 0 –
Orchards, berries, grapes 0 0 0 0 0 – – 0 –
Alfalfa hay 0 – 0 – – 0 0 – 0
Corn – 0 – 0 + – – 0 –
Cotton – 0 – 0 + – – 0 –
Potatoes, sugar beets – 0 – 0 + – – 0 –
Land & soil
Low AWC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 –
Low infiltration rate + + 0 0 0 0 + 0 0
Mod. infiltration rate 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
High infiltration rate – – – – + – – – –
Variable infiltration rate – – – – 0 – – – –
High salinity or sodicity + + 0 – + – – – 0
Highly erodible – – – – – – – – –
Undulating topography – – – – – – – – –
Steep topography – – – – – – – – –
Odd shaped fields + + – – – – 0 0 0
Obstructions 3/ – – – – – – – – –
Stony, cobbly – – – – – – – – –
Water supply
Low cont. flow rate – – – 0 0 0 – 0 0
High intermit. flow rate + + + – – – – – 0
High salinity + + 0 – 0 0 0 – 0
High sediment content 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Delivery schedule
continuous – – 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
rotation 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
arranged, flexible 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
demand + + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Climate
Humid & subhumid – – – – – – – – –
Arid & semiarid 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Windy 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
High temp – humid 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
High temp – arid 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Social/Institutional
Easy to manage 0 + – – – – – – –
Automation potential + + 0 – + – 0 0 –
1/ When used in humid and subhumid areas, protected outlets may be needed for surface runoff due to precipitation.
2/ Modified furrow irrigation includes cutback, surge, cablegation, and tailwater reuse.
3/ Obstructions may include roads, buildings, and rock piles.

Irrigation Guide
Table 5–4 Factors affecting the selection of periodic move, fixed, or solid set sprinkler irrigation systems
Item - - - - Periodic move - - - - - - - Solid set or fixed - - -

sideroll hand gun perm port gun
Crop
Field—close growing 0 0 0 0 0 0
Field—row 0 0 0 – 0 –
Vegetable—fresh 0 0 0 0 0 0
Vegetable—seed – – – – – –
Orchards, berries, grapes – 0 – + + –
Alfalfa hay 0 0 0 – – –
Corn – – 0 – – 0
Cotton – – – – – –
Potatoes, sugar beets 0 0 0 – 0 –
Land & soil
Low AWC 0 0 0 + + +
Low infiltration rate 0 0 – 0 0 –
Mod. infiltration rate 0 0 0 0 0 0
High infiltration rate 0 0 0 + + +
Variable infiltration rate + + + + + +
High salinity or sodicity – – – – – –
Highly erodible + + – + + –
Steep & undulating topog – + – 0 0 –
Odd shaped fields – 0 + + + +
Obstructions 1/ – 0 0 – 0 0
Stony, cobbly 0 0 0 0 0 0
Water supply
Low cont. flow + + + + + +
High intermit. flow – – – – – –
High salinity or sodicity – – – – – –
High sed. content – – – – – –
Delivery schedule
continuous + + + + + +
rotation – – – – – –
arranged, flexible 0 0 0 0 0 0
demand 0 0 0 0 0 0
Climate
High rainfall + + + + + +
Low rainfall—arid 0 0 0 0 0 0
Windy – – – – – –
High temp—humid + + + + + +
High temp—arid – – – – – –
Social/institutional
Automation potential – – – + + 0
Easy to manage 0 0 0 + + +
1/ Obstructions may include roads, buildings, rock piles, trees, above and below ground utilities, and oil pipelines.

Irrigation Guide
Table 5–5 Factors affecting the selection of continuous/self moving 1/ sprinkler irrigation systems
Item - - - - LEPA 2/ - - - - - - - LPIC 3/ - - - - - - Center pivot - - - - - - Linear - - - -

center linear center linear high low high low gun
pivot pivot press press press press
Crop
Field—close growing – – – – 0 0 0 0 0
Field—row 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Vegetable—fresh 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Vegetable—seed 0 0 0 0 – – – – –
Orchard, berries, grapes – – – – – – – – –
Alfalfa hay – – – – 0 + 0 + 0
Corn 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cotton 0 0 0 0 – – – – –
Potatoes, sugar beets 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Land & soil
Low AWC + + + + + + + + 0
Low infiltration rate 0 0 – – – – – – –
Mod. infiltration rate 0 0 0 0 – – 0 0 0
High infiltration rate + + + + + + + + +
Variable infiltration rate + + + + + + + + +
High salinity and sodicity 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Highly erodible 0 0 0 0 – – – – –
Steep & undulating topog – – – – – – – – +
Odd shaped fields – – – – – – – – +
Obstructions 4/ – – – – – – – – +
Stony, cobbly 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Water supply
Low cont. flow rate + + + + + + + + +
High intermit. flow rate – – – – – – – – –
High salinity – – – – – – – – –
High sed. content – – – – – – – – –
Delivery schedule
continuous + + + + + + + + +
rotation – – – – – – – – –
arranged, flexible 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
demand 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Climate
Humid & subhumid + + + + + + + + +
Arid & semiarid 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Windy + + + + – – 0 0 –
High temp—humid + + + + + + + + +
High temp—arid 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Automation potential + – + – + 0 – – –
Easy to manage 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1/ Continuous/self moving describes a sprinkler system that is self moving in continuous or start-stop operations.
2/ LEPA—Low Energy Precision Application system (in-canopy with good soil and water management).
3/ LPIC—Low Pressure In Canopy system.
4/ Obstructions may include roads, buildings, rock piles, trees, and aboveground utilities.

Irrigation Guide
Table 5–6 Factors affecting the selection of micro irrigation systems 1/
Item Point source Line source Micro spray/ Basin

drip emitter cont. tube sprinkler bubbler
Crop
Field—close growing – – – –
Field—row – 0 – –
Vegetable—fresh – + – –
Vegetable—seed – 0 – –
Orchards, berries, grapes + – + +
Alfalfa hay – – – –
Corn – 0 – –
Cotton – + – –
Potatoes, sugar beets – 0 – –
Land & soil
Low AWC + + + +
Low infiltration rate 0 0 0 0
Mod. infiltration rate 0 0 0 0
High infiltration rate + + + 0
Variable infiltration rate + + + +
High salinity and sodicity 0 + + 0
Highly erodible + + + 0
Steep & undulating topog + – + –
Odd shaped fields + + + +
Obstructions 2/ + + + +
Stony, cobbly + + + +
Water supply
Low cont. flow rate + + + +
High intermit. flow rate – – – –
High salinity – – – –
High sed. content – – – –
Delivery schedule
continuous + + + +
rotation – – – –
arranged, flexible 0 0 0 0
demand 0 0 0 0
Climate
Humid & subhumid 0 0 0 0
Arid & semiarid 0 0 0 0
Windy + + – 0
High temp—humid 0 0 0 0
High temp—arid 0 0 0 0
Easy to manage – – – –
Automation potential + + + +
1/ Not suitable unless water supply is non-saline, low SAR, and very high quality.
2/ Obstructions may include roads, buildings, rock piles, trees, and below-ground utilities.

Irrigation Guide
Table 5–7 Factors affecting the selection of subirrigation systems 1/
Item Water table control Item Water table control
Crop Water supply

Field—close growing 0 Low cont. flow rate +
Field—row 0 High intermit flow rate –
Vegetable—fresh 0 High salinity –
Vegetable—seed 0 High sed. content –
Orchards, berries, grapes 0
Alfalfa hay – Delivery schedule
Corn 0 continuous +
Cotton – rotation –
Potatoes, sugar beets 0 arranged, flexible –
demand 0
Land & soil
Low AWC 0 Climate
Low permeability 0 High rainfall +
Mod. permeability + Low rainfall—arid –
High permeability 0 Windy +
Variable infiltration rate 0 High temp—humid +
High salinity and sodicity – High temp—arid +
Highly erodible 0
Undulating topography – Social & institutional
Odd shaped fields 0 Easy to manage 0
Obstructions 2/ 0 Automation potential 0
Stony, cobbly –
1/ Not suitable unless water supply is nonsaline, low SAR, and very high quality.
2/ Obstructions may include roads, buildings, rock piles, trees, and belowground utilities.

Irrigation Guide
Table 5–8 Slope limitations for surface irrigation systems (after grading)
Type Maximum slope(%) Maximum slope(%)

(arid & semiarid areas) (humid areas)
non-sod sod non-sod sod
Level
basin/border - - - - - - - - - - - - Flat - - - - - - - - - - - -
furrow - - - - - - - - - - - - Flat - - - - - - - - - - - -
Graded
border 2.0 4.0 0.5 2.0
furrow 3.0 0.5
corrugation 4.0 8.0
contour levee 0.1
contour ditch 4.0 15.0
contour furrow Irrigated cross slope
Table 5–9 Slope limitations for sprinkler irrigation systems
Type Maximum slope (%) 1/ Comments
Periodic move/set
portable handmove 20 +/– Laterals should be laid cross slope to minimize
sideroll - wheel mounted 10 and control pressure variation. Consider using
gun type 20 +/– pressure or flow control regulators in the
end tow 5 - 10 mainline, lateral, or individual sprinkler/
spray heads, when pressure differential causes an
Fixed (solid) set increase of > 20 % of design operating pressure.
permanent laterals no limit
portable laterals no limit
gun type no limit
Continuous move
center pivot 15
linear move 15
gun type 20 +/-
LEPA
center pivot 1.0
linear 1.0
LPIC
center pivot 2.5
linear 2.5
1/ Regardless of type of sprinkler irrigation system used, runoff and resulting soil erosion becomes more hazardous on steeper slopes.
Proper conservation measures should be used; i.e., conservation tillage, crop residue use, filter strips, pitting, damming-diking, terraces,
or permanent vegetation.

Irrigation Guide

Chapter 6 Irrigation System Design Part 652
Chapter 6 Irrigation System Design Irrigation Guide
Contents: 652.0600 General irrigation objective 6–1

(a) System capacity requirements .................................................................... 6–1
(b) Limiting factors ............................................................................................. 6–1
(c) System design ................................................................................................ 6–2
652.0601 Surface irrigation 6–2

(a) General ........................................................................................................... 6–2
(b) Level basins, borders .................................................................................... 6–5
(c) Contour levee (rice lands) ........................................................................... 6–7
(d) Level furrows ................................................................................................. 6–8
(e) Graded borders ............................................................................................. 6–8
(f) Graded furrow characteristics .................................................................. 6–10
(g) Contour ditch .............................................................................................. 6–22
(h) Furrow erosion control .............................................................................. 6–25
652.0602 Sprinkle irrigation systems 6–27

(a) General ......................................................................................................... 6–27
(b) Periodic move sprinkler irrigation systems ............................................. 6–28
(c) Fixed-solid set sprinkler irrigation systems ............................................ 6–42
(d) Continuous (self) move sprinkler irrigation systems ............................. 6–43
(e) Traveling gun sprinkler irrigation system ................................................ 6–54
(f) Traveling boom sprinkler irrigation systems .......................................... 6–58
652.0603 Micro irrigation systems 6–59

(a) General ......................................................................................................... 6–59
(b) Types of micro irrigation systems ............................................................ 6–59
(c) Advantages of micro irrigation systems ................................................... 6–65
(d) Limitations of micro irrigation systems ................................................... 6–65
(e) System components .................................................................................... 6–66
(f) Planning and design considerations ......................................................... 6–67
(g) Design procedures ...................................................................................... 6–75
(h) Windbreaks .................................................................................................. 6–79
(i) Irrigating stream side (riparian) trees and shrubs .................................. 6–80
652.0604 Subirrigation systems 6–81

(a) General ......................................................................................................... 6–81
(b) Irrigation system components ................................................................... 6–82
(c) Planning and design considerations ......................................................... 6–82
(d) Design procedures ...................................................................................... 6–83

6–i
7–i
Irrigation Guide
Tables Table 6–1 Gross irrigation application, in inches 6–4
Table 6–2 Recommended design efficiencies for contour ditch 6–23

irrigation systems
Table 6–3 Contour ditch irrigation—length of run, maximum 6–24

length of run, and average irrigation time
Table 6–4 Application efficiencies for various sprinkler systems 6–28
Table 6–5 Typical operating pressures and wetted diameter patterns 6–47
Table 6–6 Typical discharges and wetted diameters for gun type 6–55
sprinklers with 24° angles of trajectory and tapered
nozzles operating when there is no wind
Table 6–7 Friction loss in flexible irrigation hose used on traveling 6–56
gun type sprinkle system
Table 6–8 Guidelines for sizing traveling gun type sprinkler hoses 6–56
Table 6–9 Maximum travel lane spacing for traveling gun type 6–57
sprinkler as a function of wetted diameter and wind speed
Table 6–10 Gross depth of water applied for continuous moving 6–57
large gun type sprinkler heads
Table 6–11 Physical, chemical and biological factors causing 6–68

plugging of emitters
Table 6–12 Plugging potential from irrigation water used in micro 6–69
irrigation systems
Table 6–13 Typical composition and classification of water used in 6–69

micro irrigation systems
Table 6–14 Particle size equivalents 6–72
Table 6–15 Filters used for micro irrigation systems 6–72
Table 6–16 Diameter and area of soil wetted by a single emitter 6–73
with no restrictive horizons
6–88
Irrigation Guide
Table 6–17 Recommended maximum pressure variation for typical 6–77

emitters
Figures Figure 6–1 Surface irrigation stage definitions 6–3
Figure 6–2 Typical furrow and bed arrangement for row crops 6–12
Figure 6–3 Surge irrigation versus conventional continuous flow 6–16

furrow irrigation
Figure 6–4 Butterfly type surge valves 6–17
Figure 6–5 General arrangement of controls, pipe, and outlets 6–19
Figure 6–6 Typical layout for a tailwater recovery and reuse facility 6–20
Figure 6–7 Side roll or handmove sprinkler system layout 6–29
Figure 6–8 Effective portion of applied water 6–32
Figure 6–9 Solid set sprinkler system layout 6–43
Figure 6–10 Typical soil intake and sprinkler application rate curves 6–46
Figure 6–11 Application area along a quarter-mile-long pivot 6–47

system lateral
Figure 6–12 Typical field layout of linear systems 6–53
Figure 6–13 Traveling gun type sprinkler system layout 6–54
Figure 6–14 Typical orchard micro system layout 6–60
Figure 6–15 Emitter devices 6–61
Figure 6–16 Surface and subsurface line source emitter devices 6–62
Figure 6–17 Basin bubbler system 6–63
Figure 6–18 Various mini spray and sprinkler heads 6–64
Figure 6–19 Micro system components 6–67
Figure 6–20 Turbulent fountain screen 6–71

6–iii
Irrigation Guide
Figure 6–21 Alternative emitter layout 6–76
Figure 6–22 Typical small system hookup 6–78
Figure 6–23 Typical windbreak layout 6–79
Figure 6–24 Typical water table management system 6–82
Figure 6–25 Water table contribution to irrigation requirements 6–84

as a function of water table depth and soil type
Example Example 6–1 Typical field data for a side roll (wheel line) lateral 6–35
system
Exhibit Exhibit 6–1 Sprinkler irrigation system planning/design worksheet 6–37
6–90
6–iv (210-vi-NEH, September 1997)
Chapter 6 Irrigation System Design
Irrigation Guide
justify the higher cost of providing system capacity to

652.0600 General irriga- meet peak daily crop use rates. National Engineering
Handbook (NEH), Part 623 (Section 15), Chapter 2,
tion objective Irrigation Water Requirements, provides a good de-
scription and examples for determining farm and
project water requirements.
Irrigation systems should have the capability to apply
the amount of water needed by the crop in addition to A system capacity greater than crop water use may be
precipitation. Irrigation applications should occur in a needed for other uses, such as frost protection. For
uniform and timely manner while minimizing losses example, where a sprinkler irrigation system is used
and damage to soil, water, air, plant, and animal re- for frost protection of orchards, large blocks must be
sources. Some irrigation systems also include water continuously sprinkled during critical cold tempera-
supply and delivery. Any irrigation system design tures. This may require lower application rates than
requires adjustment in the field. Designs must be irrigation application would require, but larger areas
tailored to the skills and willingness of the irrigation are probably sprinkled at one time, thus requiring
decisionmaker to properly manage the system and larger pumping plants and larger diameter distribution
make the adjustments. lines.
To properly design and manage irrigation water, flow Typically as water costs increase, farm managers
rates must be known. Therefore, water measurement invest in better irrigation systems and management.
is essential for farm and field delivery. Measurement They use techniques that have the potential to mini-
of irrigation water is described in chapter 8 of this mize water use by more uniform water application
guide. across the field and better control of the amount
needed and applied by each irrigation. Changing or
improving irrigation methods and systems may reduce
(a) System capacity requirements total operating costs. However, even the most suitable
irrigation system for a specific site can be misman-
The irrigation system must be able to deliver and apply aged.
the amount of water needed to meet the crop-water
requirement. Along with meeting the seasonal water
requirements, systems must supply enough water to
(b) Limiting factors
prevent daily crop-water stress by satisfying the differ-
ence between evapotranspiration demands and avail- Limiting factors to adequately operate an irrigation
able soil moisture supplied by rainfall or previous system on a specific site include soils, crop, water,
irrigations. climatic conditions, and labor. See tables 5–3 through
5–7 in Chapter 5, Selection of Irrigation Systems, for
The irrigation decisionmaker must decide what water negative, neutral, or positive factors affecting selection
supply rate(s) will be used for designing system capac- consideration. Other limitations to consider are:
ity. In arid and semiarid areas with high value crops, at
least 90 to 95 percent probability of peak daily plant Surface systems—High sediment laden irrigation
evapotranspiration may be required. With medium water generally reduces intake rates, which on coarse
value crops, 80 percent may be adequate; and with low textured soils may increase advance rates thereby
value crops, 50 percent may be sufficient. improving distribution uniformity for the field. On
medium and fine textured soils, a reduced intake rate
If the soil can only store and provide water for a few may be undesirable.
days, meeting peak daily evapotranspiration rates may
be desirable. With medium textured soils in semi- Graded furrow systems—On furrow slopes greater
humid and humid climatic areas, values less than peak than 1 percent and on highly erodible soils, erosion
daily rates may be sufficient, such as average daily rate
rates can be severe unless protective measures are
for the peak month. Potential prolonged drought
provided.
periods in any climatic area and high value crops may

Irrigation Guide
Level basin and graded border systems—Larger

heads of water are required to meet minimum flow 652.0601 Surface
depth requirements in a level basin or border (typically
5 to 7 cubic feet per second) and maintain reasonable irrigation
field sizes. High uniformity can be attained with level
basins on medium and low intake rate soils.
(a) General
Low pressure continuous/self move center pivot and
The surface irrigation method is the application of
linear systems—Requires intense water, soil, and plant
irrigation water to the soil surface by gravity. Applica-
management for low intake soils, and at least a moder-
tion systems vary. It is necessary to understand that a
ate amount of management on low to medium intake
volume balance of water in a surface irrigation system
soils.
must exist at all times. All water introduced at the
head end of the system must be accounted for in
Micro—Water quality must be high except for basin
surface flow or storage, infiltration, runoff, and a very
bubbler systems, which use plastic tubing of 3/8 inch
small amount lost to evaporation during the time of
diameter and larger. Chemicals must be used to pre-
vent algae growth in most systems. irrigation. The amount lost to evaporation is generally
neglected. In the overland flow process, an energy
balance also exists. Flow or volume measurements
can account for inflow, surface storage, and runoff.
(c) System design Infiltration volume can be measured by changes in
soil-water content in the root zone before and after
An irrigation guide is valuable by giving general guid-
irrigation, with the remainder going to deep percola-
ance for planning, design, layout, and operation of an
tion below the plant root zone.
irrigation system. Only application methods for which
rational design methods exist are described. Wild
flooding, border ditches, and nongraded furrows are
not included. Presently, the only practical way to (1) Description and stages of typical surface
improve on the efficiency of these systems is by trial water movement
Inflow—Irrigation stream flowing into a furrow,
and error with adjustments being made during an
corrugation, rill, border, basin, or field.
irrigation.
Advance stage—Process of the leading edge of water
Rational methods of design have their own limits. The
moving across the field either in channel or as over-
data that goes into any irrigation system design in-
land flow.
cludes two principal factors—soil intake rate and net
application per irrigation. In some areas timing and
Advance rate—Time or rate at which the advance
availability of water can be a consideration for surface
front moves across the field.
systems; additional principal factors are flow rate and
erosion resistance. These factors are highly variable
Storage stage—That portion of time or volume
and can change with soil condition, from one field to
occurring between end of advance (or shutoff) and
another, for each crop stage of growth, from crop to
start of recession time, generally measured between
crop, and from the first part of the season to the last
specific points (and time) during an irrigation.
part. The physical layout of a system can be installed
according to data from the guide. Operational adjust-
ments then must be made for differing field and crop Recession stage (rate)—That portion of the irrigation
conditions. time between inflow shutoff and beginning of reces-
sion at the upper end of the field. Recession rate is the
Design standards for irrigation practices are contained rate at which the recession front moves over the
in the NRCS National Handbook of Conservation surface. To be practical, recession ends when less than
Practices, and Section IV of the Field Office Technical 10 percent of the wetted soil surface is covered by
water.
Guide.

Irrigation Guide
Infiltration—A process or rate of water entering into Figure 6–1 Surface irrigation stage definitions
the soil at the air-soil interface.
Recession
Outflow (runoff)—Volume depth or streamflow rate curve
flowing past the end of the field.
Recession stage
Figure 6–1 displays the definitions and characteristics
of surface irrigation. Table 6–1 displays gross irriga-
Infiltration
tion application for a variety of net application depths opportunity Storage stage
Time
and efficiencies. time
This part of chapter 6 reflects existing methodology Advance stage

Advance
and calculation procedures and examples in NEH, part curve
0
623 (section 15), chapters 4 and 5. Reference to cur- 0
Distance down the field
rent academia and research involving what is de-
scribed as the zero-inertia model will also be made.
Design procedures and examples provided in section

652.0605 are developed from state approved computer
programs using existing methodology from chapters 4
and 5, or from Agricultural Research Service’s publica-
tion, Surface Irrigation Model, SRFR. SRFR method-
ology will be used as the basis for future surface
irrigation designs in NRCS. Trial applications of SRFR
in some locations have shown the model more nearly
fits actual field conditions than those from existing
methodology given in NEH part 623, chapters 4 and 5.

Irrigation Guide
Table 6–1 Gross irrigation application, in inches 1/
Net - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Application efficiency - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

irrig - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (%) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
depth
(in) 80 75 70 65 50 55 50 45 40 35
0.40 0.50 0.53 0.57 0.62 0.67 0.73 0.80 0.89 1.00 1.17
0.60 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.92 1.00 1.09 1.20 1.33 1.50 1.71
0.80 1.00 1.07 1.14 1.23 1.33 1.45 1.60 1.78 2.00 2.29
1.00 1.25 1.33 1.43 1.54 1.67 1.82 2.00 2.22 2.50 2.86
1.20 1.50 1.60 1.71 1.85 2.00 1.18 2.40 2.67 3.00 3.43
1.40 1.75 1.87 2.00 2.15 2.33 2.55 2.80 3.11 3.50 4.00
1.60 2.00 2.13 2.29 2.46 2.67 2.91 3.20 3.56 4.00 4.57
1.80 2.25 2.40 2.57 2.77 3.00 3.27 3.60 4.00 4.50 5.14
2.00 2.50 2.67 2.86 3.08 3.33 3.64 4.00 4.44 5.00 5.71
2.20 2.75 2.93 3.14 3.38 3.67 4.00 4.40 4.89 5.50 6.29
2.40 3.00 3.20 3.43 3.69 4.00 4.36 4.80 5.33 6.00 6.86
2.60 3.25 3.47 3.71 4.00 4.33 4.73 5.20 5.78 6.50 7.43
2.80 3.50 3.73 4.00 4.31 4.67 5.09 5.60 6.22 7.00 8.00
3.00 3.75 4.00 4.29 4.62 5.00 5.45 6.00 6.67 7.50 8.57
3.20 4.00 4.27 4.57 4.92 5.33 5.82 6.40 7.11 8.00 9.14
3.40 4.25 4.53 4.86 5.23 5.67 6.18 6.80 7.56 8.50 9.71
3.60 4.50 4.30 5.14 5.54 6.00 6.55 7.20 8.00 9.00 10.29
3.80 4.75 5.07 5.43 5.85 6.33 6.91 7.60 8.44 9.50 20.86
4.00 5.00 5.33 5.71 6.15 6.67 7.27 8.00 8.89 10.00 11.43
4.20 5.25 5.60 6.00 6.46 7.00 7.64 8.40 9.33 10.50 12.00
4.40 5.50 5.87 6.29 6.77 7.33 8.00 8.80 9.78 11.00 12.57
4.60 5.75 6.13 6.57 7.08 7.67 8.36 9.20 10.22 11.50 13.14
4.80 6.00 6.40 6.86 7.38 8.00 8.78 9.60 10.67 12.00 13.71
5.00 6.25 6.67 7.14 7.69 8.33 9.09 10.00 11.11 12.50 14.29
5.20 6.50 6.93 7.43 8.00 8.67 9.45 10.40 11.56 13.00 14.36
5.40 6.75 7.20 7.71 8.31 9.00 9.82 10.80 12.00 14.00 16.00
5.60 7.00 7.47 8.00 8.62 9.33 10.18 11.20 12.44 14.00 16.00
1/ Includes deep percolation and tailwater runoff.

Irrigation Guide
(b) Level basins, borders does not run off, so it can also be used for leach-
ing. Leaching of toxic ions with level irrigation
This surface irrigation system uses relatively large systems may not be as water efficient as leaching
flow rates supplied to level or nearly level soil surfaces with sprinklers (unsaturated) because of some
over a short period of time. The basin (borders) may concentration of flow in macro pores.
be any shape and is surrounded on all boundaries by a • The guess work in applying the right amount of
control barrier, such as a low dike or levee. The water water is reduced since there is no surface runoff
is confined until infiltrated into the soil. and nearly all water applied to a basin is infil-
trated and used or lost to deep percolation
Level basins have been used for many years for irrigat- within the basin.
ing orchards, citrus, grapes, alfalfa, small grains, and • Relatively light applications of water are pos-
grass pasture. Similar to the level basin principal, sible.
contour levee irrigation has been used for centuries • Automation can be adapted as follows: The time
for growing rice. of set, thus the amount of water applied, can be
controlled directly with time clock operated
Design of basin size depends on water supply flow gates in both head ditch and turnout(s) into a
rate, soil intake characteristics, and available soil basin. However, with relatively large flows,
water capacity. Basin irrigation can be adapted to powered gate control devices may require 110
most crops and certain marginal quality water not volt power or a large battery(s). Drop open and
usable in other methods of irrigation. This system is drop close gates that are operated by gravity and
best adapted for low to medium intake soils, where water pressure against the head gate are avail-
infiltration tends to be more uniform. able.
• Few turnout or outlet structures into a basin are
With proper design and management, level basin needed.
systems can result in high distribution uniformity and • Except where rice fields are drained, no
high overall application efficiency. Application effi- tailwater exists for further handling.
ciencies of individual irrigation events exceeding 90 • Level basin areas as large as 10 to 40 acres can
percent can be obtained. Lack of uniformity in soil be irrigated when large streams are available and
intake characteristics across the basin can reduce proper water control structures are used. Fields
distribution uniformity of water infiltrated, as can can be farmed using large equipment.
using inadequate inflow rates. • Increased yields may result because more uni-
form amounts of water can be applied. Uniform
(1) Advantages distribution results in improved germination,
• Level basin irrigation systems are the easiest to improved plant environment, and more uniform
manage of any system. Application volume is growth. Leaching of plant nutrients is controlled.
controlled by inflow time of set, assuming inflow Knowledge of required application volume and
rate is known. timing is very important when using this irriga-
• Properly designed and managed level basin tion system. Irrigation scheduling is discussed in
systems minimize deep percolation losses and Chapter 9, Irrigation Water Management.
high application efficiencies are attained. Distri- • With operator-owned laser controlled equipment,
bution uniformity can be greatly improved over annual maintenance or touch up can maintain
other irrigation systems. There is no runoff fields in as designed condition. Laser controlled
except for rice where flow through water is used equipment can grade the surface to within about
to maintain the desired water surface elevation. 0.025 to 0.05 foot of design elevation. Growers
• Leaching saline, sodic, and other toxic ions is have discovered several advantages of annual
easier than with other methods. The reason for laser controlled land leveling or planing, espe-
this is that water covers the entire soil surface cially with grower owned equipment and with
uniformly and at a reasonably uniform depth. annual crops. Advantages of a near perfect
The water has the opportunity to infiltrate system are realized every year instead of only the
evenly, thereby reducing residual salts that often first year after leveling. Annual costs are about
remain with graded border irrigation. Rainfall the same as re-leveling every 3 to 4 years.

Irrigation Guide
(2) Limitations • Net application of water (depth in inches) can

• Precision leveling is required for uniform water change as different crops are grown and as crop
distribution. If low or high areas exist, uneven rooting depth increases during the season. Typi-
infiltration occurs and distribution uniformity is cally time is varied rather than flow rate.
reduced. • Available water capacity of soil in the actual
• Laser controlled leveling or surface planing plant root zone can vary because depth varies
equipment is almost essential to obtain uniform with root development.
water distribution and high irrigation efficien- • Topographic and soils characteristics of the site
cies. influence basin shape, earthwork required, and
• The correct amount of water must be applied. the size of basins and fitting basins within areas
Over-application of water can lead to excessive of uniform soils. Hydraulically, basins do not
plant inundation, high water temperatures that have to be rectangular. Often earthwork volumes
damage plants, leaching of nutrients, and the use can be reduced if nonrectangular shapes are
of extra water. Too often when level basin irriga- used.
tion systems are first installed, the irrigator tends
to over irrigate, as 30 to 50 percent of water is no With this information, the length and width (or shape
longer lost to runoff. and size) of basins can be designed to obtain high
• To meet desirable basin size and shape objec- distribution uniformity and acceptable application
tives, earthwork volumes may be greater than for efficiencies. Basins that have the same size and shape
other surface irrigation methods. are desirable, but not required.
• Variable soil intake characteristics within a
single basin can create poor water distribution In general, the entire basin should be covered by water
uniformity. in less than half of the total required irrigation oppor-
• Large basin inflow structures require erosion tunity time. For highest distribution uniformity, total
control measures. More than one inlet onto a coverage should take place within a fourth of the
field may be desirable. required irrigation opportunity time. This minimizes
• Typically, surface drainage must be provided to the effect of variability of soil intake rates and irregu-
divert high rainfall events off the field. larities in the field surface.
• Relatively large streams of water are needed and
should be used. To maximize distribution uniformity on basins, the
• If the surface drainage system does not release inflow rate must be known, the design inflow time
precipitation runoff in the natural drainage flow must be monitored, and water must be applied accord-
path, easements may be required. ing to crop needs and soil conditions. Measuring
• Some direct evaporation when irrigating low delivery inflow is essential to knowing the inflow rate
intake soils results because of excessive infiltra- (Q). If a large delivery inflow is split into two or more
tion time (may be several hours). Also crop flows for irrigation heads, additional measurement
scalding can be a problem with some crops on may be needed.
low intake soils in very hot climates.
Carefully monitoring of design inflow time (T) is
(3) Planning and design considerations essential, especially when using large flows and short
Factors to be considered in system design include: irrigation sets. For example, with inflow Q = 15 ft3/s,
• Intake characteristics of the soil can change and design opportunity time T = 35 minutes, an extra
throughout the season as farm equipment com- turn-on time of 10 minutes can increase the applied
pacts the soil, from crop to crop, and from year depth of water 29 percent. An extra turn-on time of
to year. only 5 minutes means an increase of 14 percent. Care-
• Large flow rates are desirable to maximize distri- less timing can change a season long irrigation effi-
bution uniformity of infiltrated water and basin ciency from good to mediocre or poor quickly. The
size. irrigator must change heads of water when needed
• Flow resistance of the crop affects the minimum rather than convenient. This is a big step in proper
flow needed to provide uniform flow depth and water management.
time of advance across the basin.

Irrigation Guide
Applying water according to crop needs and in the • Uniform distribution of water and high applica-
amount the soil will hold maximizes irrigation water tion efficiency can be realized if flow-through
use. water is minimized or reused.
• Runoff from rainfall can be handled with little
(4) Design procedures additional structure requirement.
Basic design principles and procedures are described • Installation cost can be relatively low because
in NEH, Part 623 (Section 15), Chapter 4, Border land preparation is less where dikes and levees
Irrigation. Design procedures and examples provided are installed on the contour. Size of areas be-
in section 652.0605 are developed from state approved tween levees doesn’t need to be uniform.
computer programs using existing methodology from • Simple water level control devices can be used.
chapters 4 and 5 of this guide or from ARS publication, Automation at inflow structures to maintain a
Surface Irrigation Model, SRFR. constant water level in the area between levees
can reduce labor requirements and tailwater
losses.
(c) Contour levee (rice lands)
(2) Limitations
Contour levee irrigation is similar to level basin irriga- • Works best on soils that have a very low intake
tion except when growing rice. Water is retained by rate.
small dikes or levees that are constructed generally on • Soils having restriction to vertical water move-
the contour. Additional leveling may be required to ment, typically 18 to 30 inches below the soil
square up fields or to widen the contour dike interval. surface, minimize water lost to deep percolation.
• Land grading is generally required to maximize
Where rice is grown, water is applied to the level or area sizes between levees and provide a uniform
nearly level area (basins) between levees at a rate (in depth of water. Land leveling can be substantial
excess of the intake rate of the soil) to maintain if it is desirable to make all basins the same size.
ponding. Flow-through water is used to maintain a • Relatively large irrigation inflows are required to
preselected water surface elevation; thus some fill the basins. Flows larger than 5 ft3/s with
tailwater may be occasionally discharged from the single inlet structures require erosion protection.
lowest basin. This water can contain undesirable • Use is limited to soils with land slopes less than
chemicals. 0.5 percent.
• Residual pesticides can be carried downstream
Automated static non flow-through systems are being into public water through tailwater discharge.
developed in some areas to reduce water use and • Surface drainage is required in high rainfall
downstream surface water pollution. These systems areas.
must consider water surface distortion by wind in
addition to water surface evaporation and plant tran- (3) Planning & design considerations
spiration. Water surface sensors are used to monitor Design considerations are based on three critical
water depth in each basin. Two to four water surface periods of rice irrigation operation. They are flushing,
sensing stations in each basin are recommended. flood establishment, and flood maintenance.
When the water surface lowers to a predetermined
level, signals are transmitted to a controller at an inlet Flushing—A water supply should be available to flush
structure to allow additional water to enter the basin. the field between planting and flood establishment. To
prevent seed development problems and plant stress,
(1) Advantages water should not remain on the soil surface for more
• High irrigation efficiencies are obtainable on than 3 days.
soils that have a very low intake rate.
• Maximum utilization of rainfall can be realized Flood establishment—Flood establishment is the
by maintaining water surface elevations slightly application of water to inundate the soil surface to a
lower than flashboard crest elevations of water planned depth. A maximum flood-up period of less
control structures. than 6 days ensures uniform crop growth and matu-
rity. Pump or diversion flow rates should be sufficient

Irrigation Guide
to provide a minimum of 1 inch of water depth above (2) Limitations

the highest point in the field, plus that needed for • Except on uniform flat fields, extensive land
evapotranspiration during the flood-up period. preparation is required for initial installation.
• Typically, surface drainage must be provided to
Flood maintenance—Flood maintenance is the divert high rainfall events off the field.
application of water to maintain a planned water • Set times are generally short requiring frequent
elevation in the area between levees. To maintain changes.
inundation, water must be added to replace crop • Relatively large streams of water are needed and
evapotranspiration, lateral seepage losses of outside should be used.
levees, deep percolation, flow-through water, and less • Uniformity of the soil surface must be main-
effective rainfall for the period. Average daily evapo- tained. This essentially requires the use of laser
transpiration should be used for planning and design controlled grading and planing equipment. (This
so that the flood is maintained during the most critical is true with all surface irrigation systems.)
periods. Flow-through water should be minimized. • Where land leveling activities (or natural condi-
tions) expose soils with variable infiltration
(4) Design procedures characteristics, infiltration uniformity can be
Basic design principles and procedures are described poor.
in NEH, Section 15, Chapter 6, Contour Levee Irriga-
tion, and in the Texas Rice Irrigation Guide. (3) Planning and design considerations
Furrows should have adequate capacity for at least
half the volume of the net irrigation application. Where
(d) Level furrows it is undesirable to inundate a portion of the crop, or
where the soil has low intake, the furrow cross section
Level furrow irrigation is similar to both level basin should be large enough to contain all the volume or
and graded furrow irrigation. Laser controlled land depth of water applied per irrigation set.
leveling is required for highest irrigation uniformity.
Irrigation water must be applied rapidly, using as large (4) Design procedures
a stream as the furrow can contain, until the design Basic design principles and procedures are described
volume or depth of irrigation is applied. Dikes along in NEH Part 623 (Section 15), Chapter 5, Furrow
edges of each irrigation set can be used to contain Irrigation, second edition. This chapter contains tables
water. The end of the furrow or field is blocked so the for a limited selection of field conditions. Computer
water is contained and ponded within each furrow. programs are available that the planning technician
The same site conditions for level basins apply for can use to facilitate design. Design procedures and
level furrows. Level furrow irrigation is best suited to examples provided in section 652.0605 are developed
soils that have a moderate to low intake rate and from state approved computer programs using existing
moderate to high available water capacity. methodology from chapters 4 and 5 of this guide or
from ARS publication, Surface Irrigation Model,
(1) Advantages SRFR.
• High application uniformity can be attained with
a properly designed and managed system.
• Net irrigation application can be easily adjusted. (e) Graded borders
Light applications can be applied where water
can be introduced at both ends of the furrow or Graded border irrigation is a surface irrigation system
where outflow into a lower basin is allowed. where controlled surface flooding is used. The field to
• There is no runoff from irrigation. be irrigated is divided into strips of uniform width and
• This system is well suited to automation (see grade by parallel dikes or border ridges. Each strip is
discussion of level basin and borders). irrigated separately. Water is introduced at one end
• Level basin (furrow) irrigation systems are the and progressively covers the entire strip.
easiest to manage of all irrigation systems. Appli-
cation volume is controlled by time, assuming
the inflow rate is known.

Irrigation Guide
Irrigation of graded borders is a balanced advance and • Relative uniform topography is required to allow
recession kind of water application. The borders needed land leveling.
(border strips) slope in the direction of irrigation, and • Each border strip should have little or no cross
the ends are usually open. Each strip is irrigated by slope.
diverting a stream of water onto the border at the • Slope should be uniform in the direction of
upper end. The stream size must be such that the irrigation with no reverse slope.
desired volume of water is applied to the strip in a • A moderate level of irrigator skill and manage-
time equal to, or slightly less than that needed for the ment is required.
soil to absorb the net irrigation amount required. • Uniform light applications of water are difficult
When the desired volume of water has been delivered to apply.
onto the strip, the stream is turned off. Water tempo-
rarily stored on the ground surface moves down the (3) Planning and design consideration
strip to complete the irrigation. The following factors must be considered in the design
of a graded border system. When this information is
Uniform and efficient application of water depends on known, the border width, initial flow rates, and inflow
the use of an irrigation stream of proper size. Too times can be determined. Factors for consideration
large a stream results in inadequate irrigation at the are:
upper end of the strip and often excessive surface • Intake characteristics of the soil
runoff at the lower end. If the stream is too small, the • Available flow rate
lower end of the strip is inadequately irrigated and the • Flow resistance of the crop to be grown
upper end has excessive, deep percolation. Chapter 9, • Quantity (depth) of the water to be applied
Irrigation Water Management, discusses procedures to • Water quality
evaluate an irrigation event and develop necessary • Slope
adjustments in flow and time of set. • Erodibility of the soil
• Available water capacity of soil in actual plant
(1) Advantages root zone (depth varies with root development)
• Water with relatively high suspended sediment
loads can be used. As a general rule for a properly designed and managed
• Graded borders can be used in rotation with other graded border system, water should be shut off when
methods and systems of applying water including the wetting front has reached two-thirds to three-
sprinkler and furrow irrigation systems. fourths of the border strip length. Detailed designs are
• With proper system design and maintenance, this based on estimates of intake rates, net water applica-
method requires relatively little labor. Labor can tion, crop flow restriction (roughness coefficient),
be further reduced by system automation. erodibility of the soil, and net water application. All
• With properly designed and maintained systems these factors are variables even on the same soil type
and proper management, relatively high applica- and the same field. For this reason designs must allow
tion efficiencies can be obtained on medium for adjustments of flow rates, application times during
intake rate soils. system operation, or both. Some growers choose to
• Distance between border dikes can be set to fit deficit irrigate lower portions of the field to conserve
existing cultivation and harvesting equipment. water, reduce set time, and limit runoff.
Properly designed and constructed dikes can be
crossed by equipment. Slope in the direction of irrigation should not exceed
the following:
(2) Limitations
• Must have sufficient depth of soil after land Arid & semiarid - - - - Humid - - - -
leveling for growing crops. non-sod sod non-sod sod
• To attain the best distribution uniformity, fre- 2% 4% 0.5 % 2%
quent observation (or automation) is required to
shut off water at required times. Advancing
temporary surface storage completes irrigation
of the lower part of the border.

Irrigation Guide
(4) Design procedures (f) Graded furrow characteristics

Basic design principles and procedures are described
in NEH, Part 623 (Section 15) Chapter 4, Border Irriga- Graded furrow irrigation is a surface irrigation system
tion. Design procedures and examples provided in that applies water to the soil by allowing water to flow
section 652.0605 are developed from state approved downslope, in evenly spaced channels called furrows,
computer programs using existing methodology from rills, or corrugations. These small channels convey
chapters 4 and 5 of this guide or from the ARS publica- water down the field to the plants either growing in
tion Surface Irrigation Model, SRFR. the furrows or on beds between the furrows. Graded
furrow systems differ from border irrigation in that
(5) Modifications to graded border systems only part of the ground surface is covered with water.
Border surge (characteristics and design consider- Water enters the soil by both vertically downward and
ations)—The general principles of surge irrigation lateral infiltration. The furrow stream is applied until
work with graded borders the same as they do with the desired application depth is obtained. The time
graded furrows. The surge irrigation technique works that water must be supplied to furrows is dependent
best where the soil infiltration rate needs to be re- upon the volume of water required to refill the soil
duced (i.e., medium to coarse textured soils). Surge profile to the desired irrigation depth. The intake rate
irrigation can be used to reduce both the net and total of the soil, spacing of furrows, and length of the field
depth of irrigation water applied. (See discussion of all affect the amount of water to be applied. Surface
furrow surge irrigation procedures later in this chap- grading (land leveling) to provide uniform slopes is
ter.) The main difference is that an automated system essential to permit uniform water application and
capable of surging larger volumes of water to a single efficient irrigation.
border is required. This generally requires large gated
pipe or multiple risers. Developing equipment to Furrow irrigation also includes applying water with
automate ditch turnouts has been attempted, but such corrugations. Corrugations are typically used to irri-
equipment is not commercially available at the time of gate noncultivated close-growing field crops using
this writing. Border surge can also be accomplished by small closely-spaced channels directed down the
using a surge valve to split the water between two primary slope of the field. Corrugations are also used
adjacent borders via open ended pipelines and short to help guide irrigation streams in border strips. In this
ditches. case the design is based on the border design proce-
dures instead of the furrow method. Corrugations are
Border cablegation (characteristics and design frequently formed after the crop has been seeded,
consideration)—Cablegation is an excellent way to such as with small grains. In case of a perennial crop,
automate graded border systems providing the slope such as alfalfa, they are reshaped as needed to main-
(fall) along the head ditch or supply pipeline is ad- tain the desired channel cross section. Water applica-
equate. Approximately 0.2 foot per 1,000-foot grade is tion principles are the same as for furrow, with spac-
required on the supply pipeline at head ditch location. ing, size, shape, and retardance characteristics being
See discussion of furrow cablegation irrigation proce- the primary differences. Corrugation stream sizes are
dures later in this chapter. Large diameter gated pipe small in comparison to furrow streams, and lengths of
is generally required to handle the larger inflows run are relatively short because of the smaller flows
needed for borders than that needed by furrows. This generally used and the resistance to flow caused by
is a good way to provide accurate inflow times for the growing crops.
short borders that would otherwise take frequent
visits by the irrigator. One advantage with cablegation Current ARS research and academia support the zero-
is that inflow times are easily changed by a simple inertia theory of surface irrigation, especially with
adjustment of the cable speed controller. Water appli- furrow irrigation in lieu of the process in NEH, Part
cation design procedure is the same as for a manually 623 (Section 15) Chapter 5, Furrow Irrigation.
operated system.

Irrigation Guide
(1) Advantages surface, which is inconvenient to cross with farm

• The number of furrows irrigated at one time can equipment.
be adjusted to match available water delivery. • Labor requirements are high because irrigation
Adequate inflow to each furrow should always be streams must be carefully regulated to achieve
used. uniform advance and infiltration. Intake rate
• Uniform application can be obtained if adequate varies with each furrow because of tillage equip-
management practices are followed and the land ment compaction (soft versus hard furrow, or
has been properly prepared. wheel versus nonwheel furrow) and can require
• Initial capital investment is relatively low on adjustment of inflows in all furrows during the
lands not requiring extensive land leveling. The set. Adjustments of water inflow may be neces-
furrows and corrugations are constructed by sary several times during the set to maintain
readily available and commonly used farm imple- uniform advance rates in all furrows.
ments. • Adequate leaching of salts is more difficult than
• Water with relatively high suspended sediment with borders or sprinkler systems.
loads can be used. • Land leveling and preplant land grading or plan-
ing is normally required to provide uniform
(2) Limitations furrow grades.
• Water erosion hazards may be high, depending
on field slope and soil texture. Erosion is of (3) Planning and design considerations
increasing concern as farm managers become Factors that must be considered in graded furrow
more aware and as controls are placed on the design include:
amount of sediment that may leave the field and • Intake characteristics of the soil (or advance rate
enter public water bodies. of known inflows).
• Tailwater (runoff) is nearly always required by • Erodibility of the soil.
graded furrow irrigation to provide uniform or • Available water supply.
adequate irrigation in the lower part of the field. • Depth of water to be applied each irrigation.
• To get adequate water infiltrated in the lower • Furrow spacing (distance between furrows in
end of the field, the upper end is almost always which water will be introduced). This is quite
overwatered resulting in deep percolation losses. important when the irrigator is using inflows to
Graded furrow system modifications, such as alternate furrows.
tailwater reuse, surge, and cablegation, can • Field slope in direction of irrigation and cross
minimize deep percolation losses. slope.
• Salts from either the soil or water supply can • Length of furrows.
concentrate on ridges and beds. This can be a • Flow resistance of crop to be grown.
problem during seed germination and early • Available water capacity of soil in plant root
stages of plant development even with salt- zone (depth of root zone varies with root devel-
tolerant crops. Planting on ridge slopes and good opment).
water management help minimize this limitation.
• With some low and high intake soils and wide With this information the flow rate per furrow and
planting beds, lateral spread of water may not be inflow time can be designed for desirable uniformity.
adequate to provide complete irrigation across Amounts of deep percolation below the crop root zone
the bed in a reasonable irrigation time. and runoff can be estimated.
• With high intake soils the difference in intake
opportunity time along the furrow, because of Optimum distribution uniformity for a given system
the time required for the stream to advance, can occurs when uniform grade is in the direction of
make it difficult to obtain high distribution irrigation. Typically a constant flow rate is turned into
uniformity. Furrow irrigation system modifica- the furrow for the entire irrigation set. Flow rates and
tions, such as tailwater reuse, surge, and cut set times are designed to provide a desirable net
back, can minimize nonuniformity. application depth for a planned length of furrow.
• Furrows and corrugations create a rough field Runoff is essential beyond that part of the field receiv-
ing adequate irrigation. Runoff from the field can be

Irrigation Guide
reduced where deficit irrigation is planned and can be (5) Modifications to graded furrow irrigation
tolerated by the crop in the lower part of the field. systems
Seasonal changing of soil intake characteristics re- Several modifications to graded furrow irrigation
quires adjustments in inflow rates and time of set. systems can improve uniformity of applied and infil-
trated water and increase application efficiency. Some
Normally, one furrow is between each crop row ex- are quite easy and cost effective to automate. These
cept for some bedded crops where two or more crop modifications will be described individually as design
rows are planted on each bed. In these cases the procedures and field application techniques apply to
furrows are along each pair of crop rows. See figure each. The modifications include:
6–2. The size (width and depth) of furrows and the
spacing between rows depend on: the soil type, the (i) Graded furrow with cutback of inflow—In
crop, local cultural practices; and, on cultivation and this type of furrow system, a large flow of water is
harvesting equipment. Spacing of gates on gated pipe initially turned into the furrow. When the water has
and setting of siphon tubes should match furrow nearly reached the end of the furrow, the inflow rate is
spacing on field crops. reduced, or cutback. This procedure can increase
uniformity of infiltrated water throughout the furrow
(4) Design procedures length and reduce runoff. This modification has not
Basic design principles and procedures are contained had widespread use because of the additional labor
in NEH Part 623 (Section 15), Chapter 5, Furrow required to manually reduce the flow rate and then
Irrigation and in ARS publication, SRFR, A computer reset the extra water that becomes available from the
program for simulating flow in surface irrigation, cutback. Cutback and resetting new water requires
Furrows-Basins-Borders (WCL Report #17 1990). continual diligence by the irrigator to keep up with the
Planning technicians can use design charts where they new turn-on and turn-off times. The cablegation tech-
have been prepared, do the calculations by using a nique was developed as an attempt to automate cut-
small calculator, or by use of a computer. Many pro- back systems.
grams have been developed for computer use. One is
the ARS model, SRFR. See section 652.0605 for design Most surge irrigation equipment has options available
procedures and examples. for multiple half cycle times, for use when the water
advance reaches the end of the field. This "soak cycle"
approximates a cutback system.
The following guidelines provide a practical procedure:

• Cutback initial flow when water reaches about
Figure 6–2 Typical furrow and bed arrangement for row
crops three-fourths of the distance down the furrow.
• The inflow rate is typically reduced to half the
initial rate.
• The reduced inflow rate should be applied until
the desired application amount is reached.
Design procedures—Basic design principles and

procedures are discussed in NEH, Part 623 (Section
15), Chapter 5, Furrow Irrigation. Design procedures
and examples provided in section 652.0605 are devel-
Furrow
Single row bed Double row bed oped from state approved computer programs using
existing methodology from chapters 4 and 5 of this
guide or from ARS publication, Surface Irrigation
Model, SRFR.

Irrigation Guide
(ii) Graded furrow with blocked ends—This Design procedures:

modification to graded furrow irrigation has the poten- Basic design principles and procedures are presented
tial to reduce or eliminate runoff and to improve water in NEH, Part 623 (Section 15), Chapter 5, Furrow
distribution uniformity and application efficiency. The Irrigation, for level furrows. See section 652.0605 for
ends of furrows are blocked, thereby ponding occurs design procedures and examples.
in the lower part of the field. A tailwater ditch can be
used to cause reverse flow in those furrows where (iii) Graded furrow with modified slope—Slope
water has not reached the end of the furrow. Infiltra- modification to graded furrow irrigation has the poten-
tion is increased in this lower end. For best water tial to increase uniformity of infiltrated water. The two
distribution uniformity, blocked end furrow irrigation types of slope modification are:
systems should pond water on the lower fourth to • Slope that is gradually reduced throughout the
third of the field. Care must be exercised not to flood entire length of the field.
the plants in this area if they will not tolerate inunda- • Slope that is graded in the upper part of the field
tion. and level in the lower part.
Since runoff is eliminated, potential pollution from In the first type, slope in the direction of irrigation is
nutrients and pesticides to downstream surface water gradually reduced throughout the full length of the
can also be substantially reduced. However, all the field. Theory is to obtain a more uniform opportunity
applied irrigation water is now infiltrated, thereby time for infiltration throughout the furrow length.
increasing the potential for pollution of ground water. Increased grades at the upper end decrease advance
Often blocking furrow ends only trades runoff for deep time for water to reach the lower part of the field. The
percolation loss. When converting to graded furrows irrigator must adjust inflow rates to create a uniform
with blocked ends, adjustments to inflow rates and advance in all furrows. Adjustment throughout the
possibly set time are essential. Inflow rates and set season is also usually required.
time are typically reduced. Blocked end furrow sys-
tems work best on low gradient fields. In the second type, slope in the direction of irrigation
can be divided into two parts—a graded upper field
Advantages: and a level lower field. Irrigation tailwater runoff from
• Eliminates runoff. the sloping upper field irrigates the lower field. Slope
• Application uniformity can be increased. changes typically occur at one-half, two-thirds, or
three-fourths of the total furrow length.
Limitations:
• Limited to field slopes where the backed up or Modified slope furrow irrigation systems can have
ponded area is between a fourth and a third of some of the highest distribution uniformities of any
the length of the field. system. However, they also require the most intense
• Furrows must have a large enough cross section water management.
to contain the ponded water.
• An increase in labor is required to watch and Advantages:
adjust inflows to match advance and infiltration • High potential for increased irrigation unifor-
in all furrows and prevent dike overtopping at mity.
the lower end. • Limited (or eliminated) tailwater runoff.
• Decreased deep percolation.
Planning and design considerations:
The volume of water delivered to the furrow is equal Disadvantages:
to the average intake over the furrow length. The • Higher irrigator skill and labor are required.
design of a graded furrow with blocked ends is similar • Adaptable only on certain topographic locations.
to that for a level furrow in that the volume of inflow • Most difficult of all irrigation systems to manage.
needed to provide the desired amount of application is • Works best for design conditions.
provided to the furrow. Difficulty comes in accounting • Requires adjusting furrow inflow rates through-
for and adjusting inflows for individual furrow intake out the season and from year to year.
characteristics; i.e., hard versus soft furrows.

Irrigation Guide
Design procedures: Design procedures:

Design each slope section as a separate field. Except Design procedures for a contour furrow system are the
for the upper most field where the water supply is in a same as those for graded furrow.
head ditch or pipeline, tailwater runoff from the higher
elevation field is the furrow inflow for the next lower (v) Level furrow—Furrows are on nearly flat or
field. Because of changing intake characteristics both level grade. A constant flow rate is turned into each
seasonally and yearly, furrow inflow is difficult to furrow for the entire irrigation set. Flow rates and set
project for the lower fields. Typically lower value times are designed to provide a desirable net applica-
crops are grown on the lowest field. tion depth for a planned length of furrow. There is no
runoff. Where the tail end of furrows is connected with
Planning and design considerations are the same as a ditch, outflow from the faster advancing furrows can
those for graded furrow. enter adjacent furrows from the tail end. This can
improve uniformity of infiltration throughout the field.
(iv) Contour furrow—Where downslope irrigation Total fall in the length of run cannot exceed half the
grade is excessive, the direction of irrigation furrows net depth of application.
can be turned cross slope or on the contour. This will
reduce the furrow grade. Unless the field slope is quite Advantages (see section 652.0601(d):
uniform, irrigation grades can be variable; a factor that • High application uniformity can be attained.
tends to reduce distribution uniformity, application • Net irrigation application can be easily adjusted.
efficiency, and to increase runoff. On moderately • There is no irrigation runoff.
sloping land, a principal concern is the possibility of • Well suited to automation.
furrow streamflows breaking across ridges or beds. • Easiest to manage of all irrigation systems.
This is more of a problem with crops, such as onions • With a uniform water supply, time of set deter-
and beans, where shallow furrows are used or where mines application amount.
surface residue is in the furrows. Where large water
supplies are available and land slope is nearly level, Limitations (see section 652.0601(d):
furrows can be directed across the slope to convert a • Except on uniform flat fields, extensive land
graded furrow irrigation system to a level furrow preparation is required for initial installation.
system. This often delays land leveling cost by several • Providing surface drainage in moderate to high
years. rainfall areas is essential.
• Set times are generally short requiring frequent
Advantages: changes.
• Irrigation grades are decreased. • Relatively large streams of water are needed and
• Erosion can be reduced. should be used, otherwise infiltration uniformity
• Can be used on field slopes that exceed desirable can be poor.
irrigation grade. • Uniformity of soil surface must be maintained.
• Can minimize or delay land preparation costs.
(vi) Graded furrow using surge technique—
Limitations: Surge irrigation is the intermittent application of water
• Point rows may result where field slopes are not to furrows or borders creating a series of on-off peri-
uniform. ods of either constant or variable time intervals. Usu-
• Head and tailwater ditches may be on erosive ally the water is alternated (switched) between two
grades. irrigation sets at predetermined, often varied time
• Overtopping during precipitation events can increments until water has advanced to the end of the
increase erosion. field or until irrigation is complete. Surge has the
• High irrigator skill and labor are required. potential, with good management, to significantly
• Not suited to areas with high intensity rainfall decrease deep percolation and runoff, and signifi-
events unless adequate provisions are made to cantly improve infiltration uniformity. Under some
control erosion. conditions it can reduce furrow erosion. Surge irriga-
tion is most effective on fields where it is desirable to
reduce soil intake rate.

Irrigation Guide
During the first on period, the inflow wetting front Advantages:

advances down the furrow some distance, typically 20 • Generally less water is used, distribution unifor-
to 25 percent of the furrow length. During the off mity is increased, deep percolation at the upper
period, water is applied to a second furrow typically end of the field is decreased, and overall applica-
on a different set. Each time water is turned on, it tion efficiency is increased.
progresses more rapidly across the wetted area. More • Surging times can be easily adjusted when using
flow is then available to progress further down the dry timer flow control valves.
furrow. The increased advance is caused by the de- • Small application amounts can be applied.
crease in water intake rate in the previously wetted • Where water is pumped, energy use can be
area and decreased furrow roughness. By alternating reduced.
flows in furrows, the total advance time and volume of • Overall, deep percolation and runoff can be
water applied are both reduced when compared to reduced.
standard continuous flow methods. Generally, surging • One controller can be moved from site to site to
results in more uniform water infiltration throughout operate additional valve bodies.
the length of the furrow. Figure 6–3 illustrates how
surge flow compares with conventional steady flow Limitations:
furrow irrigation methods. • Normal opening and closing of valves for surging
is not practical for manual operation. However,
Irrigation water can be surged manually to reduce the manually operated long surge cycles on cracking
required advance time to the end of the field. These clay soils may be advantageous.
high labor systems are typically used on recently tilled • Care must be taken to assure adequate water is
soils and on soils that crack when dry. being applied, especially at the lower end of the
field.
Some irrigators use surge as a labor saving device, • Additional cost is associated with surge valve(s)
operating two irrigation sets with each water change. and controller(s).
Because half the water is applied to each irrigation set, • When surge equipment is used on clay and clay
total set time may need to increase to provide an loam soils, careful management is necessary to
adequate irrigation. Where overirrigation has occurred avoid excessive field runoff, especially if ad-
in the past, less water is applied at better uniformity equate water is applied to the plant root zone at
within the same set time. the lower end of the field.
Once the advance phase is complete, surge valve time Planning and design considerations:
interval can be set to provide a cutback irrigation For many soils, experience has been that the same
inflow (short equal time intervals on each side). Some stream size under surge flow advances to the end of
refer to this action as a soak cycle. Typically runoff is the field on both sets in nearly the same amount or
reduced without sacrificing irrigation uniformity down less time it takes one conventional set in continuous
the furrow. flow. Flows advance to the end of twice as many
furrows with the same amount of water and time.
The system uses a battery powered, timer controlled Surge flows allow light irrigations to be applied more
valve that controls the direction of the irrigation flow. efficiently (for germination of new crops, for crops
This is usually accomplished with a butterfly type with shallow root systems, and between rainfall events
valve as illustrated in figure 6–4. Solar powered panels in semiarid climatic regions).
are available for battery charging. Programmable
controllers are also available. The control valve alter- Many existing gated pipe systems can be converted to
nately directs the irrigation head to flow in opposite surge. Depending on existing outlets from a buried
directions from the valve, usually in gated pipe. Modifi- pipe system (or from a head ditch), layout of gated
cations have been adapted for use on open concrete pipe for a surge system may be relatively easy. Per-
lined ditches using gated ports. haps only surge valves are needed. Solar battery
powered, time clock controlled, commercial valves are
readily available. Valve controllers that can be pro-
grammed in variable surge times during the advance

Irrigation Guide

,,

Figure 6–3 Surge irrigation versus conventional continuous flow furrow irrigation
,,

Left surge Right surge Surge
Conventional

,,

End of first surge cycle
,,

Conventional

,,

End of second surge cycle
,,

Conventional

,,

End of third surge cycle
,,

Conventional

Irrigation Guide
Figure 6–4 Butterfly type surge valves
Single butterfly type valve
Brass bushings
Gear key
O-rings
Actuator Diverted left
Butterfly flap
Flap seals
Pipe gaskets
Valve gasket
Diverted right
Double butterfly type valve
Diverted left
Diverted right

Irrigation Guide
cycle are recommended. They should also be program- When using any of these methods, the planning techni-
mable for short duration surges after the water has cian and irrigator must realize that to apply the same
reached the end of the furrow. This type of valve amount of water, the surge sets need to be allowed to
allows maximum flexibility in managing surge irriga- run longer than they previously ran to irrigate the
tion. same area. This is true unless only a light application
is desired, and is especially the case when irrigating
Sometimes costs and labor can be reduced by using low intake soils.
several valve bodies with one controller. This allows
leaving the valve bodies and gated pipe in place across Design procedures:
the field(s) during the season, or with an extra valve Design procedures and examples provided in section
body, the next irrigation set can be readied while the 652.0605 are developed from state approved computer
existing set is in operation. Only one controller is programs using existing methodology from chapters 4
moved from place to place when each irrigation set is and 5 of this guide, or from ARS publication Surface
started. Irrigation Model, SRFR.
Surge flow irrigation requires a greater level of man- (vii) Graded furrow using cablegation tech-
agement skill than conventional furrow irrigation. nique—This modification to graded furrow irrigation
Most irrigators need assistance when first operating a can potentially decrease runoff, increase uniformity of
surge system. They need to be able to observe the infiltration, and decrease labor required. A plug in-
progress of each irrigation during different parts of the serted inside a gated pipe at the head ditch location is
irrigation season as infiltration changes and to make pushed slowly downslope through the pipe by water
the appropriate adjustments in surge times and flow pressure. As the plug moves past the gates, water
rates. Field observations and evaluations of each flows out the gates. Furrow flow (gate discharge)
irrigation application can help in fine tuning surge gradually reduces until the free water surface in the
cycling times. Adjustments to gates are necessary to gated pipeline is lower than the gate opening. The plug
maintain uniform advance in all furrows. Screening of is restrained by a small cable or rope attached to a
irrigation canal and reservoir water is necessary to hydraulic or electric braking device located at the
limit debris from partly plugging valves and gates in head end of the gated pipe. The speed of the cable
gated pipe. Constant and uniform flow from gate controls the time of set and depth of application.
openings is essential throughout the irrigation set. Cablegation has some of the same benefits as cutback
irrigation. Maximum furrow inflow occurs at the
Alternative methods for providing proper on-times beginning of irrigation as the moving plug clears the
include: opened gate. Figure 6–5 illustrates the general arrange-
• Variable time-constant distance advance, vari- ment of controls, pipes, and outlets in a cablegation
able cutback time method—This method varies system. Large gates, or risers on a buried pipeline, can
the times of surges advancing in the furrow and be used to irrigate borders.
the time of surges after water reaches the end of
the furrow. Time adjustments can often be made Advantages:
so water in the furrow never quite recedes during • Reduces labor. The system is essentially an
a surge, yet runoff is kept very low. automated gated pipe system.
• Variable time-constant distance advance, con- • Easy to adjust speed of plug (irrigation set time).
stant cutback method—This method varies the • Improves distribution uniformity. Can reduce
times of surges advancing in the furrow and uses runoff and deep percolation.
a constant time for surges after water has • Variable grades along the gated pipe can be
reached the end of the furrow. This method may accounted for.
be most beneficial with moderate to high intake
soils. Limitations:
• Constant time-variable distance method—This • Precise grade is required for gated pipe to
method is used when the surge controller cannot achieve uniformity of gate discharge (furrow
automatically utilize variable surge times. inflow).

Irrigation Guide
• Screening to remove trash in the irrigation water In this figure, the outlets (a) nearest the plug have the
is necessary. greatest pressure head; therefore, the greatest outflow.
• Some water is lost because of bypass require- As the plug moves down grade, the pressure head
ments as the first few furrows in the set are decreases for any one gate causing the outflow to
irrigated and the plug has moved far enough to decrease (b). This process continues until outflow
allow water to discharge from all outlets. ceases because the outlet is above the water level in
• Cablegation works best where gated pipeline the pipe (c).
grades are between 0.2 and 2.0 feet per 100 feet
(0.2 to 2.0%). Partial pipe flow condition is essential for cablegation
to function. Once gates are adjusted for the desirable
Planning and design considerations: furrow flow, adjustments for following irrigations are
A single pipe is used to transmit water along the upper seldom necessary.
edge of the field and to distribute equal amounts to
furrows or borders. The pipe is sized large enough to Shortly after the plug reaches the end of the pipe and
carry the head of water at the head ditch grade with- the last furrow has been irrigated the desired amount
out completely filling the pipe (partial pipe flow). The of time, water is shut off and the plug is removed by
plug causes water from the supply source to fill the removing a cap on the end of the gated pipe. The cap
pipe and flow out the outlets. See figure 6–5.
Figure 6–5 General arrangement of controls, pipe, and outlets
Pipe cross sections showing water levels upstream from plug
Plug has no Flow almost Near plug

influence (6c) stopped (6b) maximum
flow (6a)
30% Air
Reel for Water Water
cable with Water
speed control
Pulley Traveling
PVC pipe, partially
Outlet or fully buried plug
Supply Water level

Cable
Concrete
stand pipe
Furrows
previously irrigated Being irrigated
To be
irrigated

Irrigation Guide
is replaced and the cable rewound onto the winch. The • Depending on chemical application and manage-
plug is reattached to the cable at the head of the pipe ment, runoff can contain high levels of nutrients
ready for the next irrigation. Water brakes, hydraulic and pesticides. This can create a potential hazard
rams, or electrical winch devices control the speed of to wildlife, especially water fowl that are drawn
the cable and plug. The water brake is a low cost, but to ponded water.
very effective, water powered device. See ARS publi-
cation ARS-21, Cablegation Systems for Irrigation, Planning and design considerations:
for details of speed control devices. Rewinding of the Items to consider for this type of system are topogra-
cable is generally done by hand. phy and layout of irrigated fields and the irrigators
management level and desire. Figure 6–6 displays a
Design procedures: typical tailwater recovery and reuse system in con-
Design methodology is reviewed in ARS publication junction with an underground distribution pipeline.
ARS-21, Cablegation Systems for Irrigation, and
several supplements published in recent years review- Where the holding pond is located at the head end of
ing current research. Design procedure and examples the field or farm, only a small pumping plant and
are presented in section 652.0605. pump sump are required at the lower end. This alter-
native allows the pumping of tailwater as it occurs.
(viii) Graded furrow with tailwater reuse The peak flow used to size the pump is generally less
(pumpback)—This modification to graded furrow than half of the irrigation inflow, and a smaller diam-
irrigation can increase overall field application effi- eter pipe is needed. The pump can be cycled or have
ciency since most of the runoff or tailwater is returned float control switches that automatically turn on and
to the head of the same field or to a lower elevation turn off the pump as runoff collects in the sump, or it
field for reuse. Furrow inflow rates are generally can be set to run continuously during the runoff
higher for decreased advance times and improved period. Regardless where the holding pond is located,
distribution uniformity. The components of a tailwater it should have the capacity to store runoff from one
reuse (pumpback) facility includes tailwater collection complete irrigation set.
ditches, a pumping plant with sump, pipeline(s), and a
holding pond at either the lower end or the head end Where siphon tubes, spiles, or ditch turnouts are used,
of a field or farm. cutback irrigation can result when water is returned to
the supply ditch only during the first half of the irrigation
Advantages: set. While pumping back to the presently used head
• Offsite runoff is decreased, thereby decreasing ditch, the water surface in the head ditch raises, causing
potential pollution of other surface water. siphon tube, spile, or turnout discharge to increase. This
• Wastewater is available for irrigation or other on- is generally undesirable. Where storage is inadequate,
farm uses. additional furrows must be set to use the pumpback
• Better utilization of water delivered to the farm. water. Where gated pipe is used, pumpback flows are
• Furrow irrigation application uniformity is in- generally uniform and constant during the irrigation set.
creased. Additional gates are opened to discharge the pumpback
• Soluble chemicals contained in tailwater are water. To reduce labor and odd irrigation set times, it is
reapplied to cropland. typically easier to use the pumpback water on new sets.
However, storage to contain runoff from one complete
Limitations: irrigation is necessary.
• Irrigated cropland is often taken out of produc-
tion for the reservoir or sump. Many times ponds Where erosion is present, a small, shallow sediment
can be located in odd shaped corners that are not settling basin should be installed just upstream of the
farmed. sump pump or inlet end of the holding pond. A shallow
• Flow to downstream users depending on runoff basin can be cleaned relatively easily with available
is reduced. farm machinery, while a large pond or pit may require
cleaning with large construction type equipment.

Irrigation Guide
Erosion should be minimized with proper design and Many pumps are available for use in tailwater recovery
installation of collection ditches and sump or pit facilities. Tailwater runoff can contain suspended
inflow structures. Irrigation tailwater should enter the sediment, plant debris, worms, insects, and farm
sump or pond in a protected inlet structure (i.e., pipe chemicals. Either sufficient screening is required to
drop inlet) at or near the pump inlet. Suspended silts keep the material out of the pump, or a pump is se-
and clays are then pumped back onto the field. lected that can handle the material. Pumping heads are
generally low; therefore, horsepower requirements are
Tailwater collection ditches excavated below furrow generally low. Electric power is preferred to drive
outlet grade are the major cause of erosion when pumps because tractor and diesel engines are typically
furrow irrigating highly erosive soils. Furrow outflow overpowered. However, for limited use a farm tractor
is often allowed to drop several inches into the may be desirable.
tailwater collection ditches. An erosion headfall devel-
ops and works its way upstream in the furrow. This Tailwater reuse facility design requires reasonable
condition effectively removes soil and carries it into estimates of runoff rate and volume. A field evaluation
the tailwater collection ditch. Narrow vegetative strips can be provided for an irrigation event to estimate the
(10 to 15 feet wide) and hand placed straw in the runoff, or runoff can be measured. A field evaluation
furrows just upstream of the tailwater collection ditch or tailwater flow measurement should be made during
are effective means to control this type of erosion. periods of maximum expected tailwater runoff (i.e.,
Buried pipelines with risers at furrow grade can also second irrigation after furrows are smoothed by previ-
be used. ous irrigation and before maximum crop water use).
Figure 6–6 Typical layout for a tailwater recovery and reuse facility
Collector
ditch
Return
pipeline
Res.

Irrigation Guide
Measurement of runoff is relatively easy using por- • Flow onto fields from contour ditches can be
table measuring weirs, flumes, or small orifice plates. semi-automated by use of continuously moving
Seepage, evaporation, and overflow losses occur in the portable dams. The ditch generally must be well
recovery, storage, and transport of tailwater. Losses sodded since flow is typically over the bank. This
can be as high as 25 to 35 percent of the runoff volume works well with permanent crops, such as al-
depending on the many variables and management falfa, clover, and pasture.
skills of the irrigator.
(2) Limitations
Design procedures: • High labor requirement until system is fully
See Chapter 7, Farm Distribution Components, for established, then labor can be low.
additional discussion, design procedures, and examples. • Should not be used on highly erodible soils
unless stabilized by permanent sod type crop. It
is recommended crop establishment be done
(g) Contour ditch with a temporary sprinkler system.
• Open ditch maintenance is high.
Contour ditch is a form of controlled surface flooding.
This system consists of installing a series of irrigation (3) Planning and design considerations
ditches or gated pipe running across the slope on the The most frequently encountered problem with con-
contour with little grade (< 0.1 ft per 100 ft). Water is tour ditch irrigation is maintaining adequate water
discharged with siphon tubes, from gated pipe, or spread throughout the length of run. The more uni-
allowed to flow over the banks of the contour ditch form the field slope, the more uniform the irrigation
uniformly along the length of the irrigation set. Gener- flow is across the irrigation set. Corrugations installed
ally, no flow constraints, such as dikes or levees, are down the principal grade are often used to help main-
along the length of run. In theory the water moves tain uniform distribution.
down the slope as a uniform sheet, but in practice it
generally does not. The flow mostly moves to low Contour ditch systems are generally designed from
areas and becomes nonuniformly distributed. Runoff local experience. The planning technician must follow
is collected in the next downslope contour ditch and up with the irrigator to assist in making adjustments as
redistributed. Pasture and hay are the crops typically necessary to improve distribution uniformity. Table
grown. Corrugations can be used to help irrigation 6–2 provides estimates of design efficiencies. Under
flows. best site and management conditions, overall applica-
tion efficiencies of 35 to 60 percent are possible.
The spacing between the ditches is governed by topog- Typically, efficiency is in the range of 25 to 50 percent.
raphy, soil intake rate, and net irrigation application. Collection of runoff and redistribution is necessary to
This type system is applicable to slopes up to 15 per- obtain these levels. See table 6–3 for general guide-
cent. On slopes of more than 2 percent, it should be lines for recommended maximum length of run using a
restricted to sod forming crops. This system is adapt- unit width stream of 0.01 cubic foot per second per
able to the steep residual soils in foothill areas and is foot.
generally used where season long water is not avail-
able at a reasonable cost. (4) Design procedures
Designs for contour ditch irrigation systems are diffi-
(1) Advantages cult because the ground surface, slopes, and lengths of
• Contour ditch is low in establishment costs, run vary. Only rough approximations can be made,
requiring very little field preparation. However, and adjustments after initial irrigations are necessary.
land leveling or grading between the ditches can Basic surface irrigation system design principles and
improve the uniform distribution of water. field experience have been used to develop design
• Irrigation efficiencies can be reasonable (50 to tables and computer programs. See section 652.0605
60%) where soils are underlain by impermeable for design tables, procedures, and examples.
layers and where diligence is practiced for reuse
of runoff.

Irrigation Guide
Table 6–2 Recommended design efficiencies for contour ditch irrigation systems 1/
Field slope 2/ Design slope - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Border intake family - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

% % 0.1 0.3 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0
0.00 - 0.10 0.10 50 50 55 60 60 60 60

0.10 - 0.25 0.20 50 50 55 60 60 60 60
0.25 - 0.50 0.40 50 50 55 50 60 60 60
0.50 - 1.00 0.75 50 50 55 50 60 60 60
1.00 - 2.00 1.50 40 45 50 50 55 55 55
2.00 - 4.00 3.00 40 45 50 50 55 55 55
4.00 - 6.00 5.00 35 40 40 40 45 45 45
6.00 - 9.00 7.50 35 40 40 40 45 45 45
9.00 - 15.00 11.00 35 40 40 40 45 45 45
1/ These recommended design efficiencies are based on good maintenance and management. Land smoothing between contour ditches
is assumed.
2/ With field slopes of less than 2 percent, very smooth topography, and with nearly parallel contours, an alternative system, such as graded
borders, may provide better overall control of irrigation water.

Irrigation Guide
Table 6–3 Contour ditch irrigation—length of run, maximum length of run, and average irrigation time (unit width stream =
0.01 cubic foot per second per foot)
Border Net Approx. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Maximum length of run (ft) 1/ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

intake irrig. irrig. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - slope groups (%) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
family appl. time - - - - 1 to 2 - - - - - - - - 2 to 4 - - - - - - - - 4 to 8 - - - - - - - 8 to 16 - - - - - - 16 to 32 - - -
MST VST MST VST MST VST MST VST MST VST
(in) (hr) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft)
0.1 1.0 4.9 250 500 275 300 125 200 90 150 60 100
2.0 15.0 250 500 175 300 125 200 90 150 60 100
3.0 31.0 250 500 175 300 125 200 90 150 60 100
4.0 50.0 250 500 175 300 125 200 90 150 60 100
0.3 1.0 3.6 250 440 175 300 125 200 90 150 60 100
2.0 5.1 250 500 275 300 125 200 90 150 60 100
3.0 8.2 250 500 175 300 125 200 90 150 60 100
4.0 12.0 250 500 175 300 125 200 90 150 60 100
0.5 1.0 2.2 250 330 275 300 125 200 90 150 60 100
2.0 4.3 250 420 175 300 125 200 90 150 60 100
3.0 6.6 250 490 175 300 125 200 90 150 60 100
4.0 7.1 250 500 175 300 125 200 90 150 60 100
5.0 9.1 250 500 275 300 125 200 90 150 60 100
6.0 11.0 250 500 175 300 125 200 90 150 60 100
1.0 1.0 1.2 175 175 175 185 125 200 90 150 60 100
2.0 2.1 215 215 175 225 125 200 90 150 60 100
3.0 3.2 250 250 175 260 125 200 90 150 60 100
4.0 4.4 2250 275 175 290 125 200 90 150 60 100
5.0 5.7 250 305 175 300 125 200 90 150 60 100
6.0 7.0 250 330 175 300 125 200 90 150 60 100
1.5 1.0 .08 125 125 135 135 125 140 90 150 60 100
2.0 1.5 150 150 160 160 125 16 90 150 60 100
3.0 2.2 175 175 175 185 125 195 90 150 60 100
4.0 3.0 190 190 175 200 125 200 90 150 60 100
5.0 3.8 205 205 175 215 125 200 90 150 60 100
6.0 4.6 220 220 175 240 125 200 90 150 60 100
2.0 1.0 .07 100 100 105 105 110 110 90 120 60 100
2.0 1.2 115 115 125 125 125 130 90 135 60 100
3.0 107 130 130 135 135 125 145 90 150 60 100
4.0 2.3 145 145 150 150 125 160 90 150 60 100
5.0 2.9 155 155 165 165 125 170 90 150 60 100
6.0 3.5 170 170 175 175 125 180 90 150 60 100
3.0 1.0 0.5 70 70 75 75 80 80 85 85 60 100

2.0 0.8 85 85 90 90 90 90 90 100 60 100
3.0 1.2 90 90 95 95 100 100 90 105 60 100
4.0 106 100 100 105 105 110 110 90 115 60 100
5.0 2.0 110 110 110 110 115 115 90 120 60 100
6.0 2.4 115 115 120 120 125 125 90 130 60 100
1/ MST - Moderately Smooth Topography—Contours are essentially parallel and cross slope is not more than a fourth the general downslope.
No rills, dikes, or furrows are present.
VST - Very Smooth Topography—Contours are very smooth and nearly parallel, and cross slope does not exceed 0.1 percent. All minor
irregularities have been removed by land smoothing.

Irrigation Guide
(h) Furrow erosion control directly in ml/L. Conversion from volume to weight is
necessary. This conversion can be estimated at 1 gram
Irrigation induced furrow erosion is a major problem = 1 mL, or can be determined by calibration using
on highly erodible soils with slopes as flat as 1 per- local soils. Furrow outflow rate throughout the irriga-
cent. Even soils that have flatter slopes can have tion, furrow length and spacing must be known to
erosion problems. Maximum allowable furrow flow is, estimate sediment yield in tons per acre for that spe-
in most part, determined by the amount of erosion that cific field condition. Many tests are required with fully
may occur. Soils may erode if the furrow velocity controlled conditions before collected data can be
exceeds about 0.5 feet per second. Figure 5–13 in NEH accurately expanded to other conditions, such as other
Part 623 (Section 15), Chapter 5, Furrow Irrigation, soils, slopes, residue amounts, and furrow flow,
shows velocity and depth of flow for various stream length, shape, and roughness.
sizes and grades in a standard shaped furrow. Recom-
mended maximum allowable stream sizes are: The planning technician can suggest several alterna-
Q = 15 / S erosion resistant soils tives to the water user for reducing furrow erosion to
Q = 12.5 / S average soils acceptable levels. For example, conversion to a low
Q = 10 / S moderately erodible soils application rate sprinkler system may be necessary to
Q =5/S highly erodible soils (This value can reduce erosion to desirable levels. With highly erosive
range from 3 to 9, depending on soils, furrow irrigation can be difficult to manage in a
erodibility of soils.) manner that allows water to be applied uniformly and
efficiently and yet have minimal erosion. High levels of
where: water management and residue intensive cultural
Q = gpm per furrow practices are generally required when surface irrigat-
S = slope in percent ing highly erosive soils on field slopes of more than 1
percent.
A practical upper limit for inflow rate is about 50
gallons per minute, regardless of furrow slope. Some methods and practices that can reduce field
Streams larger than 50 gallons per minute generally erosion and sediment deposition in tailwater collec-
require a much larger furrow cross section, or furrow tion facilities and surface water bodies are:
ridge inundation occurs.
Improve water application—Change inflow rate,
Sampling the amount of sediment coming off a field change time of set, or use surge technique. All param-
being planned for irrigation, or one similar to the one eters must be evaluated so as to not increase deep
being planned, is the best way to determine degree of percolation losses in the upper part of the field. An
erosion. Close observations must be made along the increase in deep percolation can mean increased
entire furrow length to see where erosion is actually potential for ground water pollution.
occurring and where sediment deposition is occurring.
Erosion and sediment deposition throughout the Modify existing system—Shorten length of run or
length of the furrow is a dynamic process. Typically, reduce irrigation grades with corresponding changes
most erosion occurs within the first few feet of furrow of furrow inflow rate.
length or in the last few feet of the furrow. The pri-
mary cause is high velocities from head ditch outlets Convert to another irrigation method (or sys-
(gated pipe, siphon tubes, spiles, etc.) or excess tem)—Change system to a low application rate sprin-
dropoff at end of furrow into tailwater collection kler or micro irrigation system.
ditches.
Change cropping sequence or crops—Use higher
An Imhoff cone may be used to evaluate furrow sedi- residue producing crops.
ment discharge. Flow at any point in the furrow length
can be used, but the sample is generally taken at the Change tillage systems, reduce tillage opera-
outflow point. A 1 liter sample is taken, placed in the tions, or change tillage equipment—Use reduced
Imhoff cone and allowed to settle for 30 minutes tillage or no-till cultural practices to maintain higher
(Trout 1994). The sediment level in the cone is read rates of residue on the soil surface.

Irrigation Guide
Improve surface residue—Place straw in furrow by A computer program was developed in West NTC area
hand or equipment. to assist in making computations when comparing
alternatives. The program user manual should be
Install vegetative filter strips at head or lower consulted for detailed guidance. An example using
ends of field, or both—Plantings can be permanent FUSED computer program for determining furrow
or temporary. These areas are typically equipment turn erosion and sedimentation is presented in Chapter 15,
areas with few or no plants. A vegetative filter strip at Resource Planning & Evaluation Tools and
the lower end of field helps filter out sediments as well Worksheets.
as chemicals (fertilizers and pesticides) attached to
the eroded soil particles. Caution should be used in expanding FUSED to other
areas without providing local field evaluations and
Change land use—Convert to crops providing perma- monitoring. USLE and RUSLE replacement program,
nent cover. WEPP, when completed and field tested, will contain
erosion and sediment yield determination modules for
Redistribute the collected sediment (this is various irrigation systems. WEPP should be used in
topsoil)—Annually haul and respread the collected place of FUSED when it becomes available.
eroded soil as a normal farming operation. This may
be needed only during the years when crops are grown
without sufficient surface residue or permanent cover.
Add polycrylimide to furrow inflow water—

Recent field research by ARS has demonstrated that
erosion reduction can also be realized by adding
polyacrylamide (PAM), at very low concentrations, to
the irrigation inflow stream (about 1 lb/acre per irriga-
tion). PAM reduces erosion by stabilizing soil in the
bottom and sides of the furrow and by flocculating
suspended sediments. It is presently used in the food
processing and wastewater treatment industries to
flocculate suspended solids, allowing them to settle
out. Application during the advance phase of the first
and third to fifth irrigation is generally sufficient
unless cultivation destroys the furrow seal. Whey from
cheese making has also showed promise as a soil
stabilizer.
One method to analyze potential furrow erosion and

sediment yield and the effect of various conservation
measures is to use the procedure in WNTC Engineer-
ing Tech Note W-23, Furrow Sediment & Erosion
Program, FUSED. This procedure was developed
using results from field research at the University of
Wyoming and the ARS in Kimberly, ID. The process
includes predicting:
• Sediment yield from the end of a field
• Amount of erosion at the upper end of the field
• Depth of soil eroded
• Years to erode a given depth of soil as a result of
furrow irrigation
• Impacts of a number of applicable conservation
practices

Irrigation Guide
rate, no runoff losses will occur. With some

652.0602 Sprinkle irriga- systems where water is applied below or within
the crop canopy, wind drift and most evapora-
tion systems tion losses are reduced. Soil surface storage is
especially important where low pressure in-
canopy center pivot laterals are used. LEPA
(a) General systems use complete soil, water, and plant
management to prevent runoff.
With the sprinkle irrigation method, water is applied at
the point of use by a system of nozzles (impact sprin-
The water infiltration process under sprinkler irriga-
kler heads, spray nozzles, etc.) with water delivered by
tion differs from that in surface irrigation. With sur-
surface or buried pipelines. Sprinkler irrigation sys-
face methods, water is ponded on the surface. With
tems are classed by operation of the laterals. The three
sprinkle irrigation, water is applied so ponding does
main types of sprinkle systems (laterals) are fixed,
not occur or is only temporary. System application
periodic move, and continuous/self move.
rate should be less than the maximum allowable rates
shown in Chapter 2, Soils, unless soil surface storage
Sprinkler irrigation system examples include solid set
(ponding) can be assured without appreciable translo-
(portable and permanent), handmove laterals, side roll
cation of applied water.
(wheel-line) laterals, end tow laterals, hose fed (pull)
laterals, perforated pipe laterals, high and low pres-
On sloping sites where the soils have a low to medium
sure center pivots and linear (lateral) move laterals,
intake rate, runoff often occurs under center pivot
and stationary or traveling gun sprinklers and booms.
systems, especially at the outer end of the sprinkler
Low Energy Precision Application (LEPA), and Low
lateral. Developing surface storage with reservoir
Pressure In Canopy (LPIC), systems are included with
tillage, rough tillage, and residue management prac-
sprinkler systems as an operational modification to
tices or temporarily increasing intake rate with ripping
center pivot and linear move systems.
between plant rows helps control water translocation.
Pressure for sprinkler systems is generally provided by
Planning and design considerations and guidelines for
pumping, powered by electric motors and diesel,
selection of sprinkler irrigation equipment presented
natural gas, L P gas, or gasoline engines. Where suffi-
later is not all inclusive. Refer to NEH, Part 623, (Sec-
cient elevation drop is available, sprinkler systems can
tion 15), Chapter 11, Sprinkle Irrigation, for further
be operated using gravity to provide the necessary
details. Operating pressures for these guidelines are
operating pressure.
grouped as follows:
If the system is properly designed and operated, appli- Pressure lb/in2
cation efficiencies of 50 to 95 percent can be obtained.
Low 2 to 35
The efficiency depends on type of system, cultural Moderate 35 to 50
practices, and management. Poor management (i.e., Medium 50 to 75
irrigating too soon or applying too much water) is the High 75+
greatest cause of reduced water application efficiency
when using sprinklers. System losses are caused by: The range of single event application efficiency (Ea)
• Direct evaporation in the air from the sprinkler values for various types of sprinkle systems are dis-
spray, from the soil surface, and from plant played in table 6–4. Season long irrigation application
leaves that intercept spray water. efficiencies typically are lower because of early season
• Wind drift (normally 5 to 10 percent depending plant water requirements and soil intake rate changes.
on temperature, wind speed, and droplet size).
• Leaks and system drainage. Soil characteristics relating to irrigation are provided
• Surface runoff and deep percolation resulting in Chapter 2, Soils. Crop characteristics relating to
from, nonuniform application within the sprin- irrigation are provided in Chapter 3, Crops, and irriga-
kler pattern. If the system is designed to apply tion water requirements are provided in Chapter 4,
water at less than the maximum soil infiltration Water Requirements.

Irrigation Guide
The required capacity of a sprinkle irrigation system (b) Periodic move sprinkler
depends on the size of the area irrigated, gross depth of irrigation systems
water to be applied at each irrigation, and the operating
time allowed to apply the water. See NEH, Part 623, A periodic move sprinkler irrigation system is set in a
Chapter 2, Irrigation Water Requirements, for further fixed location for a specified length of time to apply a
details regarding crop water needs. The required capac- required depth of water. The length of time in a posi-
ity of a sprinkle system can be computed by: tion is called the length of set or irrigation set time.
The lateral or sprinkler is then moved to the next set
453 A d 453 A d′
Q= or Q= position. Application efficiencies can range from 50 to
fT T 75 percent for the low quarter area of the field (Eq).
where: The low quarter area definition commonly applies to
Q = system capacity (gpm) all periodic move or set type sprinkler systems.
A = area irrigated (acres)
d = gross depth of application (inches) (1) Periodic move systems
f = time allowed for completion of one irrigation (i) Handmove laterals—This system is composed
(days) of portable pipelines with risers and sprinkler heads.
T = actual operating time per day (hours per day) to Portable or buried mainline pipe with uniformly
cover entire area spaced valve outlets provides a water supply. Portable
d′ = gross daily water use rate (inches per day)— aluminum, or sometimes plastic, lateral pipe has quick
may be peak or average, depending on need and couplers. Risers and sprinkler heads are either center-
risks to be taken. mounted or end-mounted. Lateral sections are typi-
cally 20, 30, or 40 feet long. When the lateral has com-
Note: This equation represents the basic irrigation pleted the last set location in the field, it must be
equation QT = DA with conversion factors for sprin- dismantled and moved back across the field to the
kler irrigation design. Typically, tables readily avail- start position unless multiple laterals are used and the
able by NRCS and manufacturers pertaining to sprin- finish location is adjacent to the start location of the
kler heads, pipe friction losses, and pump curves are next set. Application efficiencies can be 60 to 75
in units of gallons per minute (gpm) rather than cubic percent with proper management.
feet per second, cubic meters per second, or liters per
minute. A handmove system has a low initial cost, but requires
high operating labor. It is difficult to use in tall crops,
such as corn or mature vineyards. Riser height must be
based on maximum height of the crop to be grown.
For hydraulic reasons minimum height is generally 6
Table 6–4 Application efficiencies for various sprinkler inches. Risers over 4 feet in height must be anchored
systems and stabilized. Handmove systems are sometimes
used to establish a crop that will later be irrigated by
Type Ea (%) a surface system. Leaching salts and other toxic ions
from soils is sometimes accomplished using
handmove sprinklers. Handmove sprinklers are easily
Periodic move lateral 60 – 75 adapted to odd shaped fields. Because 3-inch diam-
Periodic move gun type or boom sprinklers 50 – 60 eter laterals are easier to pick up by hand and carry to
Fixed laterals (solid set) 60 – 75 the next set, they are much preferred over those that
are 4 inches in diameter. However, long laterals
Traveling sprinklers (gun type or boom) 55 – 65
should be 4 inches in diameter. Because of excessive
Center pivot - standard 75 – 85 bending while being carried, 40 foot lengths of 2-inch
Linear (lateral) move 80 – 87 diameter pipe are unsuitable.
LEPA - center pivot and linear move 90 – 95

Irrigation Guide
(ii) Side (wheel) roll laterals—A side (wheel) roll ing topography. Figure 6–7 displays a typical side roll
system is similar to a handmove system except that or handmove system operation layout.
wheels are mounted on the lateral. The lateral pipe
serves as an axle to assist in moving the system side- Quick-drain valves are installed at several locations on
ways by rotation to the next set. The sections of the each lateral to assist line drainage before it is moved.
lateral pipe are semi-permanently bolted together. The lateral moves much easier when it is empty. Drain
Each pipe section is supported by a large diameter (at valves are a factor in the minimum operating pressure
least 3 ft) wheel generally located at the center, but that must be used on the lateral. Typically drains will
can be at the end. The lateral pipe itself forms the axle not close and seal properly below about 24 pounds per
for the wheels. The lateral is moved mechanically by a square inch. Drain valves should be well maintained to
power unit (air-cooled gas engine) generally mounted provide proper closing upon filling the lateral line to
at the center of the line. With proper management, start the next irrigation set.
application efficiencies can be 60 to 75 percent.
Empty laterals must be anchored to prevent move-
The side roll system can be used only on low growing ment by wind. They roll very easily and should be
crops, such as grass pasture, grain, grain sorghum, properly restrained, especially during the nonirrigation
alfalfa, sugar beets, potatoes, and vegetables. The season when the irrigator spends little time in the
system is best adapted to rectangular fields on rela- field.
tively uniform topography. A flexible hose or telescop-
ing section of pipe is required at the beginning of each A variation to the side roll lateral (called side move) is
lateral to connect onto mainline outlet valves. the addition of small diameter trail lines at each sprin-
kler head location. These trail lines can have three,
Wheel diameters should be selected so that the lateral four, or five sprinkler heads, and the complete unit can
clears the crop. Specified lateral move distance is be an equivalent of two or three typical laterals. With
equal to the distance moved by a whole number of this modification, the lateral pipe cannot serve as the
rotations of the line. Commonly used nominal wheel axle when being moved because trail lines are at-
diameters are about 5, 6, and 7 feet. Wheels as large as tached directly to the lateral pipe. A separate drive
10-foot diameter are sometimes used to clean taller shaft and the main sprinkler lateral are supported by
crops or to allow wheel lines to be moved across an A-frame at each wheel location. The A-frame is
furrows and ridges. supported by two wheels.
Self-righting or vertical self-aligning sprinkler heads

are used because the sprinkler head is always upright,
even with partial rotations. Without the self aligning Figure 6–7 Side roll or handmove sprinkler system
heads, extra care must be taken so that the pipe rota- layout
tion is fully complete for the full length of the lateral
and all sprinkler heads are upright. The ends of the
lateral usually trail a little and must be moved by hand
Lateral line
for proper alignment, or the lateral can be moved just
past the set position and then backed up to align the
ends properly. Poor distribution uniformity results if
the sprinkler heads are not upright. Undulating topog- Water source
raphy usually requires alignment by hand for best
uniformity.
Main line
Side roll lateral pipe diameters of 4 or 5 inches are
most common. Common sprinkler head spacing is 30
or 40 feet. Laterals can be up to 1,600 feet long with
one power unit. Lateral lengths of 1,320 feet are gener- Lateral line
ally considered maximum for rough, steep, or undulat-

Irrigation Guide
This variation requires dismantling of the trail lines laterals, is limited by both high friction loss in the
when the lateral has reached the end set, where trail small diameter hose and the ease of moving. This
lines are hauled back to the start location. The main system is excellent for orchards and irregular shaped
sprinkler lateral is typically moved back to the start fields where the number of sprinklers per hose can
location by a centrally located power unit, usually an vary in proportion to the field or set width to be cov-
air-cooled gas engine. ered. With proper management, application efficien-
cies can be 50 to 65 percent.
(iii) End-tow laterals—The end-tow lateral system
is similar to a hand move system except that it con- (v) Gun type sprinkler—Large, periodic move, gun
sists of rigidly coupled lateral pipe and is mounted on type sprinklers are operated and moved as a large
skid plates or dolly wheels. The mainline is buried single impact type sprinkler head. Sprinkler discharge
across the middle of the field. Laterals are towed flows can range from 50 to more than 1,000 gallons per
lengthwise across the mainline from one side to the minute. Nozzle diameters can vary from 1/2 to 1 3/4
other with a tractor. Both ends of the lateral can be inches, and operating pressures from 60 to more than
connected to the mainline via a flexible hose. After 120 pounds per square inch. The sprinkler is moved
draining the pipe through quick-drain valves, a small from one set to the next set either by hand or using a
tractor can easily tow a quarter-mile-long line to its small tractor, depending on their size and whether
new set. they are towable. Generally only one sprinkler is
operated per lateral. Laterals are generally aluminum
Two support or carriage types are available. One is a pipe with quick-coupled joints.
skid plate attached to each coupler to slightly raise the
lateral pipe off the ground, protect the drain valve, and When irrigating, the sprinkler is allowed to remain at
provide a wear surface when towing the pipe. Out- one location (set) until the desired amount of water is
riggers are placed every 200 to 300 feet to prevent applied. Application rates can be very high, and unifor-
overturning. The other carriage type uses small metal mity of application can be adversely effected with
wheels located midway between couplers to allow wind greater than 4 miles per hour. Droplet size will be
easy towing. Guide rollers are used near the mainline large beyond 50 feet from the sprinkler, thus soil
to position the lateral at the next set. Typically lateral puddling can occur and sensitive crops can be dam-
positions are offset a half of the total move. Applica- aged. With proper management, application efficien-
tion efficiencies can be 60 to 75 percent with proper cies can be 50 to 60 percent.
management.
(vi) Boom sprinkler—Periodic move boom systems
This system is best suited to grass pasture, but can be are operated and moved with a tractor similar to large
used in row crops if unplanted tow paths are main- gun sprinklers. The boom generally contains several
tained. It requires a fairly large area adjacent to the closely spaced impact sprinklers or spray heads. It
mainline to allow positioning of the lateral to the next rotates around a central swivel joint where water is
set on the opposite side of the mainline. When used introduced. Power for the rotation comes from back
with row crops, this area can be planted to grass or pressure caused by directional sprinkler nozzles. The
alfalfa. The advantage of this system is its relatively supply line is generally portable aluminum with quick-
low cost and minimum labor requirement. coupled joints. When irrigating, the boom is allowed to
remain at one location (set) until the desired amount
(iv) Hose fed (pull) laterals—A variation to end- of water is applied.
tow laterals is the hose fed system. A few (typically
one to five) low capacity sprinkler heads are mounted Boom sprinkle systems are not suitable for use in
on small diameter flexible plastic or rubber hoses that windy areas. Wind adversely affects uniformity of
are attached to outlet valves. The hoses with equally application and rotational operation. High winds can
spaced sprinklers are pulled by hand to the next overturn the entire boom. With proper management,
adjacent set. To utilize small, light weight flexible hose application efficiencies can be 50 to 60 percent.
that can be easily moved by hand, submains are used.
The number of sprinkler heads, thus the length of

Irrigation Guide
(vii) Perforated pipe—Perforated pipe systems per day. Moving the lateral three times a day is not
spray water from 1/16-inch diameter or smaller holes popular because one move always comes in the dark
drilled at uniform distances along the top and sides of at a inconvenient time and with increased labor cost.
a lateral pipe. The holes are sized and spaced to apply
water uniformly along the length of the lateral. Com- (iii) Lateral set sequencing—Lateral sets can be
mon operating pressures are 5 to 20 pounds per square sequenced in several ways. Using a typical 40 by 50
inch. Application rates close to the lateral are gener- foot spacing for a periodic move lateral system, the
ally quite high. Spacing between lateral sets must be following methods can be used to move laterals across
quite close to obtain an acceptable uniformity of a field.
application. Either plastic or aluminum laterals with
quick-coupled joints are used. Water used must be free Move at 50-foot sets across the field. Portable laterals
of debris, otherwise hole plugging is a problem. With must be dismantled and hauled back to the first set
proper management, application efficiencies can be position. Side roll laterals must be rolled all the way
around 50 percent. back to the first or initial set position. The irrigator
may choose to apply half the irrigation application in
(2) Planning and design considerations each direction. However, this requires twice the num-
(i) Sprinkler heads—Rotating, impact type sprin- ber of moves. Distribution uniformity is reasonable
kler heads operating at intermediate pressure (30 to 60 under conditions where moderate pressure is used and
lb/in2) are commonly used on periodic move lateral wind is not a serious problem.
type systems. Rotating impact sprinkler heads come
with many variations including full circle, part circle, Move at 100-foot sets across the field. Then reverse
low and standard trajectory height, with and without direction and move back at alternating 100 foot sets.
straightening vanes, and single or double nozzle. The This allows convenient operation of the system without
second nozzle on a double nozzle head is typically a 3/ having to dismantle and haul back or move the lateral to
32- or 1/8-inch diameter orifice. It is used as a fill-in to the initial or start position. Distribution uniformity
improve pattern uniformity. depends on wind conditions. Lateral pipes are hand
carried twice as far as in the first method, but the lateral
Flow control valves at the base of each sprinkler head does not need to be dismantled and hauled back.
or flow control nozzles may be required where the
terrain undulates or has significant changes in eleva- Use 25-foot offset pipe when moving across the field
tion. Flow control nozzles require about 2 to 4 pounds the second time and each alternating set thereafter,
per square inch. Impact type sprinkler heads can be with both the 50-foot and 100-foot set methods. This
operated at 25 to 35 pounds per square inch to reduce procedure improves overall distribution uniformity
energy. Some systems operate on gravity pressure. especially in windy areas. Existing 50-foot systems can
be easily converted by adding a 20- to 30-foot swing or
(ii) Laterals—Laterals are generally laid out per- offset line. (Slight realignment of the lateral is needed
pendicular to the slope. To obtain near-uniform appli- to evenly divide the set.)
cation of water throughout the length of lateral, pipe
diameter and length should result in discharge at the With any set sequence, alternating day-night set with
sprinkler nozzle within plus or minus 10 percent of each rotation across the field is recommended. Crop
design. (A maximum nozzle pressure difference of 20 evapotranspiration or winds generally are different
percent provides a discharge not varying more than 10 during daytime and nighttime hours causing varying
percent from each nozzle.) To create less confusion losses. Nighttime application is generally more effi-
and to facilitate dismantling, moving, and stacking, the cient with better distribution uniformity. As much as
same sprinkler head, nozzle size, and diameter of 10 percent more net application is accomplished with
lateral are recommended throughout the length of night time sets. Sometimes 11-hour night sets and 13-
hand move laterals. Convenient set times are 23.5, hour day sets are used to overcome the difference.
11.5, or 7.5 hours, thus allowing a half hour for drain-
ing and moving laterals, with one, two, or three moves

Irrigation Guide
(3) Application efficiencies where:

Both Distribution Uniformity (DU), and Christiansen Re = effective portion of water applied
,,
,,,
Uniformity (CU) coefficients are used to determine the
application efficiency (Ea) of the low quarter (Eq or CU estimates can be obtained from NEH, part 623
AELQ) or of the low half (Eh or AELH). This then (section 15), chapter 11, tables 11-9 to 11-12. Re esti-
becomes the design application efficiency. mates are obtained using figure 6–8.
Eq = DU x R e and Eh = CU x Re

Figure 6–8 Effective portion of applied water—Re
Humid Warm Dry

Cool Humid Hot Dry
1.0
0.9
Effective portion of applied water (Re)
Fine spray CI ≤7
0.8
1.0
0.9
Coarse spray I ≤7 Legend

1 - 4 mph
4 - 10 mph
10 - 15 mph
0.8
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Potential evapotranspiration rate - in/d
P 1.3
CI =
B
Where: If the value of CI is less than 7, the spray is coarse.
CI = spray coarseness index If it is more than 17, the spray is fine. When the
P = nozzle operating pressure (psi) value of CI falls between 7 and 17, the Re value
B = nozzle size (64ths of an inch) can be interpolated.

Irrigation Guide
(i) Moderate and low operating pressures— Step 2—Inventory resources for field or farm. Include
Impact type sprinkler head operating pressures below area irrigated, soil(s), topography, water source, and
35 pounds per square inch require close lateral and when available, water quantity and quality, power type
sprinkler head spacing. Low pressure sprinkler heads and location, crops, irrigator's desire for a type of
are available to use with low pressure operation, 25 to sprinkler system and timeframe for moving laterals,
35 pounds per square inch. Spacing of heads on later- labor availability, availability of sprinkler irrigation
als and distance moved (spacing between laterals) equipment dealers, and water management skill and
must be designed accordingly to provide acceptable desire of the irrigation decisionmaker.
uniformity. About 25 pounds per square inch is the
lowest operating pressure recommended for impact Step 3—Determine soil characteristics and limita-
type sprinkler heads. Standard lateral drain valves may tions. Include AWC, maximum allowable application
not close properly when operating pressures are rate, usable rooting depth, acidity, salinity, and water
below 24 pounds per square inch. Sprinkler head table. Typical (actual) crop rooting depth needs to be
spacing and lateral move distances of 20 by 20 feet, 20 identified for specific fields and soils. In most soils,
by 30 feet, 30 by 30 feet, and 30 by 40 feet are common actual depth (and pattern) is less than usable rooting
with low pressure operation. depth because of farm management decisions (i.e.,
timing of field operations) and type of field equipment
(ii) Flow regulation devices—Flow regulation used. A field investigation is strongly recommended in
devices or pressure regulators are either inserted near addition to data in the local NRCS FOTG. If a field
the base of the sprinkler, or they are an integral part of contains more than one soil, the most restrictive soil
the sprinkler nozzle. The friction loss through the must be determined. Crops use essentially the same
regulator, typically 2 to 4 pounds per square inch, must amount of water whether growing in sand or clay soil.
be included in calculations for required mainline Thus, the system should be managed to meet the
operating pressure, especially when using low operat- needs of the more restrictive soil.
ing pressures. For example, if a valve was selected to
maintain about 30 pounds per square inch at the Step 4—Determine net irrigation water requirements
sprinkler, a pressure loss of about 4 pounds per square for crops to be grown. Use season, month, and peak or
inch can be expected across the regulator and must be average daily use rate, accounting for expected rainfall
accounted for. and acceptable risks.
(iii) Preliminary estimate of sprinkler spacing Step 5—Determine irrigation frequency, net applica-
and sprinkler sizes—NEH, part 623 (section 15) tion, gross application (based on estimated application
chapter 11, tables 11–9 to 11–12 can be used to make a efficiency), and minimum system capacity require-
preliminary estimate of sprinkler spacing, nozzle size, ments.
and operating pressure. Many design slide rules and
computer programs are available from sprinkler equip- Step 6—Determine alternative irrigation systems
ment manufacturers. The slide rules are convenient for suitable to the site. Include the sprinkler system de-
developing preliminary design trials and for estimating sired by the user. Evaluate alternative irrigation sys-
purposes. A preliminary estimate of overall irrigation tems and their multiresource impacts on the environ-
application efficiency is required. Experience in an ment (soil, water, air, plant, animal, and human con-
area and personally doing several designs and field siderations) with user.
evaluations help provide confidence in planning and
designing. Step 7—Provide preliminary sprinkler head design.
Include spacing, discharge, operating pressure, wetted
(4) Design procedures diameter, head type, nozzle size(s), average applica-
A step-by-step procedure for planning and designing a tion rate, and performance characteristics.
sprinkler irrigation system includes:
Step 8—Determine number of laterals needed for
Step 1—Identify resource concerns and problems. selected time of set, set spacing, moves per day, and
Determine objective(s) and purpose of new or revised frequency of irrigation in days.
irrigation system. Include soil, water, air, plant, and
animal resources, and human considerations.
Irrigation Guide
Step 9—Evaluate design. Does it meet the objective Step 14—Determine maximum and minimum Total
and purpose(s) identified in step 1? Dynamic Head (TDH) required for critical lateral
location conditions. Determine total accumulated
Step 10—Make adjustments as needed. This process friction loss in mainline, elevation rise (drop) from
may need to be done more than once so the system fits pump to extreme point in the fields, water surface to
the field, soils, crops, water supply, environmental ground surface (lift) at pump, column loss with verti-
concerns, and the desires of the irrigation decision- cal turbine pumps, and miscellaneous losses (fittings,
maker. valves, elbows) at the pump and throughout the sys-
tem. It is wrong to assume miscellaneous losses are
Step 11—Finalize sprinkler irrigation system design, minor and to gloss over them. Type and size of valves,
layout, and management skills required by the irriga- radii of elbows, and sharpness of fittings are impor-
tion decisionmaker. tant. Check them out and know how they affect sys-
tem performance. See section 652.0605 for nomo-
Step 12—Determine lateral size(s) based on number graphs and tables used to estimate head losses.
of heads, flow rate, pipeline length, and allowable
pressure loss differential between first and last sprin- Step 15—Determine maximum and minimum pump-
kler head. Determine if pressure or flow regulators are ing plant capacity using required flow rate and TDH.
needed. Determine minimum operating pressure Estimate brake horsepower for the motor or engine to
required in mainline(s) at various critical locations on be used.
the terrain. Several trial lateral locations may need to
be evaluated to determine the range of friction loss Step 16—Preselect several alternative pumps avail-
and consequent pressure required at various locations able from various dealers in the area. Use pump per-
along the mainline. formance curves prepared for each make and model of
pump. Every pump has a different set of performance
Step 13—Determine mainline sizes required to meet (characteristic) curves relating to operating head
pressure and flow requirements according to number (pressure) output and discharge capacity. Select
of operating laterals. This includes diameter, pipe pump(s) and power unit(s) for maximum operating
material, mainline location, and the location and type efficiency within the full range of expected operating
of valves and fittings. It involves hydraulic calcula- conditions. Multiple pumps may be desirable to effi-
tions, basic cost-benefit relationships, and potential ciently meet both minimum and maximum conditions.
pressure surge evaluations for pipe sizes and velocities Pump and drive unit alternatives are recommended as
selected. Mainline operating pressure measured at the a reference for determining availability. Only pump
discharge side of each lateral outlet valve should be capacity and TDH requirements are recommended to
within 10 percent of the design lateral operating pres- be provided to the user. Never select a pump based on
sure. Where chemigation is anticipated, less operating horsepower alone. Let a pump dealer select the appro-
pressure difference is desirable. A graphic solution can priate motor or engine and pump to fit the conditions.
be helpful when sizing main supply pipelines. The Availability of a pump dealer for providing mainte-
ground line and pipe hydraulic grade line (HGL) along nance and repair should be considered by the opera-
the mainline can be plotted for easy identification of tor. Buying a used pump without first checking pump
critical pressure locations. The distance between the characteristic curves for that specific pump is seldom
ground line and HGL will be the operating pressure at satisfactory. A pump needs to match the required
that main line location. capacity and TDH for efficient and economic perfor-
mance. An inefficient operating pump can use need-
less excess energy.

Irrigation Guide
Step 17—Prepare final layout and operation, mainte- steps 1 through 17 should be followed to provide an
nance, and irrigation water management plans. Include adequate system suitable to the site.
method(s) of determining when and how much to
irrigate (irrigation scheduling). Provide recommenda- Design procedures and examples are provided in
tions and plans for at least one water measuring de- section 652.0605 and in more detail in NEH, Part 623,
vice to be installed in the system for water manage- (Section 15), Chapter 11, Sprinkle Irrigation. Manufac-
ment purposes. turer literature is readily available and most useful in
selection of sprinkler head models, nozzle sizes, and
Planning steps may be substantially abbreviated when discharge at various pressures.
the planning technician provides only basic resource
information and limitations. The design of the sprin-
kler system and components is done by an irrigation
system design consultant or equipment dealer. Regard-
less of who does the design, the processes listed in
Example 6–1 Typical field data for a side roll (wheel line) lateral system
Known data from Field Office Technical Guide:

Crop: Alfalfa Peak ETc = .30 in/day, MAD = 50%
Soil: Glenberg loam AWC for 5 ft = low 6.9 in, mid 7.9 in, high 8.9 in
AWC for 4 ft = low 5.7 in, mid 6.5 in, high 7.3 in
AWC for 3 ft = low 4.5 in, mid 5.2 in, high 5.8 in
Soil sprinkler intake rate:0.40 in/hr (max. sprinkler application rate)
where:
ETc = crop evapotranspiration
MAD = management allowable depletion (deficient)
AWC = available water capacity of soil
Field: 80 acres, 1,320 x 2,640 feet, rectangular
Water source: Well at midway point of the long way of field on one edge (see sketch on worksheet)
water depth while pumping = 100 ft
measured maximum flow = 1,000 gpm
Power: Power available at well is 3-phase, 440-volt AC electric current
Topography: Maximum difference in elevation (all slopes are uniform):

between field midway point and uphill end of most faraway lateral = 25 ft
to downhill end of field from midway point = 20 ft
elevation difference (uphill) from well across midway point of field = 12 ft
Landowner wants to complete irrigation in 6 days or less. Convenient set times are 8, 12, or 24 hours
(including a half hour for draining and changing laterals for each move). Prefers side roll laterals.

Irrigation Guide
Example 6–1 Typical field data for a side roll (wheel line) lateral system—Continued
Find: • Net and gross application in inches and frequency in days

• Select sprinkler head make, model, sprinkler spacing along lateral, discharge, operating pressure,
application rate, and if flow or pressure regulator are required.
• Distance lateral to be moved between irrigation each set (spacing of valve outlets), layout,
length(s), and number of laterals required.
• Set times and total time to irrigate entire field.
• Flow rate per lateral, lateral material, diameter, and friction loss. Check sum of lateral(s) flow
rate(s) against minimum capacity requirements with:
453 A d
Q=
fT
where:
Q = flow in gpm
A = area in acres
d = gross depth of application in inches
f = time allowed (frequency) for completion of one irrigation in days
T = actual operating time in hr/d
• Pressure required in mainline for worst case lateral location.

• Mainline—material, diameters, friction losses, including valves and fittings.
• Water measuring device.
• Total mainline flow requirements at pump, pump capacity.
• TDH, including lift from water level to pump.
• Pump and motor/engine size selection.
Computations:
Exhibit 6–1, Sprinkler irrigation system planning/design worksheet, is used to determine minimum irriga-
tion requirements based on soils, crops, and system design requirements. See chapter 15 for the master
blank worksheet used in this example.

Irrigation Guide
Exhibit 6–1 Sprinkler irrigation system planning/design worksheet
U.S. Department of Agriculture Page 1 of 5

Natural Resources Conservation Service
Sprinkler Irrigation System Planning/Design Worksheet
NAME ________________________________________ DATE __________________________ PREPARED BY _______________________________________
DISTRICT _________________________________________ COUNTY ____________________________________ ENGR JOB CLASS _________________
Inventory
Water source ______________ Amount available ____________ ft3/sec ___________ gpm ____________ acre-ft Seasonal variation ____________________
Power source: Electric ____________ volts, ____________ phase; Internal combustion engine ____________ fuel type; Other ____________________________
Soils Data
Available water capacity, AWC Depth to 1 Sprinkler intake rate

Design (in/ft depth) (in/hr)
Soil Series
Inhibiting layer Water table
0-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5
(ft) (ft)
1
Actual observed depth in the field.
Crop Evapotranspiration (Monthly)
Month Month Month
Crops Acres Depth Volume Depth Depth

Volume Volume
(in) (ac-in) (in) (ac-in) (in) (ac-in)
Totals (1) (2) (3) (4)
Crop Weighted Evaportranspiration (Monthly) (Note: Maximum Monthly Total ET is greatest of nos. 2, 3, or 4 above)
Maximum Total Monthly ET, ac-in/mo

ET, depth = __________________________________ = ______________________ = _________________________ in /mo
Total Acres, A (1)
Irrigation Requirements
Root Management Peak Max freq

zone Total allowed Max Net daily @ peak E T
Crops
depth 2 AWC depletion replacement ET @ max net
(ft) (in) (%) (in) (in) (days)
2
Use weighted peak monthly ET and net irrigation to determine weighted peak daily E T.

Irrigation Guide
Exhibit 6–1 Sprinkler irrigation system planning/design worksheet—Continued

Sprinkler Irrigation System Planning/Design Worksheet—Continued
Design Data — (Based on weighted crop ET, _____________ % irrigation efficiency)
Application Weighted 2 System requirements

Frequency, F
peak daily
Net, D Gross Fg (days)
crop ET (in) Total gpm, Q gpm/ac
(in) (in)
2 Use weighted peak monthly ET and net irrigation to determine weighted peak daily E T.
Q = system requirements–gpm
H = Total operating hours/day
(suggest using 23 hours for one move per day)
453 A D
Q = ___________ = _________________ gpm = ___________________ gpm (suggest using 22 hours for two moves per day)
F H Eff/100
Sprinkler head spacing, (SL) _______________ ft, Lateral spacing on mainline (SM) _________________ ft, Minimum Required wetted diameter = _____________ft
Sprinkler head: make ______________; model _____________; nozzle size ___________; lb/in2 __________ gpm ___________; wetted dia ________________ ft
Application rate _________ in/hr, Application time ___________ hr/set. Net application = ( ________ in/hr) ( _________ eff) ( _________ hr/set) = __________ in
Maximum irrigation cycle = Net applcation __________ in/peak ET in/d = __________ days
number of lateral sites ___________

Minimum number of laterals = __________________________________________________________
(irrigation frequency, _________ days) (moves/day, ______________ )
Designed laterals: Number ________________, Diameter _____________ in, Type _______________ , Moves/day ______________
Total number of sprinkler heads = (number of laterals) (number of heads/lateral) = ______________
System capacity = (Total number of sprinkler heads ___________ ) (gpm/head _______________) = _______________ gpm
Lateral design
Allowable pressure difference along lateral = 0.2 (sprinkler head operating pressure in lb/in2) = ___________________ lb/in2
Actual head loss (worst condition) ______________ lb/in2
Pressure required at mainline: P = (sprinkler head lb/in2 ___________) + (0.75) (Lateral friction lb/in2 __________) +/- ( ft elev) / (2) (2.31) = __________ lb/in2
(plus for uphill flow in lateral, minus for downhill flow). Use sprinkler head lb/in2 only if elevation difference along lateral is = or > 0.75 (lateral friction loss lb/in2)
(2.31). Under this condition, flow regulation may be required at some sprinkler heads to maintain proper sprinkler head operating near the mainline.

Irrigation Guide

Mainline Design
Mainline material ____________________________ (IPS, PIP, SDR, CLASS) lb/in2 rating _________________________, other description, ____________________
Friction factor used ___________. Formula (check one) Hazen-Williams Manning's Darcy-Weibach Other (name) _________________________
Friction Accumulated
Station Diameter Friction loss this friction
Flow Velocity Remarks
pipe Distance loss section loss
From (in) (gpm) (fps) (ft) (ft/100 ft) (ft) (ft)
To
NOTE: desirable velocities–5 ft/sec or less in mainlines, 7 ft/sec or less in sprinkler laterals.
Determination of Total Dynamic Head (TDH)
Pressure required at main ______________ lb/in2 ________________ft
Friction loss in main ______________ lb/in2 ________________ft
Elevation raise/fall in main ______________ lb/in2 ________________ft (2.31 feet = 1 psi pressure)
Lift (water surface to pump) ______________ lb/in2 ________________ft
Column friction loss ______________ lb/in2 ________________ft
Miscellaneous loss ______________ lb/in2 ________________ft
Total (TDH) ______________ lb/in2 ________________ft (NOTE; TDH must be in feet for horsepower equation)
TDH (ft) X Q (gpm) _________________ ft X ____________gpm

Approximate brake horsepower = ____________________ = ____________________________________________ = _______________ HP
3960 X Eff / 100 3960 X ____________ % / 100
Mean sea level elevation of pump ________________ ft (NOTE: check required versus available NPSL for centrifugal pumps)
Pump curve data attached yes no , If not, pumping plant efficiency assumed = ___________% (recommended using 65-75%)
Bill of materials attached yes no

Irrigation Guide

Other Design Considerations
Evaluation
Item NOT needed Location Size
performed
Measuring device
Expansion couplers
Reducers
Enlargers (expanders)
Manifolds
Bends & elbows
Tees
Valved outlets
Surge facilities (valves, chambers)
Control valves
Check non-return flow valves
Pressure relief valves
Air-vacuum valves
Drain facilities
Thrust blocks
Anchors
Pipe supports
Other
Remarks
Special drawing(s) attached
Irrigation system design by Date
Reviewed and approved by Date

Irrigation Guide

Irrigation System Location and Layout Map
SHOW:
Area irrigated with sprinklers
Direction of prevailing wind
Elevations, contours
High and low points
Water source and pump location
Mainline and submain locations
Layout: lateral(s), travelers, guns
Direction of move
North arrow
Scale Community Section Township Range

Irrigation Guide
(c) Fixed-solid set sprinkler With portable mainline(s), control valves are typically
irrigation systems operated manually. Renting a portable solid set system
for limited use (crop establishment, crop cooling,
A fixed or solid set sprinkler irrigation system has specialty crops) can be more economical than owner-
enough pipe and sprinkler heads that none of the ship.
laterals need to be moved to complete an irrigation
once in place. Laterals can be either permanently Solid set permanent laterals—This sprinkler
buried or portable pipe laid on the ground surface. To irrigation system is similar to the portable system
irrigate the field, one or more blocks (sections) of except both mainline(s) and laterals are generally
sprinklers are cycled on and off with a control valve at buried below the depth of normal field operations.
the mainline. Opening and closing of valves can be Sprinkler lateral flow can be sequenced manually or
manual, programmed electronically, or timer clock automatically by various timer activated electric
controlled. A solid set sprinkler system can be easily solenoid valves. With annual crops, the risers are
automated. Application efficiencies can be 60 to 85 installed outside of any tillage operations. This system
percent depending on design and management. is most adapted to permanent crops, such as orchards,
grapes, cranberries, cane berries, turf for landscaping,
In addition to applying irrigation water, these systems and golf courses. Solid set systems can be used on
are used to apply water for environmental control, annual crops, alfalfa, or pasture. However, caution
such as frost protection, crop cooling, humidity con- must be exercised during tillage or harvest operations
trol, bud delay, crop quality improvement, dust con- to prevent damage to risers and sprinkler heads.
trol, and chemical application. See NEH, Part 623, Risers must also be protected from livestock.
Chapter 2, Irrigation Water Requirements, and section
652.0605, State supplement, for detailed discussion of (2) Design procedures
auxiliary water use. Design of solid set systems is similar to periodic move
systems. The only difference is that each lateral is
(1) Planning and design considerations individually designed. Sizes can be effectively reduced
Solid set portable laterals—Solid set portable toward the end of the lateral as flow decreases. Blocks
lateral systems are generally used for high value crops, of laterals are then tied together using submains to
such as nurseries, vegetables, or turf production, create operating blocks or units and minimize the
where the system can be moved from the field before number of control valves. Individual sprinkler heads
harvest. However, they also can be used with perma- and spacing are designed to fit soil, crop, desired
nent crops, such as orchards and berries, where the application rates and amounts, local wind conditions,
portable laterals can be left in the field. This type of and management available. Figure 6–9 displays a solid
system is sometimes used to germinate crops, such as set system layout.
lettuce, which will later be furrow irrigated.
With orchards and vineyards, tall risers can be used to
Advantages: provide overhead irrigation. Quick couplings are
• Reduced labor requirements because the pipe available for lowering sprinkler heads for maintenance
does not need to be moved while in the field. and replacement. Minimum distribution uniformity
• Allows light applications at frequent intervals. standards at ground level typically cannot be met
when sprinkle irrigating fruit and nut orchards, citrus
Disadvantages: groves, banana plantations, vineyards, cane berries,
• High cost of needing sufficient lateral pipe and and tall bush berries from either overhead or ground
sprinklers to cover the entire field. level located sprinkler heads. However, minimum
• Can cause inconvenience for cultivation or other distribution uniformity standards still apply for design
cultural operations. and operation purposes. Lateral movement of soil
• Tall sprinkler risers need support, protection, or water is desirable and necessary in some soils to
both. prevent dry spots in root development areas. In arid
and semiarid areas, development of the support root
system for trees and vines will only be in areas of

Irrigation Guide
adequate soil moisture. Overhead systems are pre- (d) Continuous (self) move
ferred for climate control systems, although recent sprinkler irrigation systems
research has shown some degree of protection can be
obtained from undertree sprinklers. (1) Center pivot sprinkler irrigation system
A center pivot sprinkler irrigation system consists of a
A diamond or triangular pattern for sprinkler head continuously moving, horizontal rotating single lateral
layout is recommended for solid set systems, thereby supported by towers and anchored at a fixed pivot
improving application uniformity. Adequate (typically point at the center of the field. This system irrigates a
50%) overlapping patterns from adjacent sprinkler circular field unless end guns and swing lines are
nozzles are essential for temperature modification cycled in corner areas to irrigate more of a square
systems and those used for shallow rooted annual field. The commonly used term, continuous move, is
crops regardless of sprinkler head layout. Deep rooted not totally accurate because the end tower moves at
perennial crops like trees, blueberries, and vines an adjustable time controlled start-stop operation.
tolerate less application uniformity. Intermediate towers start and stop to maintain align-
ment.
Figure 6–9 Solid set sprinkler system layout
Water supply

Irrigation Guide
Various operating pressures and configurations of Advantages:

sprinkler heads or nozzles (types and spacing) are • Operating labor is reduced as compared to
located along the lateral. Sprinkler heads with nozzles periodic move sprinkler systems. One individual
may be high or low pressure impact, gear driven, or can adequately handle 8 to 10 center pivot sys-
one of many low pressure spray heads. A higher dis- tems (1,000 to 1,500 acres)
charge, part circle, sprinkler head generally is used at • Main supply line requirements are minimized
the extreme end of the lateral to irrigate the outer because a stationary delivery point is used.
fringe of the lateral. Typically, 25 percent of lateral • With good water management, relatively high
maintenance is spent maintaining this end gun. Each water application uniformity is possible.
tower, which is generally mounted on rubber tires, has • With a full circle pivot, the lateral is at the start-
a power device designed to propel the system around ing point after one revolution.
the pivot point. The most common power units include • Because small amounts of water can be applied,
electric motor drive, hydraulic water drive, and hy- it is relatively simple to maintain a high degree of
draulic oil drive. water management.
• Light, frequent applications can be made.
The towers are spaced from 80 to 250 feet apart • With adequate design and reasonably level land,
(span), and lateral lengths vary up to 2,600 feet (0.5 systems with nozzle pressures as low as 10
mile). Long spans require a substantial truss or cable pounds per square inch can be used.
system to support the lateral pipe in place. The most • Chemical applications (chemigation) can be
common lateral length is 1,320 feet, which covers made through the system.
about 125 to 140 acres per 160-acre field (quarter • With multiple fields, some pivot laterals can be
section). With proper management, application effi- towed to adjacent fields to be operated from
ciencies can be 75 to 90 percent, depending on wind several pivot points.
speed and direction, sprinkler type, operating pres- • Pivots can operate as part circle systems because
sure, and tillage practices. they are capable of operating either forward or in
reverse.
Use of the center pivot has grown rapidly since it was
first developed. Many improvements have been made. Limitations:
For example, some models now contain an added • Where the pivot point is in the center of a 160-
swing lateral unit (corner system) that expands to acre field, only 125 to 140 acres are irrigated.
reach the corners of a field and retracts to a trailing This leaves up to 20 percent of the field
position when the system is along the field edge. The nonirrigated unless special units, such as corner
corner system unit operates only in the corners. When systems, are used to fill in the corners. Often
the corner unit starts up, discharge flow in all other corners are irrigated with portable laterals or
heads is reduced and overall field distribution unifor- solid set sprinkler systems. Graded furrow sur-
mity is affected. These systems cover nearly 150 to 155 face irrigation systems are also used for corners
acres of a square 160-acre (quarter section) field. where soils are suitable, grades are uniform, and
Typically 85 percent of maintenance is spent maintain- gated pipe is available.
ing the swing lateral corner unit itself. Typically, less • Application rates at the outer end of a low pres-
than adequate maintenance results in corner systems sure center pivot lateral can be 30 to 50 inches
operating all the time. Total field application unifor- per hour (in/hr) for periods of 10 to 15 minutes,
mity is reduced even further. depending on the length of the lateral and nozzle
configuration. This can lead to translocation (or
Many techniques have been developed to reduce energy runoff) of applied water and erosion where
used, lower system flow capacities, and maximize water adequate soil surface storage is not provided.
use efficiency. They include using Low Energy Precision When using sprinkler heads discharging large
Application (LEPA) and Low Pressure In-Canopy (LPIC) droplet sizes, soil surface compaction may in-
systems. LEPA systems (precision application) require crease towards the outer edge of the circle. The
adequate (implemented) soil, water, and plant manage- longer the pivot lateral and smaller the wetted
ment. LPIC systems are used on lower value crops diameter of each sprinkler or spray head, the
where localized water translocation is acceptable. greater the application rate.

Irrigation Guide
• Light, frequent irrigations help minimize translo- manufacturer, this is the only way accurate, detailed
cation and runoff, especially with low pressure designs can be prepared. The farmer is generally
systems. This increases potential water evapora- provided with a detailed copy of the design and nozzle
tion losses and may not be ideal for crops grown configuration. Evaluating this information (including
or water supply and system management. The the nozzling package) is always the first step when
irrigator must manage soil moisture more in- providing a detailed field evaluation on a specific pivot
tensely throughout the season than with other system.
systems. Otherwise, soil moisture shortages can
occur. As a service to a cooperator, NRCS can review pivot
• Because this system is relatively expensive designs prepared by others to assure the proposed
compared to other irrigation systems, center application provides adequate water to satisfy the
pivot systems are often designed to barely meet, needs of the crop(s) and match the available water
or even fall short of meeting, peak daily crop capacity of the soil, and that it does not have negative
water use. Unless the system is designed to fully impacts on field or farm resources (soil, water, air,
meet peak daily use, it generally cannot keep up plants, animals, and human considerations) including
in extended periods of extremely hot and dry soil erosion, offsite sedimentation, and pollution of
conditions during maximum crop water use. An surface and ground water. The planning technician
irrigation system should never be designed to can provide daily crop water use and soil resource
depend on adequate rainfall to occur during the information, including limitations, to the irrigation
irrigation period unless the producer adequately decisionmaker for use by the designer.
understands and fully accepts the risks involved.
If the producer accepts these risks, that a state- Each pivot system manufacturer has a selection of
ment in writing may be obtained to forestall carefully designed packages from which to select.
future litigation. Each package has certain application characteristics.
• With the radial distance from the pivot point, The planning technician must be able to supply the
such concentric band includes a larger irrigated land user with information on desirable characteristics
area. Thus, the most water must be carried so that the user can work with the dealer to select an
toward the outer end of the lateral. This results optimum system package for the field. NRCS person-
in lower pressures at the end of the lateral and nel, irrigation dealers, manufacturers, and the user
higher friction losses along the pipe, which need to work together as a team to get the best system
translates into higher pumping costs when com- for onsite conditions installed and properly operated.
pared to a linear move sprinkle irrigation system
or other sprinkler irrigation systems. Resource site and system features that should be
• When a large end gun or corner system is used provided include:
for the corners, a booster pump at the end of the • Maximum and normal irrigation water require-
lateral is typically used. When the booster pump ments of the crop(s).
to supply water to the large end guns and corner • Intake rate or maximum application rate for the
systems comes on, all other sprinkler heads most limiting or restrictive soil, tillage practices,
throughout the length of the pivot lateral have and available surface storage.
less discharge. Overall field distribution unifor- • Translocation, runoff, and erosion potential.
mity is affected. • Suitability of crop for irrigation method and
• Maintenance costs of center pivot laterals with system.
corner systems is high, compared to standard • Available water capacity of limiting soil.
pivot systems. • Actual crop rooting depth(s).
• Irrigation decisionmaker management skill and
Planning and design considerations: labor required.
An irrigation equipment dealer can use a computer
program provided by each center pivot system manu- Maximum application rate for a pivot takes place in
facturer to perform a detailed design specific for that the area between the outer two tower assemblies. The
make and model of pivot. Because sprinkler pipe size application rate typically ranges from 2 to more than
and head spacing combinations are unique for each 50 inches per hour. The application rate is depen-

Irrigation Guide
dent on type of sprinkler heads, width of spray application over the entire area of the circle (field),
pattern, system capacity, and distance from the application rates must increase as the distance from
pivot point. Application rate is constant for a the pivot point increases. Elapsed time of application
specific point regardless of lateral rotation decreases.
speed. Application volume (depth) is totally
independent on the lateral rotation speed. The As can be seen in figure 6–10, intake characteristics of
narrower the width of spray pattern, the higher the a soil are a function of rate over time. When applica-
application rate. Low pressure spray heads typically tion rates are greater than the soil intake rate curve, a
have a narrow width of spray pattern. Because of this potential for translocation or runoff occurs unless soil
narrow spray pattern, LEPA and LPIC systems can surface storage is provided. For a given application
have application rates exceeding 30 to 50 inches per amount, the wider the wetted sprinkler pattern, the
hour for short time periods. less the application rate. Narrower (typically lower
pressure) wetted sprinkler pattern sprinkler nozzles
Sprinkler nozzles on continuously moving lateral provide greater application rates. Table 6–5 displays
systems apply water in a stationary pattern similar to typical wetted patterns and operating pressures of
an ellipse. Application rates at a point a given distance various sprinkler heads on center pivot systems.
perpendicular to the pivot lateral begin at zero until
droplets begin impacting. They reach a maximum The speed of lateral rotation normally varies from 12
when the center of the sprinkler head (lateral) is to 120 hours per revolution. With a center pivot sys-
directly above the point, and decrease again to zero tem, the application rate (in/hr) at any one location is
when the trailing edge of the application pattern the same, regardless of the speed of rotation. How-
passes the point. The depth applied at the given point ever, the greater the lateral speed the less total water
is represented by the area under the application rate is applied in a given area for a given rotation. The
versus time curve. To achieve a uniform depth of speed (typically designated as percentage of the time
Figure 6–10 Typical soil intake and sprinkler application rate curves
Medium pressure
1.2 moving lateral
application rate
1.0
High soil intake rate
Application-intake rate (in/hr)
Medium
0.8 intake
rate
High pressure
moving lateral
0.6 application rate
0.4
0.2 Set system design

intake rate 0.22 in/hr
(5.6 mm/hr
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Time (hr)

Irrigation Guide
moving) of a center pivot system generally is con- Figure 6–11 shows percent of total area of application
trolled by the end tower, called the master or control versus radius for a quarter-mile-long lateral.
tower. A system of alignment controls keeps the other
towers in line with the master tower. To maintain Occasionally, pivots up to a half mile long are in-
alignment, the towers are continually in start-stop stalled. These pivots have very high application rates
operation. If a tower gets stuck and cannot move, the in the outer quarter to third of the irrigated area and
system shuts down (if automatic system shutoff is can work properly only under certain conditions. Most
functioning). important of these conditions are:
• Topography must be flat enough to allow high
With a properly designed, maintained, and managed application rates at the outer part of the circle
center pivot system, water application depth is rela- without significant translocation, runoff, and
tively uniform over the length of the lateral after erosion.
several rotations. The start-stop characteristics of the • Soil must have a relatively high intake rate.
system can cause nonuniformity in a small area on one • Soil surface storage (surface roughness).
rotation. With additional rotations, nonuniformity due • Crops that can be established under high
to start-stop action of individual towers is minimized. application rates are grown.
Overall system maintenance is important. Clogged • Cultural practices that promote surface residue
sprinklers, improperly functioning flow regulators, and utilization for improved soil condition and sur-
improper system pressures quickly degrade uniformity face storage, such as pitting, are implemented
of application. Applicator maintenance is most impor- and maintained throughout the irrigation season.
tant towards the outer end of the lateral because of the
large area covered by only a few nozzles.
Figure 6–11 Application area along a quarter-mile-long
pivot system lateral
Table 6–5 Typical operating pressures and wetted 25% of area

diameter patterns
25% of area
System Operating Wetted 25% of area

pressure diameter
(lb/in2 ) (ft)
25% of area
Heads mounted on top of lateral pipe
High pressure impact 75 + 160
Medium pressure impact 50 - 75 100 - 130
Low pressure impact 35 - 50 40 - 100
360-degree spray, low pressure 20 - 35 20 - 40 660 ft
180-degree spray, low pressure 20 - 35 10 - 20
Rotating spray 15 - 50 up to 70
Spray booms, low pressure 20 - 35 120 273 ft
210 ft
Heads mounted on drop tubes
Fixed spray, low pressure 20 - 35 20 - 40 177 ft
Rotating spray 15 - 50 up to 60 Percent of area Lateral length Acres
LPIC application devices 1/ 5 - 10 5 - 15 100 1,320 ft 125.66
LEPA application devices 2/ 2 - 10 2-5 75 1,143 ft 94.24
50 933 ft 62.83
25 660 ft 31.42
1/ LPIC = Low Pressure In Canopy
2/ LEPA = Low Energy Precision Application

Irrigation Guide
Many combinations of application devices, flow regu- Recommendations for reducing operational
lators, applicator spacing, lateral pipe sizes, tower problems associated with center pivot sprin-
spacing, operating pressures, application rates and kler systems:
spray characteristics exist. Drop tubes that have low
pressure spray heads located a few inches above the Crops can be planted in circular rows around
ground surface or canopy are often used instead of the center pivot system rather than planting in
sprinkler heads attached directly to the lateral. Drop straight rows. Circular planting results in 94 percent
tubes and lower pressure (larger droplets) reduce of the rows being longer than those in traditional
wind and evaporation losses. fields. This type planting reduces wheel traction prob-
lems for the center pivot machine, increases irrigation
Center pivot systems can be operated as either high or uniformity, and can reduce runoff and soil erosion. A
low pressure systems. Low pressure systems are very light water application should be used to leave
becoming more desirable because of reduced energy tire tracks as a guide for planting equipment. Always
use. Where pressure (flow) regulators are not re- apply water when creating guide markings. Weight of
quired, pressures of 5 to 10 pounds per square inch in water in the pipeline can extend the lateral length
the lateral are used for Low Energy Precision Applica- several feet compared to it’s empty lateral length.
tion (LEPA) and Low Pressure In Canopy (LPIC)
systems. Center pivots used as LEPA and LPIC require Tower wheel rutting problems can be a severe
temporary soil surface storage because of very high operational problem where medium textured
application rates; otherwise, surface water transloca- soils with poor structure become wet. As a rut
tion and runoff occur. Temporary surface storage, plus deepens, it collects water and saturates the soil thus
infiltration during the application period, must be increasing the rutting problem. Erosion can occur in
capable of storing the planned application amount per the ruts on sloping fields as a result of the concen-
irrigation. Surface storage can be provided with sur- trated flow. Using boom-backs to place the spray
face residue, soil roughness, or small basins. Adequate behind the tower helps to alleviate this problem.
soil surface storage must be available throughout the
irrigation season. Irrigation uniformity can be improved by
smoothing the land under the center pivot sys-
Some center pivot systems use a large partial circle, tem to remove any minor undulations and local-
hydraulic-revolving gun type sprinkler at the end of ized steep slopes. Best results are achieved using a
the lateral line. This sprinkler extends the irrigated cropping system that maintains crop residue at the
diameter of the pivot to help fill in corners of the field. ground surface. A no-till system of residue manage-
The area covered by the gun seldom receives as much ment is a desirable alternative.
water as the remainder of the field. Generally, this is
the area producing the poorest yields. Typically over Use furrow pitting and diking in the outer quar-
75 percent of total maintenance is required by the end ter of the irrigated area. Various machines can be
gun. used to make dikes or basins in the furrow area every
few feet. Applied irrigation water and precipitation are
A total system economic analysis of inputs and out- stored to prevent translocation and runoff.
puts needs to be made to determine whether increased
crop yields from the irrigated area served by the end In arid and semiarid areas, pre-irrigation (irri-
gun covers costs. Costs include lower total field water gation before the soil is prepared for planting)
application uniformity, reduced water supply for the may be a desirable management practice. The
remainder of the field, increased tillage area, and idea is to at least partly fill the root zone with moisture
increased labor to maintain the end gun. before working the soil and planting the crop. This
helps create a deep root system and stores moisture
for use during periods when the sprinkler system is
unable to keep up with crop needs. Pre-irrigation is
seldom needed in humid areas.

Irrigation Guide
For maximum efficiency the system should move where:

just fast enough to prevent excessive runoff. Q = system capacity (gpm)
Frequently, center pivot irrigation systems are oper- A = area irrigated (acres)
ated at too high speed. Experience has shown frequent T = actual operating time (hr/d)
irrigation often seals the soil, reduces water infiltra- d’ = daily gross depth of application required during
tion, and increases evaporation. Excessive speed also peak use rate period (in)
causes unnecessary wear and tear on the equipment. R = maximum radius irrigated (ft). Also include
In arid areas 0.25 to 0.50 inch of the application length of corner system if applicable
amount can be lost to soil and plant evaporation with
each revolution. Thus when water supplies are short Application rate:
or become short, consider sacrificing part of the crop As a moving lateral sprinkler system moves across a
area and slowing the pivot to apply more water with point in the field, the application rate varies from zero
each rotation. Eliminating irrigation on part of the to maximum and returns to zero. With center pivots,
circle for the latter part of the season may be more both the average application rate and the maximum
beneficial and provide a higher quality product on the application rate increases the further the point in the
fully irrigated portion. field is located from the pivot. To calculate the average
and maximum application rate along a center pivot
Deep chiseling or ripping may be beneficial to lateral, the total lateral capacity and radius can be
remove root and water restrictive tillage pans used. Equations are provided as follows:
and temporarily increase soil intake rate (par-
ticularly on clay loam soil). This is an expensive I=
(
2 96.3 rQ) or Ix =
245rQ
field operation, and unless the cause of compaction is
2
R w R 2w
corrected, the operation must be repeated. Heavy
equipment, tillage when wet, excess tillage, or poor where:
soil condition often cause tillage pans to reoccur. I = average application rate at point r (in/hr)
Q = system capacity (gpm)
Design procedures: r = radius from center of pivot to point under study
The hydraulic design of a center pivot sprinkler system (ft)
is complex. Today, most systems are designed using w = wetted width of sprinkler pattern (ft)
one of several computer programs usually by the R = maximum radius irrigated (ft)
company proposing to do the installation. The follow- Ix = maximum application rate at any point r (in/hr)
ing equation can be used for guidance to determine if (assuming elliptical application pattern of sprin-
maximum application rates and depths of water ap- kler head with a multiplier of 4/π)
plied by center pivot sprinklers are in accordance with
NRCS standards. NEH, Part 623 (Section 15), Chapter Where r, R, Q, and w are held constant:
11, Sprinkle Irrigation, reviews detailed design proce- I x = 1.25 I
dures.
(2) Low energy precision application (LEPA)
Given:
systems
R = 1,350 ft
LEPA is a low energy precision water application
d’ = 0.3 in
system that supplies water at the point of use. This
T = 24 hr/d
system combines a self moving mechanical device
Area = 131.4 acres
(center pivot or linear move) along with water and soil
management to produce retention and efficient use of
System capacity:
all water received (precipitation and irrigation). The
453 A d′ 453 × 131.4 × 0.3 soil surface and residue management provide adequate
Q= = = 744 gpm
T 24 water infiltration and temporary surface water stor-
age. The LEPA management program provides near
zero water translocation or runoff.

Irrigation Guide
Advantages: Planning and design considerations:

• The LEPA method of distributing water is a LEPA systems must be capable of conveying and
relatively new total management systems ap- discharging water within a single furrow area. Water is
proach to pivot and linear system irrigation. The typically confined between two adjacent crop rows.
only association with a center pivot and linear The application device is typically attached to the end
sprinkler systems is with the actual mechanical of drop tubes that are located or positioned in either
system itself. LEPA systems distribute water every furrow or in alternate furrows. Discharge de-
directly onto or very near the ground surface, vices must place water near or directly onto the soil
below the crop canopy through drop tubes fitted surface. For precision application of irrigation water
with low pressure (5 to 10 lb/in2) application using LEPA systems, circular rows must be used with
devices. Because system operating pressures are center pivots and straight rows with linear systems.
low, pumping energy is reduced compared to Application devices should distribute and confine the
standard systems. water to the furrow area without eroding furrow dikes
or crop beds. To optimize water placement, planting
• Lower system capacities per unit area are gener- should be done to match the travel pattern and loca-
ally used for LEPA as compared to conventional tion of the drop tube applicators.
surface and sprinkle systems. This method of
applying water close to the ground surface Minimum system capacity should be based on local
essentially eliminates wind drift and evaporation crop ET needs for crops grown in the crop rotation,
losses especially after the crop has gotten taller accounting for the available water capacity of specific
than 18 inches. With adequate soil (tillage and soils in the field.
residue) management, translocation and field
runoff are eliminated. Practically all losses result Some minor land grading may be needed to remove
from deep percolation below the crop root zone. localized high and low areas in the field to provide
These losses can be minimized if the irrigation uniform application device heights above the soil
decisionmaker follows an adequate program of surface between towers. Spacing and location of drop
irrigation scheduling. Application efficiencies of tubes must coincide with crop row spacing. Water
95 percent and an application device discharge must not be applied into the tower track. Cross flow
coefficient uniformity of more than 96 percent from adjacent furrows to the wheel track should also
should be the objectives of the irrigation be avoided.
decisionmaker. The concept of precision irriga-
tion should prevail with operation and manage- LEPA application devices should contain flow control
ment of LEPA systems. devices or pressure regulators, or both, where needed.
Application devices are normally convertible to at
Limitations: least two of the following modes: bubble, flat spray,
LEPA is generally used on field slopes of 1 percent or chemigation, and drag sock. The application device
less on a significant portion of the field. Planned should distribute the water within or across the furrow
maximum water application depth per irrigation or width without causing erosion of the crop bed, dams,
precipitation event should not exceed soil surface and dikes, and thus diminishing soil surface storage.
storage volume less infiltration during the event.
Application rates exceeding 30 inches per hour, for Soil surface storage—The following provides field
short periods of time, have been measured on the storage capacity and sizing of typical basins at 0 per-
outer end of low pressure center pivot laterals. LEPA cent field slope:
requires cultural and residue management practices
that provide adequate season-long soil surface storage. Storage - - - - - Basins - - - - - Basin dimensions Dike Row
Basins constructed with furrow pitting or diking every row alt row top bot. space space
width width
equipment is required, especially on low and medium (in) (in) (in) (in) (in)
intake soils. The small basins hold irrigation and pre-
cipitation until total infiltration occurs, thus eliminating
runoff and improving water distribution uniformity. 2.0 x 18 6 60 36
1.0 x 18 6 60 60

Irrigation Guide
(3) Low pressure in canopy (LPIC) systems must be maintained throughout the irrigation
LPIC is a low energy, low pressure, center pivot or season. Application rates in excess of 30 inches
linear move water application system that applies per hour, for short periods of time, have been
water within the crop canopy near the ground surface. measured at the outer end of low pressure center
It is similar to low energy precision application pivot laterals.
(LEPA) systems, but does not have as restrictive site • Even with proper water and soil management,
and water application conditions. LPIC irrigation LPIC irrigation systems generally are not suitable
systems typically have some local translocation of for use on low intake soils.
applied water, but no field runoff. In most areas local • Maintaining dikes or basins is difficult on soil
translocation is interpreted as having water on the soil slopes greater than 3 percent.
surface no further than 30 feet ahead of or behind the • Terraces may be needed to prevent erosion on
lateral position. Good soil and water management are slopes greater than 2 percent.
required to obtain potential application efficiencies in
the high 80’s. Planning and design considerations:
Low pressure in canopy (LPIC) systems must be
Advantages: capable of applying water without significant translo-
• The LPIC method of distributing water within the cation or field runoff. Application devices on drop
crop canopy can be installed on soils and topog- tubes can be spaced from 2 to 10 feet. Experience has
raphy unsuitable for the LEPA management shown crop yields are adversely affected because of
system. LPIC systems distribute water through poor application uniformity when using a wider spac-
drop tubes fitted with low pressure (5 to 10 lb/ ing. Nonuniformity exists with any drop tube spacing
in2) application devices. Because system operat- greater than every other row. Many irrigation decision-
ing pressures are low, pumping energy is re- makers feel reducing the initial investment by using a
duced compared to above canopy or high pres- wider application device (and drop tube) spacing is
sure center pivot and linear move systems. justified.
• With good water and soil management and
medium to coarse textured soils, LPIC irrigation Application devices should deliver water to the furrow
systems have been successfully used on slopes area without eroding furrow dikes, dams, or crop
up to 6 percent. Good soil condition and ad- beds. Planting orientation should match the travel
equate soil surface storage for applied water pattern or direction of lateral movement. A very light
(precipitation and irrigation) are essential. Ter- water application can be used to leave tire tracks to
racing may be required to control rainfall and guide planting equipment. Always apply water when
irrigation induced erosion on steeper slopes. creating guide markings. Weight of water in the lateral
• Lower system capacities per unit area generally pipeline can extend the length several feet.
are used for LPIC as compared to above canopy
sprinkle irrigation systems. In-canopy applica- Minimum system capacity should be based on local
tions essentially eliminate wind drift and evapo- crop ET needs for crops grown in the crop rotation,
ration losses especially after the crop has grown accounting for the available water capacity for specific
taller than 18 inches. With proper water and soil soils in the field.
management, application efficiencies of at least
85 percent can be obtained. Application device Some minor land grading may be needed to remove
discharge coefficient uniformity can be more small high and low areas in the field to provide a near
than 90 percent. uniform application device height above the soil
surface between lateral towers. Spacing and location
Limitations: of drop tubes need to coincide with crop row spacing
• LPIC is generally used with field slopes of 3 and the location of the rows within the lateral span of
percent or less on a significant portion of the the mechanical irrigation system. Water should not be
field. Maximum application depth per irrigation applied into the tire track. Cross flow from adjacent
or precipitation event should not exceed soil furrows to the wheel track should also be avoided.
surface storage less infiltration during the event.
Excellent soil condition and surface storage

Irrigation Guide
LPIC application devices should contain flow control Where linear move systems are used as LEPA and
devices or pressure regulators, or both, where needed. LPIC, temporary soil surface storage is necessary to
Application devices are normally operated in the flat limit surface water translocation or runoff because of
spray mode. These devices should distribute water the high application rates. Temporary surface storage,
uniformly across the soil surface without excessive plus infiltration during the application period, must be
crop interference. The LPIC system is used for center capable of receiving the application amount per irriga-
pivot and linear move laterals. LPIC is a low pressure tion. Surface storage can be provided with surface
within canopy system. It is similar to LEPA, but does residue, small basins, or both. Surface storage must be
not have the site and application restrictions. It may available throughout the irrigation season. Application
not have the precision application required of LEPA rates are medium to high.
and is more likely to have translocation and erosion
problems. Advantages:
The major advantage of linear move sprinkler irriga-
(4) Linear (lateral) move sprinkler irrigation tion systems is that all the field is irrigated. Applica-
systems tion uniformity can be high because the laterals are
A linear move sprinkle irrigation system is a continu- nearly continuously moving. Because of the potential
ous, self-moving, straight lateral that irrigates a rectan- for high application uniformity and the ability to put
gular field. The commonly used term, continuous on small amounts of water (at higher lateral speeds),
move, is not totally accurate because the lateral moves several forms of chemigation are practical.
in a timed start-stop operation. The system is similar
to the center pivot lateral in that the lateral pipe is Limitations:
supported by trusses, cables, and towers mounted on The major disadvantages of linear move sprinkle
wheels. A linear move sprinkle irrigation system is irrigation systems are high initial cost, high annual
similar to a side roll wheel line system because it operating cost, and need to supply water to the moving
irrigates a rectangular field with uniform sized nozzles lateral. Generally, this type system is used on medium
and spacing throughout the length of the lateral. to high value crops and for multiple crop production
areas. Unlike center pivots, when laterals reach the
Most linear systems are driven by electric motors edge of the field and irrigation is complete, the laterals
located in each tower. A self-aligning system is used to must be moved. They are either moved back (dead
maintain near straight line uniform travel. One tower headed) to the starting position or moved endwise to
is the master control tower for the lateral where the an adjacent field. When moving the lateral endwise,
speed is set, and all other towers operate in start-stop tower wheels must be rotated 90 degrees or be placed
mode to maintain alignment. A small cable mounted 12 on individual tower dollies.
to 18 inches above the ground surface along one edge
or the center of the field guides the master control Planning and design considerations:
tower across the field. NEH, Part 623 (Section 15), Chapter 11, Sprinkle
Irrigation, page 11–109, provides details concerning
Linear move systems can be equipped with a variety of design. Manufacturers’ technical data should be con-
sprinkler or spray heads. Drop tubes and low pressure sulted for additional machine specific up-to-date
spray heads located a few inches above ground sur- information.
face or crop canopy can be used instead of sprinkler
heads attached directly to the lateral. Both options Field layout and water source delivery methods must
reduce wind and evaporation losses. be considered when planning and designing a linear
move system. Figure 6–12 displays typical alternatives
Linear move systems can be operated as either high or for field layout showing water source locations. Water
low pressure systems. Low pressure systems are can be supplied to the moving lateral system by using
becoming common because of reduced energy use. an engine driven centrifugal pump or by using pipe-
Low pressures of 5 to 10 pounds per square inch (plus lines and risers to move water under pressure.
4 pounds per square inch with pressure regulators) are
used where linear systems are used as Low Energy
Precision Application (LEPA) and Low Pressure In
Canopy (LPIC) systems.
Irrigation Guide
An engine driven centrifugal pump mounted on board When operated manually, the system must be stopped
the master control tower can lift water from a con- with each mainline outlet (riser) change. Spacing of
crete lined ditch and provide pressure to sprinklers on outlet risers is dependent on the length and size of
the moving lateral pipeline. The engine also runs a DC hose the irrigator is able to drag from one outlet riser
generator to provide power for tower drive motors. to the next. A small tractor can tow the hose, thereby
The ditch can be located anywhere in the field perpen- allowing wider spacing of outlet risers. Slower lateral
dicular to the lateral, but is generally located in the speeds and higher application amounts keep manual
center of the field or along one edge. The ditch must labor and the wear and tear on the hose to a minimum.
be installed on a relatively flat grade to provide ad-
equate water depth without overtopping. A moving When riser connect/disconnect is automated, a pow-
end dam checks water moving in the concrete lined ered valve opener proceeds the moving lateral drag-
ditch and provides submergence over the pump suc- ging the supply hose in search of the next riser. If a
tion pipeline inlet. A screen on the pump suction riser is not found, the valve opener returns to the
pipeline helps to prevent debris from entering the master tower and repeats the search process.
lateral.
Upon locating a riser valve, the valve opener aligns
Water under pressure can be supplied to the moving itself over the riser, secures the valve body, and opens
lateral irrigation system via a buried pipeline and the valve. Water pressure in the forward supply hose
risers. The pipeline must be located perpendicular to signals a rear valve body and supply hose to discon-
the moving lateral, typically in the center of the field nect. The rear powered valve body with supply hose
or along one edge. Typically a flexible hose connects moves towards the lateral, searching for the next
the moving lateral pipe to riser valves on the buried riser. When secured, water pressure in the rear valve
pipeline. Riser connect/disconnect can be manual or body and hose signals the forward valve body to
automated.
Figure 6–12 Typical field layout of linear systems
Supply ditch/pipeline center of field
Linear move
Water Direction of travel

source
Supply ditch/pipeline
Supply ditch/pipeline along field edge
Linear move
Water Direction of travel
source
Supply ditch/pipeline

Irrigation Guide
disconnect. The moving lateral proceeds down the Application depth is regulated by the speed at which
field as water is supplied alternately by forward and the hose or cable reel is operated or by the speed of a
rear valve connections. self-contained power unit. Traveling sprinklers are
well adapted to odd shaped fields and to tall field
crops, such as corn, if wetting adjacent areas is not a
(e) Traveling gun sprinkler problem.
irrigation systems
As the traveler moves along its path, the sprinkler
The traveling gun (traveler, gun, big gun) is a high- wets a 200- to 400-foot-wide strip of land. After the
capacity, single-nozzle sprinkler fed with water from a unit reaches the end of a travel path, it is moved and
flexible hose that is either dragged on the soil surface set to water an adjacent strip of land. The overlap of
or wound on a reel. The gun is mounted on wheels and adjacent strips depends on the distance between
travels along a straight line while operating. The unit is travel paths, diameter wetted by the sprinkler, aver-
equipped with a water piston or water turbine pow- age wind speed, and application pattern of the sprin-
ered winch that reels in an anchored cable or hose. kler used. The sprinkler is reset by towing it to the
Some units have a small auxiliary gasoline engine to edge of the field.
power the reel. This eliminates the water pressure
required to operate the reel, and the hose speed is Sprinkler discharge flows can range from 50 to more
consistent. The cable guides the unit along a path and than 1,000 gallons per minute with nozzles ranging
tows a high-pressure flexible hose connected to the from 0-.5 to 1.75 inches in diameter and operating
water supply system. Figure 6–13 displays a typical pressure from 60 to more than 120 pounds per square
traveling gun type system layout. inch. Table 6–6 displays typical discharges and wetted
diameters for gun type sprinklers with 24 degree angle
,,
Figure 6–13 Traveling gun type sprinkler system layout
,,,,

Extent of planted area
,
Towpaths
,

,,
,
Pumping
unit
Travel direction
Buried main Hose
Connections Catch container

to main row

Irrigation Guide
of trajectory and tapered nozzles operating when there Self-powered/propelled—This unit has a self-con-
is no wind. The three general types of traveling gun tained pump and is self-propelled by drive wheels. A
sprinklers are cable reel, hose reel, and self-powered/ gun type sprinkler is mounted on top of the unit. The
propelled. machine straddles a supply ditch and is guided by the
ditch.
Cable reel—The cable reel unit has a large gun type
sprinkler mounted on a 4-wheel chassis equipped with (1) Advantages
a water piston or turbine-powered winch that reels in • Odd shaped fields can be irrigated with auto-
an anchored cable. The cable guides the unit along a mated equipment.
path as it tows a high-pressure, flexible, lay-flat hose • Manual labor is minimized.
that is connected to the water supply system. The • Suitable on sandy or high intake rate soils.
typical hose is 4 to 5 inches in diameter and up to 660 • Suitable for irrigating several different fields in a
feet long. This allows the unit to travel up to 1,320 feet. crop rotation.
After use, the hose can be drained and wound onto a
reel. (2) Limitations
• Traveling gun type sprinklers are not suitable on
Hose reel—The hose reel unit is equipped with a low intake rate soils or soils that tend to surface
water turbine or gasoline auxiliary engine to power seal as a result of puddling.
the hose reel. The hose reel can be located either at • The turbines to power the winch and fittings on
the sprinkler or at the water source (pipe outlet valve). hose fed systems require additional water supply
When included with the sprinkler, a 4-wheel chassis pressure. Because of the typical field size and the
carries the hose reel and sprinkler, which is pulled in desire to keep costs down, it is tempting to
by the hose attached to a water source (pipe outlet reduce the flexible hose size for the length re-
valve). The hose is usually flexible, reinforced, poly- quired. Decreased capital cost is a trade-off for
ethylene material and is typically between 4 and 5 increased energy cost. An energy cost analysis
inches in diameter. Generally, the maximum hose should be made. When possible, manufacturers’
length is 850 feet. This allows the unit to move 1,700 technical data should be used to make the analy-
feet. sis.
Table 6–6 Typical discharges and wetted diameters for gun type sprinklers with 24° angles of trajectory and tapered
nozzles operating when there is no wind
Sprinkler Sprinkler discharge and wetted diameter

pressure - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - tapered nozzle size (in) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - 0.8 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.6 - - - - - -
(lb/in2) gpm ft gpm ft gpm ft gpm ft gpm ft
60 143 285 225 325 330 365 — — — —

70 155 300 245 340 355 380 480 435 — —
80 165 310 260 355 380 395 515 455 675 480
90 175 320 275 365 405 410 545 470 715 495
100 185 330 290 375 425 420 575 480 755 510
110 195 340 305 385 445 430 605 490 790 520
120 205 350 320 395 465 440 630 500 825 535

Irrigation Guide
• To cast a droplet of water over 50 feet requires a Distribution uniformity is typically fair in the inner
droplet size greater then 0.25 inch to resist air part of a 100- to 200-foot-wide strip; however, along
friction. Well graded soils and soils low in or- the ends and sides it is poor. Typically, the ends and
ganic matter are subject to puddling or surface sides of the strip are inadequately irrigated. Applica-
compaction, thus further reducing soil intake tion uniformity of large gun sprinklers is adversely
rate and increasing potential translocation. Some affected by wind speeds of more than 5 miles per hour.
crops may also be damaged by large droplet A gun type system is not recommended in windy areas.
sizes.
• To adequately irrigate edges of the field, water is Power requirements to drag a hose depend on the size
applied outside of the field boundaries. of hose, soil texture, soil moisture conditions, and
crop. Pull energy requirement is greatest on wet, bare,
(3) Planning and design considerations sticky soils and less on wet vegetation or bare, sandy
Large gun type sprinklers require the highest pressures soils. On sticky soils the tow paths for the traveling
of any sprinkler system. In addition to the high operat- unit and hose should be left in grass or other vegeta-
ing pressure required at the sprinkler nozzle, hose tion. Excessive wear to the hose can occur on soils
losses can add another 20 to 40 pounds per square containing sharp or abrasive rock fragments.
inch to the total system dynamic pressure head (TDH).
Therefore, gun type sprinklers are well suited to Guidelines for sizing traveling gun type sprinkler hoses
supplemental irrigation where seasonal net irrigation are shown in table 6–8. Table 6–9 displays recom-
requirements are small. This helps to mitigate the high mended maximum travel lane spacing as a function of
power costs associated with high operating pressure. wetted diameter and average wind speed. The gross
An energy cost evaluation should be made. Traveling depth of water applied for continuous moving large
gun sprinklers can be used where crops and irrigation gun type sprinkler heads is given in table 6–10.
needs are rotated from field to field. Table 6–7 displays
friction loss in flexible pressure irrigation hose used
on traveling gun type sprinklers.
Table 6–7 Friction loss in flexible irrigation hose used Table 6–8 Guidelines for sizing traveling gun type
on traveling gun type sprinkle system sprinkler hoses
Flow Friction Loss (lb/in2 /100 ft) Flow range Hose diameter
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - hose size (in) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (gpm) (in)
(gpm) 2 1/2 3 3 1/2 4 4 1/2 5
50 to 150 2.5
- - - - - - - - - - - - lb/in2 per 100 ft - - - - - - - - - - - -
150 to 250 3.0
100 1.6 0.7 0.3 200 to 350 3.5
150 3.4 1.4 250 to 500 4.0
200 5.6 2.5 1.4 0.6 500 to 700 4.5
250 3.6 0.9
> 700 5.0
300 5.1 2.6 1.3 0.6
400 2.3 1.3
500 3.5 2.1
600 4.9 2.7 1.1
700 3.6 2.1
800 4.6 2.7
900 3.4
1000 4.2

Irrigation Guide
Table 6–9 Maximum travel lane spacing for traveling

gun type sprinklers as a function of wetted
diameter and wind speed
Wetted - - - - - - - - - - Wind speed (mi/hr) - - - - - - - - - -

diameter > 10 5–10 0–5 0
- - - - - - - Percent of wetted diameter - - - - - -
50 60 70 80
Maximum travel lane spacing

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (feet) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
200 100 120 140 160

300 150 180 210 240
400 200 240 280 320
500 250 400 350 400
600 300 360 420 480
Table 6–10 Gross depth of water applied for continuous moving large gun type sprinkler heads 1/
Sprinkler Spacing Depth of water applied

flow between - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Travel speed (ft/min) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
travel
(gpm) lanes (ft) 0.4 0.5 1 2 4 6 8 10
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - inches - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 165 2.4 1.9 1.0 0.5 0.24 0.16 0.12 0.09
200 135 4.9 3.9 2.0 1.0 0.5 0.32 0.24 0.19
200 4.0 3.2 1.6 0.8 0.4 0.27 0.2 0.16
300 200 6.0 4.8 2.4 1.2 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.24
270 4.4 3.6 1.8 0.9 0.4 0.3 0.22 0.18
400 240 6.7 5.3 2.7 1.3 0.7 0.44 0.33 0.27
300 5.3 4.3 2.1 1.1 0.5 0.36 0.27 0.21
500 270 7.4 6.0 3.0 1.5 0.7 0.5 0.37 0.29
330 6.1 4.9 2.4 1.2 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.24
600 270 8.9 7.1 3.6 1.8 0.9 0.6 0.45 0.36
330 7.3 5.8 2.9 1.5 0.7 0.5 0.36 0.29
700 270 10.4 8.3 4.2 2.1 1.0 0.7 0.5 0.42
330 8.5 6.8 3.4 1.7 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.34
800 300 10.7 8.5 4.3 2.1 1.1 0.7 0.5 0.43
360 8.9 7.1 3.6 1.8 0.9 0.6 0.4 0.36
900 300 12.0 9.6 4.8 2.4 1.2 0.8 0.6 0.5
360 10.0 8.0 4.0 2.0 1.0 0.7 0.5 0.4
1000 330 12.2 9.7 4.9 2.4 1.2 0.8 0.6 0.5
400 10.0 8.0 4.0 2.0 1.0 0.7 0.5 0.4
1/ (equation) average depth of water applied = 1,605 x (sprinkler flow, gpm) / (land spacing, ft) x (travel speed, ft/min)

Irrigation Guide
(4) Design procedures (f) Traveling boom sprinkler

NEH, Section 623 (Section 15), Chapter 11, Sprinkle irrigation systems
Irrigation, pages 11–84 to 11–89, provides a detailed
explanation of design procedures and an example. A traveling boom system is similar to a traveling gun
This material should be used as a design guide. Appli- system except a boom containing several nozzles is
cable equations include: used. The boom can be moved by a self-contained,
continuously moving power unit by dragging or coiling
Application rate: the water feed hose on a reel. The boom usually ro-
Traveling sprinkler: tates, but may be fixed. A boom can be nearly 100 feet
long with discharge nozzles spaced uniformly along
CQ
It = 2
the boom. Nozzle discharge patterns on the boom
R Deg overlap one another. Back pressure from fixed nozzles
rotates the boom.
where:
It = approximate average application rate from Field tests indicate distribution uniformity for travel-
traveling gun (in/hr) ing boom sprinklers can be higher than traveling guns
C = unit conversion constant = 13,624 for the same diameter of coverage. A nonrotating
Q = gun discharge (gpm) boom can start and stop near the edge of a field,
R = wetted radius of nozzle (ft) thereby providing adequate irrigation to these areas.
Deg = portion of circle receiving water (degrees).
Usually does not exceed 270°. (1) Advantages
• Can be fabricated locally in any good farm ma-
Stationary sprinkler: chine shop.
• Can save labor after initial installation.
CQ
It =
R2 (2) Limitations
• High maintenance requirements.
where: • Lack of commercial dealers and support for
I = approximate average application rate from a replacement parts
stationary large gun (in/hr)
C = unit conversion constant = 30.7 (3) Planning and design considerations
Q = gun discharge (gpm) Design of a traveling boom sprinkler system is similar
R = wetted radius of nozzle (ft) to a traveling gun type system. Operating pressures are
generally much less than for large gun type sprinklers.
Application depth: The edge and end effect is less than that for large gun
C Q Eff type sprinklers because the wetted diameter of indi-
Fn = vidual nozzles is much less. Local shop fabricated self-
W S
propelled booms can be effective and apply water
efficiently on small farms growing high value specialty
where: crops, such as berries, fresh vegetables, and melons.
Fn = net application depth (in)
C = unit conversion constant = 1.605
Q = gun discharge (gpm)
Eff = estimated application efficiency (decimal)
W = tow path spacing (ft)
S = travel speed (ft/min)

Irrigation Guide
(b) Types of micro irrigation

652.0603 Micro irrigation systems
systems (1) Point-source emitters (drip/trickle/
bubbler)
In the point-source form of micro irrigation, water is
(a) General applied to the soil surface as discrete or continuous
drops, tiny streams, or low volume fountain through
Micro irrigation is the broad classification of frequent, small openings. Discharge is in units of gallons per
low volume, low pressure application of water on or hour (gph) or gallons per minute (gpm) over a speci-
beneath the soil surface by drippers, drip emitters, fied pressure range. Discharge rates typically range
spaghetti tube, subsurface or surface drip tube, basin from 0.5 gallon per hour to nearly 0.5 gallon per
bubblers, and spray or mini sprinkler systems. It is minute for individual drip emitters.
also referred to as drip or trickle irrigation.
Microtubes (spaghetti tubing) are classed as point-
Water is applied as discrete or continuous drops, tiny source emitters even though they are actually tubes
streams, or miniature spray through drip emitters or rather than emitters. Microtubes consist of various
spray heads placed along a water delivery line called a lengths of flexible tubing that is small in diameter (.020
lateral or feeder line. Typically, water is dispensed to .040 inch). Typically, no other water control device
from a pipe distribution network under low pressure is used. Discharge rates are adjusted by varying the
(5 to 20 lb/in2) in a predetermined pattern. The outlet length of the tubing. The longer the tube, the greater
device that controls water release is called an emitter. the friction loss, which decreases the discharge rate.
Water moves through the soil from the emission point
to soil areas of higher water tension by both capillary Because discharge orifices are small, complete filtra-
and gravity forces. The amount of soil wetted depends tion of water is required. Bubblers are commonly used
on soil characteristics, length of irrigation period, with ornamental landscape plantings, orchards, and
emitter discharge, and number and spacing of emit- grape vineyards. Flows are generally less than 1 gallon
ters. Number and spacing of emitters are dependent per minute. Figure 6–15 illustrates typical drip emitter
on the spacing and size of plants being irrigated. If devices.
water management is adequate, line source emitters
can be used for row crops. Micro irrigation can effi-
ciently distribute an otherwise limited water supply.
With proper water management, application efficien-

cies for a well designed, installed, and maintained
micro irrigation system can be in the range of 80 to 90
percent for the area irrigated. Without proper water
management, they are typically 55 to 65 percent. By far
the greatest water management problem is over-
irrigation.
Principal uses for micro irrigation systems are provid-

ing water for windbreaks, vegetables, berries, grapes,
fruit, citrus and nut orchards, nursery stock, and
landscape and ornamental plantings. Figure 6–14
shows a typical micro irrigation system layout in an
orchard. In areas where the water supply is inadequate
and water cost is high, subsurface micro systems can
be cost effective for irrigation of high value row crops.
Buried line source lateral systems have been in con-
tinuous operation since 1982.

Irrigation Guide
Figure 6–14 Typical orchard micro system layout
Pressure gage Emitters

Valve
Laterals
Pressure gage Valve
Manifold or header
Main line
Vacuum
breaker Filters
Pressure gage
Pressure gage
Pump Valve
Backflow
prevention Valve
valve Valve
Fertilizer Fertilizer
solution injector
tank pump

Irrigation Guide
Figure 6–15 Emitter devices
,,,
,,
,,,,
,,
,,
,,
Outlet
,,,
,,,
,,,,,,,
,,,
,,
,,
Outlet
,,
,,
,,
Orifices
,,
,,
,,
,,,,,,
,,
,,
,,
,,,,,,
,,
,,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,,
Pipeline or Diaphragm
tubing wall
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,,
Flow
Orifice
water
Water entry Vortex entry
orifice chamber
Emitter using flexible
Orifice emitter Orifice-vortex emitter orifices in series
,,,,,,,,
,,
,,
,,,,
,,
,,,,
,,
,,,,,,,,
Slot
,,
,,
,,
Seat
,, Flow Barbs for Long
Ball making lateral flow path
connections
,,
,,
,,,,
,,
,,,,
,,
or
,,
,,
,,
,,
Flow
Plug into
lateral
Ball and slotted Long path emitter
seat emitter small tube Long path emitters
,
Four individual Flow Dual outlet

long path ways passage
Elastomer
flap Groove
Common long
,,,
path
Sliding pin
Flow Gasket
Elastomer
disc
Long path multiple Groove and flap Groove and disc

outlet emitter short path emitter short path emitter
Manual flushing
possible
Elastomer Exit orifices
disc
Spiral path
Inner orifices
(for each inner orifice there
are several exit orifices)
Continuous flow principle of

multiple flexible orfices Compensating long path emitter Twin-wall emitter lateral

Irrigation Guide
(2) Surface or subsurface line-source emitter Surface or subsurface line-source emitter systems
systems have a uniform discharge in units of gallons per hour
This type micro irrigation uses surface or buried per foot (gph/ft) or gallons per minute per 100 feet
flexible tubing with uniformly spaced emitter points (gpm/100 ft) over a specified pressure range. Because
(or porous tubing). The tubing comes as layflat tubing, discharge orifices are small, complete filtration of
flexible tubing, or as semirigid tubing that retains its water is required.
shape. Generally, this system is used in permanent
crops, but has been used successfully as either surface
or buried lines with high value row crops, such as
vegetables, cotton, and melons. Figure 6–16 shows
typical examples of surface and subsurface emitter
devices.
,,,
,,,,
,,
Figure 6–16 Surface and subsurface line source emitter devices
,,,,,,
Laser drip tube Monotube
Torturous path emitter. . .

Water flow Water flow
inserted in the tube. . .
becomes a permanent part of the tube
,,
,,
,,, ,,
,
,,,,,,
,,,, , Twin wall emitter
Water flow

Irrigation Guide
(3) Basin bubblers distribute water on up to 10 acres. Bubbler basins

The basin bubbler micro irrigation system applies apply water to a larger soil volume than do drip emit-
water to the soil surface in small fountain type ters; therefore, only one outlet device is needed per
streams. The streams have a point discharge rate plant or tree. This promotes increased root develop-
greater than that for a typical drip or line source ment that may be needed to support the plant in windy
system, but generally less than 1 gallon per minute. areas. Irrigation scheduling is also easier.
The discharge rate normally exceeds the infiltration
rate of the soil, so small basins are used to contain the (4) Spray or mini sprinkler
water until infiltration occurs. Discharge is generally With spray or mini sprinkler micro irrigation systems,
from a small diameter (3/8 to 1/2 inch) flexible tube water is applied to the soil surface as spray droplets
that is attached to a buried or surface lateral and from small, low-pressure heads. The typical wetted
located at each plant vine or tree. The typical emitter diameter is 2 to 7 feet. Discharge rates are generally
device is not used, and discharge pressures are very less than 30 gallons per hour (0.5 gpm). The wetted
low (< 5 lb/in2). Figure 6–17 displays a typical basin pattern is larger than that of typical drip emitter de-
bubbler system. vices, and generally fewer application devices are
needed per plant.
Basin bubblers are used in orchards and landscaping
and ornamental plantings. These systems are best used Spray and mini sprinklers also have less plugging
with medium to fine textured soils where lateral water problems and less filtration required than point-source
movement can provide adequate soil moisture for the emitters (drippers). Many spray heads only require the
desirable plant root development area. With coarse replacement of the orifice to change discharge rate. If
textured soils, bubbler discharge rates are increased an orifice becomes plugged, it is easily removed and
and shorter time periods used, thereby providing more cleaned or replaced. Spray or mini sprinkler head
wetted area above the potential plant root zone. application patterns can be full, half circle, or partial
circle (both sides). Figure 6–18 illustrates typical spray
The discharge orifice is larger than that of the other and mini sprinkler type heads.
systems, so little or no water filtration is required.
Generally, screening of coarse debris and small crea-
tures is sufficient. Drains must be provided to allow
discharge of any collected sediment. Figure 6–17 Basin bubbler system
Flow to each discharge point is controlled by adjusting

the elevation at the outflow end of the tubing. The
tubing is attached to a support stake. Decreasing the
elevation along the lateral compensates for head loss
in the lateral. Stake
,,, ,,
This simple system distributes water uniformly to each Bubbler riser
Basin
,,,
tree without special flow regulating devices. Operating
pressures less than 2 pounds per square inch can
Buried lateral

Irrigation Guide
Figure 6–18 Various mini spray and sprinkler heads
Mini-sprinkler on wedge
Composed of mini-sprinkler, coupler (cantal), flexible pvc tubing (2 ft),
plunger, wedge.
Flow in gph Color

at 20 lb/in2 code
4 blue red
6 blue blue
13 gray black
15 black black
24 blue black
26 red black
35 brown black
Mini-sprinkler on wedge with pressure regulator

Composed of all components listed in mini-sprinkler on wedge 1 with addition
of pressure regulator (regulated working pressure of 30 lb/in2) (2 atm).
Flow in gph Color

at 30 lb/in2 code
16 gray black
18 black black
29 blue black
32 red black
42 brown black
Mini-sprinkler on flexible riser

Composed of mini-sprinkler, flex riser, plunger.
Flow in gph Color

at 20 lb/in2 code
4 blue red
6 blue blue
13 gray black
15 black black
24 blue black
26 red black
35 brown black

Irrigation Guide
(c) Advantages of micro irrigation (d) Limitations of micro

systems irrigation systems
Micro irrigation can be one of the most efficient meth- Micro irrigation is considered expensive to install and
ods of irrigation. Little if any runoff and little evapora- maintain. In general, the cost of micro systems is
tion occur, and deep percolation can be controlled greater than that for sprinkle or surface systems.
with good water management. Water is applied at the Frequent maintenance is essential, and a high level of
point of use (plant transpiration). Other advantages of management is required to obtain optimum application
micro irrigation systems are: efficiencies. Other limitations include:
• Systems are easily automated with soil moisture • Clogging is a major problem in all micro systems.
sensors and computer controlled for low labor Emitter outlets are very small, and can be easily
requirements. clogged with chemical precipitates, soil particles,
• Soil moisture levels can be maintained at prede- or organic materials. Clogging can reduce or stop
termined levels for start-stop operation. water emission. Chemical treatment of the water
• Fertilizer can be efficiently added to irrigation is often necessary, and filters are almost always
water. With proper water management, there is required. Filtration and treatment can be costly,
minimum waste caused by deep percolation, and especially where water is taken from surface
less opportunity for ground water pollution. sources containing sediment and debris. During
• Much of the soil surface remains dry, reducing installation, care should be taken to clean all
weed growth and soil surface evaporation. construction debris from the inside of pipelines
• The soil surface remains firm for use by farm as this material can cause plugging.
workers and equipment. • Animals, especially rodents, can damage surface
• Frequent irrigations can be used to keep salts in (and shallow subsurface) installed plastic pipe
the soil water more diluted and moved away less than 4 inches in diameter.
from plant roots. Irrigation with water of higher • With low operating pressures, poor distribution
salinity is possible (requires a high level of man- uniformity can result because of elevation differ-
agement). Where salts are present, soil-water ences on undulating ground. Pressure regulators
movement must always be toward the edges of or pressure compensated emitters are then
the wetted bulb (away from roots). A common necessary. However, they require about 2 pounds
mistake is to shut the system down when precipi- per square inch for operation.
tation occurs, often creating soil-water move- • On steep terrain, automatic gravity draining of
ment into the plant root zone. laterals to a low point within the field can cause
• Micro irrigation can be used on all terrain and low distribution uniformity, especially in low
most agricultural crops and soils and is often pressure, high volume systems. This problem is
used on steep, rocky ground that is unsuitable aggravated by frequent on-off cycles, but can be
for other forms of irrigation. overcome by installing air-vacuum valves in a
• Low tension water availability to plants enhances raised pipe arch (i.e., dog leg) at one or more
growth and improves crop yield and quality. locations in the lateral. Drains are installed just
upstream of each pipe arch. This increases the
number of sites affected by lateral pipe drainage,
thus decreasing effects on distribution unifor-
mity because each drain discharges less water.

Irrigation Guide
• When soil water is reduced in the plant root (e) System components
zone, light rains can move salts in surrounding
soil into the plant root zone, which can consti- System components should include the following, in
tute a potential hazard. Salts also concentrate order of installation starting at the water source point
below the soil surface at the perimeter of the soil (see fig. 6–19).
volume wetted by each emitter. If the soil dries
between irrigations, reverse movement of soil 1. Prescreening of debris and settling of coarse
water can carry salts from the perimeter back sediments if source is surface water. Need
into the root zone. To avoid salt damage to roots, control valves and flow measuring device.
water movement must always be away from the 2. Provide system operating pressure of 5 to 20
emitter and from the plant root zone. As strange pounds per square inch using pump(s) or grav-
as it may seem, in high soil salinity areas or when ity flow. Need pressure gage and control valves.
using high saline or sodic water for irrigation, 3. Chemical injector device(s) for injecting fertiliz-
one may need to irrigate when it rains. ers and other pipeline cleaning chemicals.
• A smaller volume of soil is wetted at each plant. 4. Filtering system to remove fine organic, sus-
Plants can be quickly stressed if the system fails pended sediment and chemical precipitates.
(i.e., pump failure, water source cutoff, pipeline Need pressure gage upstream and downstream
or valve failure). Daily checking of the system is of filter device.
necessary even when all or part is automated. 5. Filter system backflush device. Need control
Storing a 3-day plant-water supply in the soil is valves.
recommended along with daily replacement of 6. Mainlines typically are buried PVC plastic pipe
water used. with control valves as necessary.
• Multiple emitters at each plant are recommended 7. Submains typically are buried PVC plastic pipe
to decrease effects of manufacturer variability, to with control valves, pressure regulators, and
increase area of root development, and to reduce drains as necessary.
risk of plant damage should an emitter become 8. Laterals or feeder lines are either surface or
plugged. buried PE or PVC plastic flexible tubing.
9. Emitter devices.
10. Appropriately placed soil moisture sensing
devices. Start of irrigation can be manual,
computer programmed, or with a time clock.
Lateral on-off sequencing can be automated
with solenoid operated valves. A controller and
electric valving can help assure proper irriga-
tion timing to meet soil depletion and plant
needs.

Irrigation Guide
(f) Planning and design help prevent algae buildup. Algae growth is especially
considerations a problem where sunlight aids algae growth inside
white plastic pipe that is installed above the ground
(1) Water quality surface. Black pipe (PE pipe) is not affected because
Water quality is usually the most important consider- sunlight does not penetrate the pipe. White plastic
ation when determining whether a micro irrigation pipe can be painted with a dark color to help prevent
system is physically feasible. Well and surface water sunlight penetrating the pipe and provide some UV
often contain high concentrations of undesirable protection.
minerals (chemicals). Surface water can contain
organic debris, algae, moss, bacteria, small creatures, Bacterial slime can plug emitters and small tubing.
weed seeds, and soil particles. Well water can also Conditions favoring slime growth include pH of 4.5 to
contain sand. 6, low oxygen level, temperatures greater than 46
degrees Fahrenheit, organic matter, dissolved iron and
Various forms of algae are in almost all quiet surface manganese, and hydrogen sulfide. Treatment is by
water. Sunlight and water high in nutrients encourage injection of chlorine, sodium hypochlorite (household
algae growth. Algae are hard to remove from laterals bleach), or calcium hypochlorite (swimming pool
and emitters once it gets established. The best way to chloride). Continuous injection of chlorine at 1 ppm is
handle algae is to prevent it from forming. Chlorine effective. Periodic shock treatment with concentra-
can be injected at the end of each irrigation cycle to tions of 10 ppm can also be used.
Figure 6–19 Micro system components
Controls
Backflow Drain
(where
Pump prevention needed)
valve Gauge Solenoid
valve Submain line
Valve
Primary Main line
Pressure
Fertilzer filter regulator
injector
Lateral lines
with emitters
Water source Secondary Flow Submain line

filter control

Irrigation Guide
Water with a high Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) and The resulting slime can plug emitters. Where iron is
low water Electrical Conductivity (ECw) destroys the present in concentrations of 0.4 ppm or greater, it can
structure of the soil, which results in a drastically be oxidized to form a precipitate. This precipitate
reduced intake rate. Sodium content may also be high should be filtered out before the water enters the
enough to be toxic to the plant. Unless well water irrigation system. Table 6–11 displays physical, chemi-
characteristics are known, water should be tested for cal, and biological factors that cause plugging of
ECw and SAR. See chapter 13 of this guide for further emitters. Table 6–12 displays plugging potential from
discussion. irrigation water used in micro systems.
If water softeners are used in a home water system, do Soil particles near 2 micron size tend to stick together
not use the softened water in a micro irrigation sys- because of physical size, shape, and electric charge.
tem. Large amounts of salt are added to soften the Under very low velocities they can clog emitter ori-
water. Besides not being good for plant growth, salt fices. Flushing the lines regularly and using larger size
precipitates at the emitter discharge orifice and tends emitters helps prevent clogging. Also using a chemical
to plug emitters. Attach the micro system into the dispersant, such as hexamethaphosphate, can keep
water system upstream of any water softener. particles dispersed so they do not stick together.
Water with relatively high salinity (high ECw), as Table 6–13 displays the typical composition and classi-
defined in chapter 13, can sometimes be used with a fication of water used in micro systems. It should be
micro system. A higher soil-moisture level (lower soil- noted either one, two, or all three factors (physical,
water tension) can help assure water for plant growth chemical, and biological) can be present in a micro
is readily available. Additional irrigation water keeps system. The designer and irrigator need to know what
the salts leached from the plant root zone. To accom- is present in the irrigation water and in what concen-
plish this, the soil must have good internal drainage. tration.
Bicarbonate concentrations in water higher than 2.0

milliequivalents per liter (meq/L), coupled with a pH Table 6–11 Physical, chemical and biological factors
above 7.5, and temperatures greater than 70 °F pro- causing plugging of emitters
motes scale development (precipitation of mineral
deposits). With black plastic pipe placed on the Physical Chemical Biological
ground surface and exposed to direct sunlight, the
water temperature inside can get quite high. A scale
(precipitate) is formed inside the walls of the pipe and Organic debris Ca or Mg carbonates Filaments
emitters. Injections of acid (food grade phosphoric or Aquatic weeds, Ca sulfate, Ferric iron Slimes
sulfuric) can be used for cleaning, but will not com- moss Metal hydroxides, Microbial
pletely reclaim partly blocked lines and emitters.
Continual treatment is usually necessary. Treatment of Algae carbonates, silicates deposits
water before it is used in the system allows precipita- Aquatic and sulfides iron ochre
tion and collection of the carbonates to occur before creatures, Fertilizers manga-
they get into the pipe system. Periodic treatment snails, fish phosphate, ammonia nese ochre
within the pipe system can dislodge built up scale and
Plastic particles manganese sulfur
cause plugging of emitters.
Soil particles— iron, zinc, copper ochre
Another common problem with well water is high iron sand, silt, clay
concentration, which can result in iron precipitating in
the line. This encourages the growth of iron bacteria.

Irrigation Guide
Table 6–12 Plugging potential from irrigation water used in micro irrigation systems
Problem Low Medium Severe
Physical
Suspended solids, ppm 50 50 -100 > 100
Chemical
pH 7.0 7.0 – 8.0 > 8.0
TDS, ppm 500 500 – 2,000 > 2000
Manganese, ppm 0.1 0.1 – 1.5 > 1.5
Iron, ppm 0.1 0.1 – 1.5 > 1.5
Hydrogen sulfide, ppm 0.5 0.5 – 2.0 > 2.0
Biological
Bacteria population - no. per mL 1/ 10,000 10,000 – 50,000 > 50,000
1/ Bacteria populations reflect increased algae and microbial nutrients.
Table 6–13 Typical composition and classification of water used in micro irrigation systems
Source Physical 1/ Chemical 1/ Biological 1/

of water suspended dissolved iron or bacteria classification -
solids solids manganese population physical/chemical/
(ppm) (ppm) ppm number/mL biological
City water 1 500 0.05 10 0-4-0

Runoff water 300 50 0.05 10,000 10-0-6
River water 70 900 0.10 4,000 6-8-4
Well water 1 1,650 0.05 40,000 0-10-9
1/ Physical and biological composition of water can change during the season and between seasons.

Irrigation Guide
(2) Clogging Note: The only way to be assured whether the emitter
Clogging of emitters is the most serious problem of is discharging near design flow is to check it using a
micro irrigation. Properly designed and maintained catch can or rain gutter trough device and a stop
filtration systems generally protect the system from watch. The operating pressure also needs to be
most clogging. Clogging causes poor water distribu- checked. A little ingenuity is often necessary to de-
tion, which in turn may damage the crop if emitters velop catch can devices that collect all the water
are plugged for a long time. When the plant(s) shows discharging from an in-line emitter or spray head, and
excessive stress, it is generally too late to correct the to measure operating pressure.
problem. Multiple emitters per plant are recom-
mended. The main causes of clogging are algae, bacte- (3) Filter systems
rial slime, precipitate, construction debris, and sedi- All water must be screened and filtered to some de-
ment. In general, adequate filtration, line flushing, and gree before use in a micro irrigation system. Water
chemical treatment prevent most clogging. quality, temperature, flow rate, and emitter orifice size
determine the type of filter. One rule of thumb is to
The irrigator must see or know when clogging is select filters that retain all particles at least a tenth the
occurring. The capability of the irrigator to observe diameter of the smallest passageway in the system.
operation of emitters or spray heads is rated as fol- For example, a 250-micron filter would be used to
lows. The ratings are in order of easiest to see to most remove all particles passing through a 25 micron
difficult to see from a reasonable distance (i.e., from opening. Ordinary window and door screen approxi-
the seat of a small 4-wheel drive RV unit). mates 8-12 mesh (0.125-0.083 inches).
Type emitter Observation Surface water must first be screened to remove or-
ganic debris, weed seeds, small aquatic creatures, and
1 Basin bubblers Water bubbling out of the pipe coarse sediment. Self-cleaning screens provide trans-
and water on the ground portation and storage outside the flow area for debris
surface. removed by the screen. When using flow-through
2 Spray heads Spray coming from the heads screens, debris should remain on the screen surface
and the resulting wetness on unless mechanically removed or a back-flushing facil-
the ground surface and plant ity is used. Most wells produce some sand, precipi-
leaves. tates, and particles that can cause emitters to plug.
3 Point emitters Water dripping out of the The turbulent fountain screen is effective for screen-
suspended above emitter and the resulting wet- ing out coarse material, and it requires minimum labor
ground surface ness on the ground surface. for maintenance (fig. 6–20).
4 Line source and The line must be picked up to
point source see if the emitter is operat- Filters cannot remove dissolved minerals, algae cells,
emitters lying on ing. Wetness of ground sur- or bacteria. The degree of filtration is generally given
the ground surface; face around the emitter can in terms of screen mesh size. The relationship of mesh
spaghetti tubing also be observed. Raising the size to particle size is displayed in table 6–14. Porous
emitter too high causes the flexible tubing requires sand bed filters unless water is
flow rate to change. clean.
5 Subsurface or Ground surface moisture
buried tubing caused by upward capillary Filter types include centrifugal force, graded sand,
action and plant condition cartridge, disc, and mechanical screens. Sand filters
indicate emitter operation. can be backflushed manually or automatically. Car-
Buried emitters cannot be tridge filters are generally replaceable. Relatively low
seen, and their replacement is cost replaceable cartridge filters can be used for small
more difficult. The Crop Water systems. When properly operated, centrifugal force
Stress Index Gun (infra red separators are generally effective down to fine sand
thermometer reading) can be particle sizes. Disk filters separate during the
used to detect plant stress backflush cycle.
before it is visible to the eye.

Irrigation Guide
Figure 6–20 Turbulent fountain screen
,,,,,
,,,, ,,,
,
Screen
,,,,,
,,,,,,,,
Outflow pipe
Galvanized sheet metal or ditch
2 ft
Concrete Riser
Tee Blocked end
,,,,,,,,
, ,,,
,
Screen Deflector
,,,,,,,,,,,,
Concrete block, pipe or Outflow pipe
galvanized sheet metal or ditch
Concrete Flush gate
Tee
Recommended screen and riser pipe diameters
- - - Flow rate - - - Screen diameter Riser pipe diameter

(ft3/s) (gpm) (in) (in)
1 450 42 8
2 900 48 10
3 1,350 60 12
4 1,800 72 15
5 2,250 84 18

Irrigation Guide
Mechanical screens are either removed and hand Sand bed filters use graded sand for the medium,
cleaned or backflushed. A clean well water source either in graduated layers or single sand particles. The
may require an 80 to 100 mesh filter. Normally, a 160 size and type of sand determine pore space size, which
to 200 mesh screen contains particles unable to pass controls the degree of filtration. Pore diameter is
through most emitters. Generally, the finer the screen about a seventh of the sand particle diameter. Com-
mesh the faster it plugs up. Two or more filters or a mercial sands generally are designated by number,
larger screen or filter area increase the time between becoming finer as the number gets larger (table 6–14).
cleaning. Multiple screen or filter systems can be Under flow conditions of less than 20 gallons per
cleaned while the system is in operation. Table 6–15 minute per square foot of media surface, commercial
displays filters used in micro irrigation systems. sands are efficient and have relatively large debris-
holding capacity.
Table 6–14 Particle size equivalents
Particle Microns 1/ Inches Screen mesh
No. 11 - Granite 952 .037

No. 10 - Silica sand 524 .021
No. 30 - Silica sand 335 .013
Very coarse sand 1000 - 2000 .0393 - .0786 18 - 10
Coarse sand 500 - 1000 .0197 - .0393 35 - 18
Medium sand 250 - 500 .0098 - .0197 60 - 35
Fine sand 100 - 250 .0039 - .0098 160 - 60
Very fine sand 50 - 100 .0020 - .0039 270 - 160
Silt 2 - 50 .00008 - .0020
Clay 2 < .00008
1/ 1000 micron = 1 millimeter.
Table 6–15 Filters used for micro irrigation systems
Type Practical filtration limit
Settling basins Varies with time and water chemistry (usually 100%
of 40 micron size and larger particles settle in 1 hr)
Sand separators To 74 microns
Screen filters To 74 microns
Sand bed filters To 25 microns
Cartridge filters To 25 microns
Disc filters To 25 microns

Irrigation Guide
Sand filters are cleaned by backwashing (backflush- fine textured soils, wetted area width from a point
ing). Backwashing can be done automatically on a source is generally equal to or greater than wetted
timed cycle, at a specified pressure drop across the depth. With coarse textured soils, wetted width is less
filter, or manually. Facilities must be available to than wetted depth; therefore, more emitters are neces-
receive, store, and dispose backwash water, sediment, sary to obtain adequate irrigation for root develop-
and debris. Periodic chemical treatment may be neces- ment.
sary to control algae in the filter bed.
The ability of a plant to resist dislodging by wind is
Disc filter elements consist of flat, grooved rings determined by root development (typically plant root
resembling poker chips with a hole in the center. A zone wetted pattern). This is especially the case in arid
stack of rings forms a cylindrical filtering body. Grade areas, and to some extent in all areas. Table 6–16
of filtration (400 to 25 microns) depends on the size compares wetted diameter and area for various soil
and number of grooves in the individual grooved rings. textures. A full surface area cover crop is difficult to
The rings are held tightly together with a compressed maintain in an arid environment if less than complete
spring. surface area irrigation coverage is provided.
The filtration process takes place throughout the (5) Distribution lines
entire cylinder volume (stacked rings). Water flow The micro irrigation distribution system is a network
direction is from outside the cylinder toward the of pipes, tubing, and valves. Generally, mainlines carry
center. When properly sized (flow capacity wise) and water from the pump to a system of submains.
with larger than 140 mesh screening, head losses Submains then carry the water to headers (manifolds)
through the disc cylinders are relatively low. Manufac- and then into laterals or feeder lines. Mainlines and
turer recommended minimum operating pressures are submains are generally buried PVC plastic pipe. Fit-
in the range of 30 pounds per square inch, with maxi- tings are cemented or use O-ring gaskets for water
mum operating pressures of 100 to 200 pounds per tightness. Submains can also be flexible tubing either
square inch, depending on model. Backflush water (at buried or laid on the ground surface. Mainlines and
typical pressures of 40 to 50 lb/in2) allows the disc to submains are typically buried to provide access and
separate and flush out the collected soil and debris limit potential equipment damage. Laterals or feeder
particles that have been caught in the grooves. lines are normally 3/8- to 3/4-inch-diameter polyethyl-
ene (PE) flexible tubing either buried or laid on the
A filter is one of the most important components of a ground surface. Lateral fittings generally are slip joint
micro irrigation system and must be kept clean to be with hose clamps for water tightness. In some areas
effective. Monitoring line pressure at filter inlet and rodents and small animals (i.e., coyotes, squirrels) will
discharge points helps check performance and signal a damage PE pipe that is less than 4 inches in diameter.
change occurring in the filter.
(4) Soil moisture distribution

Micro irrigation normally wets only a part of the Table 6–16 Diameter and area of soil wetted by a single
potential plant root zone in a soil. In arid areas, crop emitter with no restrictive horizons
root development is generally limited to that volume of
soil wetted from the emitter system. For agricultural Soil Wetted Wetted
crops, typically half to three-fourths of the potential texture diameter area
root development area is wetted (irrigated). For (ft) (ft2)
landscape plantings, individual plants are irrigated.
Coarse 2-4 4 - 12
The volume of soil wetted is a function of the emitter
type, emitter discharge, distance between emitters, Medium 4-5 12 - 20
time of set, and soil texture. Distribution and extent of Fine 5-7 40 - 60
soil wetting should be a major consideration in the
design of any micro irrigation system. For medium and

Irrigation Guide
(6) Emitter application • Vacuum relief valves prevent soil particles from
The discharge (emitter) device is unique to a micro entering the system when negative pressures
irrigation system. Many types, shapes, and discharge develop (i.e., the system is shut off).
ranges are commercially available. They can be either • Pressure gages monitor pressures in the system.
pressure compensating or noncompensating. • Flushing valves discharge collected sediment and
other debris.
Discharge devices can be divided into two general • Drain valves drain water from the system.
categories based on field application: line-source and • Injectors add chemicals (fertilizers, acid, chlo-
point-source. Point-source include microspray or rine).
sprinkler heads, microtubing, and bubbler systems. • Flow measuring devices monitor how much
Manufacturers of emitter devices can furnish perfor- water is applied.
mance data that show discharge versus pressure for
each size and kind of emitter manufactured. Section (8) Fertilizing
652.0605 includes additional discussion of specific The application of plant nutrients through a micro
emitters that are commercially available. irrigation system is convenient and efficient. Several
injectors are commercially available. Nitrogen can be
Line-source emitters are used for closely spaced row injected in the forms of anhydrous ammonia, aqua
crops, such as vegetables, cotton, sugarcane, grapes, ammonia, ammonium phosphate, urea, ammonium
strawberries, melons, and some small fruit. These nitrate, and calcium nitrate. Some chemicals may
emitters are either a series of equally spaced orifices change the pH in the water, thereby affecting other
along a single or double chamber tube, or they are chemicals in the water. Phosphorus is usually added in
small openings in porous tubing. Closely spaced bur- acid form. Potassium can be added as potassium
ied line source emitter tubing has been shown to be sulfate, potassium chloride, and potassium nitrate.
effective in small areas of turf, especially where sur- Other micronutrients can be added, but may react with
face spray is not desirable. salts in irrigation water resulting in precipitation. Care
should be taken so the injected nutrients don’t react
The discharge rate of line-source emitters is in gallons with other chemicals in the water to cause precipita-
per hour or gallons per minute per unit length of tubing tion and plugging.
(gpm/100 ft, or gph/ft). The emitter or orifice spacing
affects the location and amount of water delivered to (9) Costs
each plant. Operating pressures range from 5 to 30 Equipment, filtration, control, and numerous laterals
pounds per square inch. Line source emitters should be needed for a micro system generally result in a high
used on nearly level ground and can be installed on the cost per acre. Per acre costs are highly influenced by
ground surface or as buried feeder lines. filtration costs. For example filtration requirements
are relatively the same for 20 acres as for 40 acres.
Point-source emitters are used for windbreaks, fruit, Adequate filtration cannot be overstressed. Because of
citrus and nut orchards, grapes, cane berries, blueber- reduced filtration requirement and number of laterals,
ries, bananas, ornamental and landscape shrubs, basin bubbler and spray systems can be more eco-
nursery stock, and greenhouse crops. The point-source nomical, especially for orchards and landscaping.
emitter is an individual emitter typically attached to 1/
4- to 3/4-inch-diameter PE flexible tubing. Orifice flow (10) Maintenance
rates vary from a half gallon per hour for drippers, 30 Frequent maintenance is essential to keep emitters
gallons per hour for spray heads, and 1 gallon per functioning at design flow. Maintenance items include:
minute for basin bubbler devices. • Clean or backflush filters when needed.
• Flush lateral lines regularly.
(7) Miscellaneous control devices • Check emitter discharge often; replace as neces-
• Gate valves provide on-off control. They can be sary.
operated manually or with timed or automatic • Check operating pressures often; a pressure drop
solenoid valves. (or rise) may indicate problems.
• Pressure regulating valves control pressure
within desired limits of emitter discharge.

Irrigation Guide
• Inject chemicals as required to prevent precipi- ment is not a limiting factor if adequate water was
tate buildup and algae growth. Inject liquid available for other irrigation methods.
fertilizers when needed.
• Service pumps regularly. (1) Water management
Proper water management when using micro irrigation
(11) Automation is essential to avoid excessive water use. The ease of
Micro irrigation systems can be operated fully auto- applying an irrigation, especially under manual con-
matic, semiautomatic, or manually. A time clock or trol, brings a mentality of when in doubt irrigate.
programmed control panel can be installed to operate Deep percolation, typically the result of overirrigation,
solenoid valves, to start and stop the irrigation, and to cannot be seen. As a result, overirrigation is by far the
control each submain and lateral. This degree of biggest problem with users of micro irrigation. Field
automatic control is simple, the parts are readily application efficiencies are often measured in the mid
available, and it effectively controls the desired 60 percent, while most micro irrigation systems are
amount of water to be applied. A manual priority designed assuming application efficiencies of more
switch that can override clock or control panel than 90 percent. The irrigation system designer needs
switches is desirable to postpone or add irrigations. A to have realistic expectations of water management
fully automatic system, using soil moisture sensors to skills and desires of the user.
provide the triggering mechanism to start an irrigation,
is also simple to install and operate. Several sensors (2) Duration of application
may be needed, depending on soils and rooting depth The least cost per acre is generally achieved by the
of crops to be grown. Where water supply is adequate system having the longest duration or lowest flow rate
overirrigation is the biggest water management prob- and smallest pipe sizes. The duration for application is
lem with automated systems. influenced by the overall irrigation schedule and by
incorporating a factor of safety in the design. Applica-
tion time must be sufficient to apply the water that has
(g) Design procedures been consumed since the previous irrigation. Ideally,
continuous or demand delivery of irrigation water
The primary objective of good micro irrigation system provides the lowest cost design and best irrigation
design and management is to provide sufficient system scheduling opportunity. Therefore, the duration of
capacity to adequately meet crop-water needs. Unifor- each irrigation can be determined after the following
mity of application depends on the uniformity of are known:
emitter discharge, system maintenance, and elevations • Gallons of water needed per plant per day to
of the ground surface. Nonuniform discharge is caused meet evapotranspiration.
by pressure differentials from friction loss, plugging, • Desired interval between irrigations (frequency
elevation change, and manufacturing variability. Using of irrigation).
pressure compensating emitters somewhat alleviates • Application rate per emitter or unit length.
the elevation change and pressure differential prob-
lem. Using multiple emitters for a single shrub, vine, Hours operation per irrigation are determined by:
plant, or tree helps to compensate for manufacturing Gallons of water per plant per day
variability and minimize plant damage that results
Application rate per plant in gallons per hour
from plugged or malfunctioning emitters.
The designer of a micro irrigation system must make a Gallons of water needed per day per plant are calcu-
rational choice about the duration of application, the lated using the evapotranspiration rate of the plant(s),
number of emitters per plant, specific type of emitter soil MAD level, and AWC of the planned soil volume.
device(s), and the discharge per emitter to provide the
most effective irrigation. In most situations the re- Even if water used by an individual plant is to be
quired water volume (or rate) to irrigate a specific replaced daily, a 3-day water supply be stored in the
crop is less than that required by other irrigation plant root zone to is recommended provide water
methods; thus the minimum system capacity require- when irrigation system discharge is interrupted. If the
system operates less frequently than daily, increase

Irrigation Guide
the time of operation or the number of emitters for (5) Laterals or feeder lines
each plant to increase water applied each irrigation. Most lateral or feeder lines are flexible PE plastic
Ideally, a system can be designed to run 24 hours per tubing. Emitter devices are either attached directly to
day; but most systems should run no more than 18 the pipe or the pipe may contain built-in orifices.
hours. Time is needed for general maintenance, break- Surface installed tubing is subject to damage from
downs, and to provide a factor of safety during ex- animals, rodents, and field operating equipment. The
treme high plant water use periods. Using more emit- designer should be guided to size laterals so that
ters of the same discharge rate with less duration is discharge differences are kept to less than 10 percent
generally better than fewer emitters with greater between the first and last emitter on the line. Even
capacity. though pressure compensating emitters may be used,
lateral friction loss must be evaluated to help assure
(3) Discharge per emitter minimum pressures are maintained for proper emitter
Drip emitters are mechanical devices designed to (and regulator) operation. Table 6–17 displays maxi-
operate at low pressure (2 to 20 lb/in2) from 0.5 gallon mum pressure variation for typical emitters.
per hour to nearly 0.5 gallon per minute. Discharge
rates of line source emitters are in units of gallons per Most micro systems are divided into subunits con-
hour per foot or gallons per minute per 100 feet. Dis- nected by manifolds through control valves to a
charge rate should be within plus or minus 15 percent submain or mainline that feeds several laterals. The
of the average system flow rate. total pressure variation in both the manifold and
laterals must be considered when sizing pipelines. In
(4) Number of emitters an optimum design, the total pressure loss in the
Micro irrigation requires a decision be made about the subunit should be equally divided between the mani-
percentage of potential rooting volume to be watered. fold and the laterals. For example, if a total of 4
It is recommended at least 40 to 50 percent of the area pounds per square inch pressure variation is allowed,
under a tree, plant, or shrub drip line (at mature size) 2 pounds per square inch can be lost in the manifold
receive moisture. Part of this requirement comes from and 2 in the laterals.
providing an anchor system to support the plant. Plant
roots do not normally develop where the soil is dry;
i.e., water tension is 15 bars (atmospheres) or greater.
An onsite test may be needed to determine vertical
and lateral movement of water from a point source.
Typically in uniform fine to medium textured soils, the

wetted width is equal to the wetted depth. In coarse Figure 6–21 Alternative emitter layout
textured soils, the wetted width is typically no more
than half the wetted depth.
Emitters should be spaced equidistant around the

shrub or tree and should be located within a third of
the distance from the trunk to the drip line. With line
source emitters, 12- to 36-inch spacing is typical. In (a) (b)
coarse textured soils, line source emitters should be
spaced less than 12 inches apart, and medium textured
soils less than 24 inches. Emitter spacing also depends
on plant type and density.
Microspray or sprinkler heads provide the largest (c)

wetted soil volume. A minimum of two application
devices should be used per shrub or tree. Figure 6–21
displays alternative ways to layout emitters for indi-
vidual trees.

Irrigation Guide
(6) Mainlines and submains (8) Basic information needed for planning
Mainlines and submains (including manifolds) are and design
generally buried PVC plastic pipe. Laterals or feeder • Topographic map with 2-foot contour interval
lines need to be installed as nearly level as possible. including field shape, layout, dimensions, and
On sloping fields submains and mainlines should be elevations of key points.
installed up and down the slope. A 5-foot elevation • Soil series, texture, AWC, and MAD level for
change represents over 2 pounds per square inch crop(s) grown, crop ET, area, and volume of soil
pressure change, which can change emitter discharge to be wetted by micro system.
more than the allowable 10 percent in low pressure • Tree, shrub, or crop—type, size, location,
systems. spacing, and plant density.
• Water source—quantity, quality, location,
To maintain uniform pressure at outlets to laterals the delivery schedule, water measuring device(s).
designer should consider the following: • Desirable surface or subsurface emitter system
• Divide the submains into shorter lengths or off and laterals or feeder lines.
balance the outlets so less than a 10-foot drop is • Water screening and filtering system and settling
present between inlet from the mainline and basins.
lowest outlet to a lateral pipeline. • Submains, mainlines, valves, pressure gages,
• Install pressure regulators at each outlet to pressure and flow regulators, and injectors.
laterals. • Power supply: type, location.
• Install flow regulators at each outlet to laterals. • Pumping plant.
• Use pressure compensating emitters where • Future expansion including mature tree size,
needed. interplantings of new trees, and different crops
• Size submains and laterals to reduce and some- to be grown in a rotation.
times nearly eliminate friction losses. • Growers desire as to level of operation and
• Provide adequate pressure to operate pressure automation, management skills available, and
and flow regulators at design discharge. irrigation scheduling.
(7) Other
When planning, the designer must determine total
irrigation system needs. These needs include settling
basins, screens, filters, pumps, flow meters, fertilizer
injectors, chlorine or acid injectors, mainlines,
submains, laterals, emitters, valves (both manual and
electric valves for automatic operation), pressure
gauges, drains, timer clocks, and soil moisture moni-
toring devices. Not all systems require all equipment.
Table 6–17 Recommended maximum pressure variation, in pounds per square inch, for typical emitters 1/
Nonpressure compensating Pressure compensating
Design pressure 15 20 15 20
Pressure variation 2/ 13 -17 17 - 23 11 - 20 14 - 26
Pressure range 4 6 9 12
1/ Based on 20 percent flow rate variation.

2/ The allowable pressure variation is an estimate for typical point source emitters.
If available, manufacturers’ discharge data should be used instead.

Irrigation Guide
(9) Design steps Example designs are included in section 652.0605.

The steps necessary for the design of a micro system Master blank design worksheets are included in chap-
include: ter 15 of this guide.
Step 1. Determine net depth of application (10) Installation

CQ N TE All pipelines and tubing should be designed to permit
Fn = draining and flushing to remove foreign matter that
Af
can clog emitters. All pipelines should be drained to
prevent freezing, algae growth, and other such prob-
where: lems.
C = 1.604 as units conversion factor
Q = discharge rate in gph per emitter per foot of Pressure gauges should be installed at the inlet and
lateral outlet end of each filter. These gauges aid in determin-
N = number of outlets (application devices, emit- ing when the filter needs to be cleaned or backwashed.
ters) or total length of lateral tubing in feet For automatic backflushing systems, a threshold
T = hours of operation per day (suggest a maximum pressure differential is set to initiate backflush opera-
of 18 hr/d) tions.
A = area of field in square feet served by number of
emitters Surface installed lateral or feeder lines should be
E = overall field application efficiency, including snaked to allow for contraction and expansion caused
irrigation scheduling (expressed as a decimal by temperature change. Add 5 to 10 percent to the
with a maximum of 0.90) length for expansion and contraction (snaking).
f = percent of total area to be wetted (as a decimal) Microtubing used as minilaterals at each plant allows
the mainline to adjust to temperature and to move
Step 2. Emitter design. while emitters or minisprinklers on the microtubing
laterals remain in place.
Step 3. Determine flow per lateral, submain, and
mainlines. Determine total system capacity to meet Figure 6–22 displays a typical small system hookup
design plant evapotranspiration. that can be installed on a domestic water source.
Step 4. Size laterals, submains, and mainlines.
Step 5. Determine pump size needed. Figure 6–22 Typical small system hookup
Step 6. Determine screening, settling basin, and

filter system needs. Anti-siphon & vacuum
breaker valve
Pressure regulating
Step 7. Determine fertilizer injector needs. valve
Pressure
gauge
Filter
Step 8. Determine chlorine and acid injector needs.
Pressure
gauge
Step 9. Determine number and location of pressure
gauges, valves, drains, and measuring devices needed.
,,,,,,,
Aboveground
outlet pipe
Step 10. Provide how to determine plant water need
(irrigation scheduling).
Step 11. Prepare irrigation system operation, man- Inlet pipe Buried
agement, and maintenance plans. outlet pipe

Irrigation Guide
(h) Windbreaks When establishment of the windbreak is the objective,

the following additional factors must be considered:
Irrigation of windbreaks can be desirable for one of
two purposes: The system should be designed to last up to 5
• To establish the windbreak. years. Usually the distribution pipelines can be laid on
• To maintain the windbreak throughout its life the surface, although surface installations may make it
difficult to use farm equipment for weed control.
The type of micro system and how it is installed, Potential rodent and wildlife damage should also be a
operated, and maintained is dependent on purpose consideration as to whether the distribution lines are
and type of trees or shrubs to be irrigated (fig. 6–23). on the surface or buried.
Windbreak micro system design can be complicated Once plants are established, water application
because different tree and shrub sizes and spacings should be timed to apply a larger quantity of
may be included in the layout. Lateral emitter spacings water less frequently. This encourages deep rooting.
or capacities may vary with each row, which can
require a separate design for each lateral. Drought Augering a deep small diameter hole (post hole
tolerance should be developed over several months or size) below each tree or shrub and backfilling the
years by encouraging deeper root development pat- hole with local soil disrupts horizontal soil re-
terns. Longer, less frequent irrigations encourage strictions. This action helps move applied water
deeper root development. Design methods in NEH, deeper and encourages deep rooting.
part 623, (section 15), chapter 7, can be used when the
purpose of the system is to irrigate a windbreak In arid and semiarid areas, water application
throughout its life. Chapter 4, Irrigation Water Require- should be made in the spring as early as possible
ments, and the state supplement of this guide provide after the soil has thawed. This helps fill the entire
local water requirements for shrubs and trees. soil profile to field capacity.
Figure 6–23 Typical windbreak layout
Well or water source
Control valve
Filter
Main line Pressure regulator
Lateral line Lateral line

Irrigation Guide
Discontinue water application in the fall before Trees Four to six Equally spaced
freezing temperatures. This helps ensure hardening >10 feet tall 1-gph emitters, about 4 to 8 feet
off for winter. The lines should be drained. or two or three from trunk. Gen-
2-gph emitters erally, for a sin-
To establish windbreaks in areas where precipi- gle tree, multiple
tation can supply the needed water, irrigation emitters are bet-
ter than fewer.
needs to be discontinued after the plants are
well established. This may require one or two sum-
mers of controlled tapering off. Less frequent applica-
(i) Irrigating stream side
tions of longer duration can encourage deeper root
(riparian) trees and shrubs
development.
When supplying moisture to establish deep rooting
Do not provide full irrigation to the plants. Use trees in stream side riparian areas, point source micro
only the minimum amount of water necessary to irrigation emitters encourage deep rooting in layered
produce healthy plant growth. Slower growth helps coarse soils overlaying a water supply.
provide a stronger shrub or tree. Check soil moisture
periodically with a hand probe. Once irrigation starts,
Using a power-pole sized auger (for trees), drill a hole
plants should not be put into excessive stress for lack
at least 2 feet below the water table; then backfill hole
of moisture. Encourage rooting in nonirrigated areas
with material removed. A post hole sized auger can be
by managing precipitation as a water source.
used for most shrubs. Backfill material will be free of
horizontal soil layers caused by compaction and soil
Micro irrigation systems used strictly for windbreak
gradation (typically present in most water and wind
establishment require fewer emitters than systems
deposited soils). Plant the tree or shrub near or in the
used in mature stands. Emitters can be added as the
hole, then locate an emitter at the top of the backfilled
shrubs and trees grow and mature, but the system
hole. Once the plant is established, irrigate with long
must be designed to provide adequate capacity. The
duration, less frequent applications. Water will move
size of the laterals, submains, and mains should be
down the disturbed soil profile. Developing roots will
designed to deliver adequate water to mature stands.
follow the irrigation water in the disturbed hole down
to the water table. Long-term nonirrigated successful
The following information is a guide to the number of
riparian vegetation (trees and shrubs) can be estab-
emitters required in a medium to fine texture soil. lished 15 to 20 feet above a water source.
Typically in coarse soils, it is better to use several low
discharge emitters evenly spaced around the shrub or
tree. On-time can be adjusted to provide the desired
wetted depth and lateral water movement in the soil.
Low shrubs One or two Placed 6 to 12

2 to 3 feet tall 1-gph emitters inches from
base of plant.
Shrubs or trees Two or three Placed 12

to 5 feet tall 1-gph emitters inches from
base of plant.
Shrubs or trees Three to four Equally spaced

5 to 10 feet tall 1-gph emitters, 2 to 3 feet from
or one or two base of plant.
2-gph emitters

Irrigation Guide
(2) Advantages
652.0604 Subirrigation • Permits storage of water in lower part of soil
profile.
systems • Reduces need for pumping irrigation water for
meeting crop water requirements.
• Can incorporate a subirrigation lateral system
(a) General with a subsurface drainage lateral system with
low additional cost.
Subirrigation is a water table management system that • Reduces drainage pumping costs if required.
controls the elevation of a water table to provide • Can be relatively easy to automate control of
water necessary for desired crop growth. A water water levels in control structures.
table management system can lower an existing water • Captures plant nutrients at or near the water
table, maintain an existing water table, or raise a water table for future use by plants.
table to a desirable elevation. A water table is gener-
ally held at a constant elevation during a crop growing (3) Disadvantages
season, but can be fluctuated. Water from a water • Labor intensive to manually adjust the elevation
table is supplied to plant roots by upward capillary of weirs in water control structures to change
water movement through the soil profile, also referred from drainage mode to irrigation mode.
to as upflux. Water table is controlled by: • Labor intensive to set and readjust automatic
• Providing subsurface drainage to lower or main- water level controlled mechanisms in water
tain an existing water table, or by removing control structures. However, labor is minimal
water from the soil profile using buried laterals. once they are adequately set.
• Providing controlled drainage by capturing • Total system costs can be relatively high in soils
rainfall to raise a water table to a desired eleva- that have low hydraulic conductivity and are in
tion at or above the buried laterals.
high rainfall areas with undulating topography.
• Introducing irrigation water via a buried lateral
• Water quality must be high.
system to raise or maintain a water table at
• In saline areas, an intensive salt content monitor-
desired elevation at or above the buried laterals.
ing and management program is required to
prevent excessive long-term upward movement
(1) Primary objectives of a water table man- and accumulation of damaging salts. Salt-tolerant
agement system crops can be effectively irrigated with saline
• Provide for trafficability of the soil surface for water from a shallow water table, but where low
timely use of farm equipment. salt-tolerant crops are included in the cropping
• Reduce crop stress caused by excess water in rotation, downward movement of salts at some
the plant root zone. time may be required. The latter would require
• Reduce crop stress caused by deficiency of using excess irrigation water for leaching of
available soil moisture in the plant root zone. salts, thus requiring free drainage. Offsite envi-
• Provide a better root development environment ronmental pollution can occur where drainage
in the soil. effluent high in salts is allowed to enter surface
• Minimize harmful offsite environmental pollu- water.
tion.
• Maximize use of rainfall.
• Minimize need for additional irrigation water.
• Control salinity.

Irrigation Guide
(b) Irrigation system components Although separate subirrigation and drainage systems
are more efficient, dual purpose systems are often
A water table management system can consist of used. Dual purpose systems generally require resetting
buried drainage or irrigation laterals, submains, mains, slide gates and flashboards when changing from
water table control structures, irrigation water intake drainage to irrigation or irrigation to drainage modes;
structures, flow measuring devices, surface or buried sometimes several times each growing season.
irrigation water supply pipelines, a pumping plant, and
power supply. Each lateral (or group of laterals) requires a water
table control structure in or near the submain. The
Buried laterals consist of a system of underground water table control structure can be set manually or
conduits generally spaced at uniform intervals. In the automatically to either allow free drainage or to estab-
drainage mode, laterals discharge into a system of lish a water table elevation upstream of the structure.
collectors or submains that outlet into mains. In the
irrigation mode, flow is then reversed. Figure 6–24 Irrigation intake structures are vertical pipes located
displays a schematic of typical water management in submains that simply allow input of irrigation water
system with subsurface drainage laterals used for at the ground surface from an external water source.
drainage or subirrigation. Separate systems for irriga- In the irrigation mode, water flows from the submains
tion and drainage are encouraged for maximum effi- into the laterals and then out of the laterals into the
ciency. soil. External water is supplied when rainfall does not
maintain the desired water table elevation.
The size, spacing, and depth of laterals are a function
of soil hydraulic conductivity, desired elevation of The most common pipe material for buried laterals is
water table in relation to ground surface (depth), corrugated polyethylene plastic pipe (CPP). It can be
available flow from soil mass to and from pipelines, installed either as perforated or nonperforated tubing
available hydraulic gradient of laterals, and desirable preferably using laser grade controlled trenching and
time to reach a planned water table elevation. The size installation equipment.
of submains and mains are a function of soil hydraulic
conductivity and area served, lateral layout, discharge
to and from laterals, and available hydraulic gradient (c) Planning and design consider-
of submains and mains. ations
(1) Controls
Water table elevation is commonly controlled by a
manually adjusted weir for a group of laterals where
submains discharge into the main. When excessive
Figure 6–24 Typical water table management system rainfall occurs, the water level in the control structure
,,,,,,,,
,,
is lowered to allow free flow through the structure.
This allows the drainage system to remove excess
Rainfall or plant ET
water more quickly.
Depression storage Runoff The operator must decide when to raise or reset the
weir to allow the water table to reestablish itself at the
Soil surface infiltration
Drainage desirable height. If done too early the water table is
held too high, and if done too late the water will have
Subirrigation
drained, thereby losing valuable water.
Water table
One solution is to provide an automatic water level
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
control system. Float controlled valves can be used in
place of the manually adjusted weir. When excessive
Restrictive layer Deep seepage rainfall events cause drainage outflow, the float
mechanism opens a drain valve. As drainage outflow

Irrigation Guide
decreases, the float mechanism closes the drain valve pipeline at the open joints. When water is introduced
as necessary. To maintain the water table at the de- into a subsurface irrigation system (buried conduits),
sired elevation during periods of expected rainfall, it velocities through the perforations or joints are typi-
may be desirable to lower the controlled water table cally higher than those in the drainage mode. The
elevation 3 to 6 inches. This will increase available higher velocities can dislodge soil particles that can
soil-water storage and allow the float controlled then move into the conduit in the drainage mode.
mechanism to discharge larger volumes of water Depending on soil characteristics, flow rate and veloc-
during or immediately after heavy rainfall events. ity, opening size, and configuration in the buried
conduit, filters, and envelope material may be needed.
(2) Upward water flow See NEH, Section 16, Drainage, or the local drainage
Upward water flow (up flux) rate is a function of soil guide for additional details on filter and envelope
properties, primarily texture, and water table depth. design criteria.
Upward flow rate is generally most significant for
medium textured soils where the hydraulic gradient
and hydraulic conductivity together produce a usable (d) Design procedures
rate of water supply.
In many areas design procedures and criteria are
Figure 6–25 displays water table contribution to meet based on local field experience. Retrofitting of exist-
irrigation requirements as a function of soil type and ing subsurface drainage systems to water table man-
water table depth. For a sandy loam soil to meet a agement systems typically involves the installation of
crop ET rate of 0.2 inch per day in a steady state water table control structures. The area to be
upward flow condition, the water table needs to be subirrigated will closely coincide with the area
held at about a 2-foot depth. However, with either clay drained. To assure full field coverage, additional
or sand, the water table depth needs to be about 0.5 buried laterals may need to be installed for subirriga-
foot. Additional details are provided in NEH, Part 623 tion laterals.
(Section 15), Chapter 2, Irrigation Water Require-
ments. Also refer to section 652.0605 for local data on NRCS has supported the development of computer
soils versus upward flow rate characteristics. models to assist with planning, design, and operation
of water table management systems. These models
(3) Installation include DRAINMOD and SI-DESIGN.
Installation of buried drainage pipe can be accom-
plished with a variety of equipment and labor includ- (1) DRAINMOD
ing: This computer model was developed by North Caro-
• Laser grade controlled trenching or plow-in lina State University (Richard “Wayne” Skaggs) with
equipment with continuous placement of CPP NRCS support. DRAINMOD is a simulation model that
drainage tubing, with or without filter or enve- characterizes responses in a soil-water regime to
lope material. various combinations of subsurface and surface water
• Laser or nonlaser controlled trenching equip- management operations. It can predict the response of
ment with hand installed CPP drainage tubing, a water table and soil water movement above a water
clay or concrete tile, and semirigid perforated table to rainfall, crop ET, various degrees of subsur-
plastic or perforated steel pipe. face and surface drainage, and the use of water table
• Backhoe type equipment with hand installed CPP control. It was originally intended for use mostly in
drainage tubing, clay or concrete tile, and semihumid areas, but can be used anywhere historical
rigid perforated plastic or perforated steel pipe. hourly rainfall data are available. Soil parameters for
use in the model are developed by the computer
Most common buried drainage pipe is corrugated program, DMSOILS.
polyethylene plastic pipe (CPP) tubing. However,
concrete and clay tile or perforated PVC plastic or
steel pipe can be used. With concrete and clay tile, the
joints are butted together with no gaskets. Protection
is needed to prevent soil particle movement into the

Irrigation Guide
Figure 6–25 Water table contribution to irrigation requirements as a function of water table depth and soil type
Soil type Line number
Sticky clay 1
Loamy sand 2
Clay 3
Peat 4
Clay loam 5
Sandy loam 6
Fine sandy loam 7
0.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Steady state upward flow rate, in/d
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.05
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 1 2 3 5 10
Water table depth, feet
Irrigation Guide
(2) SI-DESIGN
This model was developed by Michigan State Univer- 652.0605 State supplement
sity (Harold "Bud" Belcher) with NRCS support. The
objective of the model is to aid efficient design of
water table management systems. It has modules for: Design procedures, tables, figures, charts, and design
• Rainfall management—Calculates design rainfall examples are presented using state approved proce-
amounts using historic growing season rainfall at dures and computer programs. Complete procedures
desired frequency of occurrence. for planning and designing micro systems are in NEH,
• Investigating effect of buried lateral systems— Part 623, (Section 15), Chapter 7, Trickle Irrigation.
Depth to lateral and to water table at midpoint Supplier equipment catalogs and manufacturers’
between laterals, lateral diameter, hydraulic technical data are necessary for specific designs. Many
gradient of laterals, area effected (length and types, shapes, and sizes of emitters, porous tubing,
spacing). flexible PE plastic lateral tubing, and other accessories
• Assisting in determining the diameter of are commercially available.
submains and mains.
• Evaluating the economic efficiency of production
versus system components—Diameter, depth,
and lateral spacing.
Specific locally approved design procedures and

design examples are provided in section 652.0605.

Irrigation Guide

Chapter 7 Farm Distribution Components Part 652
Chapter 7 Farm Distribution Irrigation Guide
Components
652.0701 Pipelines 7–2

(a) Typical pipe installation and materials for irrigation systems ................ 7–2
(b) Specific applications .................................................................................... 7–3
653.0702 Open ditches 7–4

(a) Unlined ditches ............................................................................................. 7–4
(b) Lined ditches ................................................................................................. 7–4
(c) Seepage losses ............................................................................................... 7–5
652.0703 Water control structures 7–6

(a) Related structures for open ditches ........................................................... 7–6
(b) Related structures for gravity pipelines ..................................................... 7–8
(c) Related structures for pumped pipelines ................................................... 7–8
652.0704 Water measurement 7–9

(a) Planning and design considerations ........................................................... 7–9
652.0705 Irrigation runoff, tailwater recovery and reuse 7–11

(a) Planning and design considerations ......................................................... 7–11
652.0706 Irrigation system automation 7–15

(a) Planning and design considerations for automation .............................. 7–15
652.0707 Pumping plants 7–17
652.0708 Drainage systems 7–18

(a) Precipitation runoff .................................................................................... 7–18
(b) Irrigation runoff (tailwater) ....................................................................... 7–19
(c) Subsurface drainage ................................................................................... 7–19
(d) Environmental factors ................................................................................ 7–20
652.0709 Chemigation 7–21

(a) Advantages................................................................................................... 7–21
(b) Disadvantages ............................................................................................. 7–21
(c) Planning and design considerations ......................................................... 7–22

7–i
Irrigation Guide
Tables Table 7–1 Expected recovery from runoff 7–13
Table 7–2 Tailwater pit sizing for intermittent pumpback facility 7–14
Table 7–3 Overall efficiencies obtainable by using tailwater 7–14

recovery and reuse facility
Table 7–4 Liquid fertilizers (solutions) for sprinkler application 7–27
Table 7–5 Dry fertilizers for sprinkler application 7–28
Table 7–6 Comparison of typical analysis of clear 7–28

suspension-type liquid fertilizers
Figures Figure 7–1 Irrigation water distribution system layout for several 7–1
fields and various irrigation methods and systems
Figure 7–2 Typical tailwater collection and reuse facility for 7–11
quick-cycling pump and reservoir
Figure 7–3 Gravity flow from storage tank 7–23
Figure 7–4 Injection on suction side of pump 7–23
Figure 7–5 Venturi principle of injection 7–23
Figure 7–6 Pitot tube injection 7–23
Figure 7–7 Pressure metering pump injection 7–24
Figure 7–8 Backflow prevention device using check valve with 7–25
vacuum relief and low pressure drain
Figure 7–9 Safety devices for injection of chemicals into 7–26

pressurized irrigation systems using electric power
Figure 7–10 Safety devices for injection of chemicals into 7–26

pressurized irrigation systems using internal
combustion engine power
7–32
Chapter 7 Part 652
Farm Distribution Components
Chapter 7 Farm Distribution Components
Irrigation Guide
water is delivered on a rotation or turn basis, the

652.0700 General system must be large enough to allow delivery of
water in the time allowed. Plans should provide for
future needs and expansion. Figure 7–1 displays a
Irrigation water should be made available to each part typical multifield delivery system for various irrigation
of the farm irrigation system at a rate and elevation or methods and systems.
pressure that permits proper operation of irrigation
application devices or facilities. Irrigation water Sizing a system to meet peak (or planned) period crop
should be conveyed as economically, efficiently, and water use requires careful consideration of many
safely as possible without excessive losses or erosion. alternatives and compromises. They involve ditch and
Water should be delivered to the plant at a suitable pipe size, pump size, labor considerations, capital
quality for the planned purpose. All components of a investment, operating costs, available water capacity
farm irrigation water delivery system must be sized to of soils, crop rotations, plant stress risk levels, and
furnish adequate irrigation water to meet planned crop overall management of the farm enterprise. Providing
use or scheduled delivery from an irrigation district. If water, along with good water management, to meet
Figure 7–1 Irrigation water distribution system layout for several fields and various irrigation methods and systems
Lateral canal
Concrete canal
conveyance eff. 90% Field 2
Pipeline 80 acres Field 3
side-roll 120 acres
center pivot
Field 1
100 acres
furrow irrigated
Pipeline
Field 4 Field 5 Concrete canal Field 6 Field 7

Earth canal 60 acres 80 acres conveyance 60 acres 100 acres
conveyance eff. 80% furrow furrow eff. 90% border furrow
Earth ditch
conveyance eff. 70%
Concrete canal
conveyance
eff. 95%
Earth ditch
conveyance eff. 80%
Field 8
320 acres
lateral move

Irrigation Guide
crop needs 80 percent or even 50 percent of the time

can be more economical than providing full irrigation 652.0701 Pipelines
for all conditions. This is especially true in humid and
semihumid areas where a substantial part of plant
water need is provided by rainfall. Pipeline delivery systems can be pumped or gravity
flow and consist of buried pipe, surface installed pipe,
Farm distribution components (facilities) include all or both. A buried pipe can extend from a water source
necessary appurtenances, such as water control struc- to the farm and to individual fields with surface pipe
tures, slide gates, trash racks, screening devices, water used for distribution within the field. Buried pipe can
measuring devices, flow control valves, air release also extend into fields as a field main (or submain) and
valves, vacuum relief valves, pressure regulating or have risers and valves appropriately spaced to deliver
relief valves, controllable flow turnouts and drains, water to surface ditches, portable water conveyance
plus other components necessary for the long-term pipelines, gated pipe, or sprinkler laterals.
operation and maintenance of the system. All facilities
should be located so they interfere as little as possible
with farming operations. Components of the distribu- (a) Typical pipe installation and
tion system should be readily accessible for operation materials for irrigation sys-
and maintenance. An operation and maintenance plan tems
should be provided as part of the system plan or
design. (1) Culverts
Culverts are generally short pipe sections where
Water delivery should be adaptable to meet specific partial pipe flow conditions exist.
crop water needs for each irrigation system used. Typical use includes:
Basic components of distribution systems include • Equipment crossings in open channels (canals,
pipelines, unlined and lined open ditches, water con- laterals, ditches)
trol structures, water measurement devices, tailwater • Water control structures with flow control gate
recovery and reuse facilities, system automation, installation
pumping plants, surface drainage systems, and chemi- • Water measuring
cal storage, injection and transport facilities.
Materials are generally galvanized steel or aluminum
Design criteria, procedures, friction loss tables and corrugated pipe; PVC plastic pipe; corrugated PE
charts, and design examples are provided in many (regular or smooth bore) plastic pipe; and reinforced
Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) or nonreinforced concrete pipe.
references. These references include National Engi-
neering Handbook (NEH) Part 634 (Section 3), Hy- (2) Gravity pipelines
draulics; NEH Part 623 (Section 15), Irrigation; Na- Generally gravity pressure pipelines are longer pipe
tional Engineering Field Handbook, Chapters 3, Hy- sections where full pipe flow, partial pipe flow, or a
draulics, and 15, Irrigation; and several design notes combination of both conditions exist. They rely on
and technical releases. Many programmable calculator elevation drop to provide sufficient hydraulic gradient
and computer programs are also available to assist in for flow to occur. Gravity pipelines are used to trans-
the design of pipelines, open ditches, and pumping port water in a conveyance or distribution system, or
plants. References, tools, and programs most com- from a source to point of use, as buried or surface,
monly used are included in 652.0710, State Supple- permanent or portable pipes. Typical use includes:
ment, and in Chapter 15, Resource Planning and • Water conveyance pipelines to reduce seepage
Evaluation Tools and Worksheets. and evaporation losses, prevent erosion, or
provide control of water delivery.
• Inverted siphons to replace flumes or to cross
low areas including gullies.
• Gated pipe to distribute water into furrows.
• Pipelines to provide gravity pressure for sprin-
kler or micro irrigation systems.

Irrigation Guide
Materials are generally plastic, welded steel, galva- water source to the gated pipe is from open ditches,
nized steel, reinforced or nonreinforced concrete, screening for debris removal may be necessary to
reinforced fiber glass, or aluminum. prevent plugging of gate openings. Gated pipe is used
in cablegation and surge systems. Once gated pipe is
(3) Pumped pressure pipelines installed at the head of the fields for the duration of
Pumped pressure pipelines can be buried or surface the irrigation season and the gates are adjusted, addi-
installed. Generally longer sections are used where full tional labor is rarely necessary.
pipe flow conditions exist and shorter sections where
water is pumped from a source (pond, canal, stream, The most common problem with gated pipe is having
well) to an open ditch that is close by. A pump is used excess pressure head. Excess pressure head acceler-
to provide adequate pressure head to overcome eleva- ates pipeline leakage at the joints and furrow erosion
tion and pipe and fitting friction losses. Pipelines can immediately downstream of gates. Easy to install
be permanent or portable. They are used to transport devices are available to reduce pressure head. These
water in a conveyance and distribution system or from can be installed inside the pipe as controllable low
source to point of use. Typical use includes: head gates or outside the pipe as flow-through stands
• Pipe within a pumping plant system that lifts or boxes.
water from source to open ditch or field.
• Conveyance and distribution system. When disposable PE pipe is used, the pipeline is laid
• Pipelines to contain pressurized flows for use in out, filled with water, and predetermined sized holes
sprinkler and micro irrigation systems. punched for each irrigated furrow. When reinforced
PVC lay-flat pipe is used, adjustable gates can be
Materials are generally welded steel, galvanized steel, inserted in the holes. Typically two or more hole sizes
aluminum, or plastic. are required across the field to deliver a design flow
rate to each furrow (or border strip). Very low pres-
sure head is used in the pipelines, thus friction loss
(b) Specific applications and elevation differences become critical.
Gated pipe is a surface portable pipe (generally PVC or

aluminum) used to distribute controlled flows to
furrows at very low pressure head (< 1 to 2 lb/in2).
Disposable, thin wall (7 or 10 mil), lay-flat PE pipe is
also available. Its use is generally limited to 1 or 2
years. With the pipeline filled with water, a hand
punch mounted on a handle, approximately 2 feet
long, is moved in an arc to create holes (or gates) at
each furrow. Hole sizes are selected to discharge
predetermined amounts of water at each furrow,
based on head available in the pipeline. Pipeline
grades can be established where only two or three
hole sizes are necessary in a quarter-mile pipeline.
Maximum head (pressure) in lay-flat PE pipe must be
less than 10 feet (4 psi).
Gated pipe can be used in place of an open head ditch

at the upper end of a field. It is also well suited to use
in place of an intermediate temporary head ditch on
fields too long to be irrigated in one length of run.
Socks or other devices attached to each gate help to
reduce exit velocities; thereby minimizing erosion at
the head of furrows. The degree the gates are opened
accurately regulates water flow to each furrow. Where

Irrigation Guide
Field ditches work best and require less maintenance

653.0702 Open ditches when constructed in medium to fine textured soils.
Seepage is typically low, and banks are more stable
and are easier to build and maintain. Vegetation and
Open ditches are typically open channels of geometric burrowing animals can cause problems with any soil.
cross sections used to carry irrigation water to its Open ditches take up valuable space and can hinder
point of use. These ditches should be of adequate size farm operations. Maintenance requirements are much
and installed on nonerosive grades. Small, inadequate higher than those for pipelines.
ditches that do not have proper water control struc-
tures and maintenance probably are the source of Open ditches, laterals, and canals can provide good
more trouble and consume more time in operating a habitat for a variety of wildlife. Keeping ditches clear
surface irrigation system than any other cause. of vegetation requires less overall maintenance, but
limits wildlife cover and food. Herbicides are some-
Open channels that carry irrigation water from a times not friendly to wildlife and their food supply.
source to one or more farms are typically referred to Well vegetated ditchbanks can help prevent soil
as canals and laterals; and are generally permanent erosion and at the same time be good habitat for
installations. Field or farm ditches convey and distrib- several varieties of upland game birds.
ute water from the source of supply (canals, laterals,
wells) to a field(s) within a farm. Most are permanent
installations except where they are used within a long (a) Unlined ditches
field to shorten length of runs, where excessive sedi-
ment is in irrigation water, or where crop rotations Seepage is generally not a problem in medium to fine
require differing field layouts. In these cases they are textured soils; however, erosion and downstream
installed at planting time and removed before or sediment deposition can occur if soils are erosive. In
following harvest. coarse textured soils, seepage can be a big problem.
Delivery and field ditches are generally installed and
Head ditches are used to distribute water across the cleaned with a V-ditcher mounted on or pulled by a
high end of a field for surface irrigation, typically farm tractor. Larger ditches can be constructed and
perpendicular to the direction of irrigation. They maintained using backhoe type equipment or small
provide water for all surface irrigation systems includ- front-end loaders.
ing basin, border, furrow, corrugations, contour ditch,
and contour levee. The water surface in head ditches Water measuring and control using unlined ditches is
should be high enough above the field surface to less convenient and sometimes difficult. Portable
allow design discharge from outlet devices under all plastic or canvas dams are generally used to raise the
conditions. Outlets installed too high can cause soil water elevation for diversion onto a field. Typically
erosion, which in turn requires correction. portable plastic or canvas dams have a useful life of 1
year.
Outlet devices may be siphon tubes, notches or cut-
outs, gated ports or pipes (spiles), or gated structures.
Notches or cutouts require less head to operate than (b) Lined ditches
siphon tubes; however, variation in flow caused by
water surface elevation change can be greater. Siphon Seepage, erosion and bank stabilization problems in
tubes require at least 4 to 6 inches head difference medium to coarse textured soils can be controlled
between the water level in the ditch and field, with 8 with ditch linings. The lining material used depends on
to 10 inches recommended. If possible, head ditches climate (temperature extremes, freezing and frost
should be nearly level so that water can be checked heave potential), soil conditions, on-farm livestock,
for maximum distances, thus requiring fewer check local area wildlife, such as deer, installation cost, and
dams and less labor. Good workable grades are 0.05 maintenance. Improved water control on the down-
to 0.2 foot per 100 feet. stream end of head ditches can be reason enough to
install ditch lining material.

Irrigation Guide
Ditch lining materials include compacted soil, high Accuracy of the inflow-outflow method depends on
expanding colloidal clay (bentonite), hand formed accuracy of flow measuring devices and is generally
nonreinforced or reinforced concrete, slip formed limited to longer reaches. However, seepage can be
nonreinforced concrete, pneumatic applied concrete measured during operation periods.
mortar (gunnite), cold spray-applied membrane, and
flexible membranes of plastic, elastomeric, or butyl Estimating seepage losses in the delivery system is
rubber. Flexible membranes should be protected from described in more detail in NEH, Part 623 (Section 15),
physical damage and ultraviolet light by covering with Chapter 2, Irrigation Water Requirements. A range of
aggregate or soil. Flexible membranes with concrete expected seepage losses, depending on the base mate-
or aggregate protection can be installed underwater if rial in the ditch, lateral or canal, is provided. The range
the water velocity is less than 5 feet per second. is dependent on the amount of fines in the soil.
The suitability, limitations, and general installation

requirements of lined ditches are described in more
detail in NEH, Part 623 (Section 15), Chapter 3, Plan-
ning Irrigation Systems. Design criteria, installation
requirements, and material specifications for the most
common linings are detailed in the National Handbook
of Conservation Practices and other references.
(c) Seepage losses

Methods used to determine conveyance efficiency and
estimate seepage losses from open ditches include:
• Measuring inflow and outflow in specific reaches
using existing or portable measuring devices,
such as weirs, flumes, or current meters.
• Using controlled ponding and measuring the rate
of water level drop.
• Using seepage meters, such as a portable con-
stant-head permeameter.
• Estimating losses based on characteristics of the
base material.
Controlled ponding is one of the most accurate meth-

ods, but must be done during a non-operation period.
It requires installation of small dams to isolate the
study area. Ponding must begin above the normal
water surface elevation and continue below the nor-
mal elevation of operation. At the normal water sur-
face, the volume of water lost (usually cubic feet) can
be converted to a rate per hour (or minute) per square
foot of wetted ditch perimeter.

Irrigation Guide
Flumes can be supported directly on earth or by a

652.0703 Water control concrete, metal, or wood substructure. Flume capacity
is usually determined by the flow capacity of the ditch.
structures The foundation and substructure are designed to
support full flume conditions even though normal flow
rates are less. Flume channels can be any shape, but
Water control structures are an integral part of the
are typically rectangular, half round, or full diameter
farm distribution system. These structures are typi-
pipe. Hydraulically, all operate as open channels.
cally constructed to help assure proper delivery and
Properly designed welded steel and corrugated metal
distribution of water supply, to prevent erosion, and to
pipe can be used to span short distances instead of
keep water losses to a minimum. Adequate water
providing a continuous substructure.
control structures also reduce labor. They include
water measuring devices, an essential part of efficient (2) Siphons
water application and use. The type of structures and Siphons are used to carry water over low rises on the
materials adaptable are dependent on climate, site landscape or other obstructions. For flow to occur the
conditions, water delivery system, irrigation system net hydraulic gradient must be positive, including
used, and cost of installation and maintenance. Water entrance head, pipeline friction, and outlet head
control structures are described in more detail in losses. Maximum allowable rise is determined by
NEH, Part 623 (Section 15), Chapter 3, Planning Farm location of the site above mean sea level. In all practi-
Irrigation Systems; National Engineering Field Hand- cality, elevation differences should be no more than 5
book, Chapter 15; and National Handbook of Conser- to 10 feet, with both ends of the siphon either covered
vation Practices, FOTG (Section 4). by water or controlled with a valve.
A vacuum pump can be used to prime the siphon and

(a) Related structures for open exhaust accumulated air during operation, thus main-
ditches taining siphon capacity. Air must be exhausted, but
not allowed to enter the conduit. Siphon design water
Where open ditches are used to deliver water to sprin- velocities should be 2 to 3 feet per second.
kler, surface, or subirrigation systems, structures are
typically needed to screen and remove trash and Slow velocities can be a problem in siphons. Negative
debris, settle and remove sediment, measure flow, pressures cause dissolved air to release and collect at
divide water, control grade for erosion protection at the high point of the siphon. The increased size of the
gated flow turnouts and ports, for spill and overflow, air bubble causes reduction in flow by reducing the
ditch checks, and pipeline inlets and outlets. Some effective cross section area of the pipe. Ultimately, the
type of structure may be needed to carry water across siphon may cease operation. High velocities help carry
depressions or drains and under roadways or other dissolved air on through the siphon or at least give less
obstructions. Flumes, inverted siphons (sag pipes), residence time in the negative pressure zone. Multiple
and culverts are the most commonly used structures individually controlled pipelines that are small in
for these purposes. diameter may be desirable rather than one larger
pipeline. Operating as few pipelines in the group as
(1) Flumes possible is suggested where flows are low. This helps
Flumes are channels constructed from metal, wood, maintain higher pipeline velocities.
concrete, or plastic. They are used to:
• Control water through a short channel reach; i.e., Available alternatives to using a siphon should be
water measuring flume ditch check. seriously considered because construction require-
• Transport water across landscape depressions. ments are high and continuous high maintenance is
• Transport water across high seepage or unstable required. If energy is available, high volume propeller
areas. or axial flow pumps are generally preferred.

Irrigation Guide
(3) Inverted siphons (6) Distribution structures and devices

Inverted siphons (sometimes called sag pipes) are Distribution control structures are necessary for easy
closed conduits used to carry water across depres- and accurate division of irrigation water to fields on a
sions in the landscape. They can be installed on mul- farm or to various parts of a field. These structures
tiple foundations above the ground surface or can be may consist of:
buried. Inverted siphons can also be used to cross • Division boxes to direct flow of water to two or
under roadways, pipelines, and other obstructions. For more pipelines or ditches.
flow to occur the net hydraulic gradient must be • Check structures that raise the elevation of the
positive, including entrance head, pipeline friction, water surface upstream so that water can be
and outlet head losses. To prevent freezing damage in diverted from the ditch onto a field.
cold climates, drainage of the conduit during winter • Turnout structures to divert part or all the irriga-
months should be considered. Inverted siphons differ tion stream to a selected part of the irrigated
from flumes in that some part of the siphon operates area.
under a pressure head.
Each water division structure should provide flow
(4) Culverts measurement on every outlet. Calibrated flow cross
Culverts are conduits installed at or slightly below sections or standard water measuring weirs and
ditch grade and are commonly used to carry water flumes can be used. Little cost increase is incurred
under farm roads or field access points. They are where the measuring device is designed and installed
typically corrugated metal pipe (CMP), welded steel as a part of the initial structure.
pipe, concrete pipe, or plastic pipe. Either full or
partial pipe flow conditions occur, depending on Various devices are used for controlling and discharg-
design and installation. To increase flow area at shal- ing water into each furrow, basin, or border. For basin
low depths, a larger circular pipe installed below grade and border systems, outlet control devices are gener-
may be more desirable than a pipe of elliptical (pipe ally either flashboard structures, gated structures,
arch) cross section or multiple pipes on grade. Where short gated pipe, or large diameter siphon tubes.
pipeline velocities are greater than 2 feet per second, Where large flows are used, erosion protection at the
the full pipe diameter can be considered as the effec- structure outlet is generally needed. Where water
tive hydraulic cross section. Where pipeline velocities velocities within the structure are appropriate to
are less than 2 feet per second, or to be more conser- prevent sedimentation, outlets can be installed below
vative, assume the below grade portion of the pipe is field grade. Excess energy is absorbed as water raises
silted full. with the structure (apron or pipeline).
(5) Grade control structures For furrow systems, near equal flow should be deliv-
Where the ditch grade is such that the design flow ered to each furrow. The most commonly used outlets
would result in an erosive velocity, some protective are siphon tubes or gated spiles or pipe. To change
structure, such as a chute spillway, drop spillway, or flow, only the slides on gates need to be adjusted or
pipe drop (or canal lining), is necessary. These struc- the water level can be raised or lowered at the up-
tures control velocity in the ditch by dropping the stream or downstream end of the siphon tube. Flow
water abruptly from a higher elevation to a lower rate in siphon tubes results from head (elevation)
elevation in a short protected distance. They can also difference in upstream and downstream water levels.
serve as a ditch crossing (if designed as such) or water Where the outlet end of a siphon tube is above the
measuring device. With grades exceeding 2 to 3 per- water surface in the furrow, the pipe centerline eleva-
cent, such alternatives as a pipeline or lined ditch tion of the tube outlet becomes the downstream water
should be considered. In all cases unstable flows level. Two smaller diameter siphon tubes are fre-
(including hydraulic jumps) must occur within the quently used for each furrow. This allows one to be
structure. removed to cutback or reduce flow in a furrow where
the advance rate is excessive (such as wheel com-
pacted or hard furrows).

Irrigation Guide
Cutback flows can also be achieved by raising the Standard drawings for water control structures
outlet end of the siphon tube (generally by inundating should be used whenever and wherever possible.
a larger part of the siphon tube), thereby reducing the Materials used in water control structures include
available head on the tube. However, the irrigation cast in place concrete, concrete or cinder block
head or ditch flow must be reduced, the additional masonry, grouted rock riprap, steel (painted, galva-
water must be bypassed, or additional siphon tubes nized, glass coated), aluminum, treated or nontreated
must be set. When additional tubes are set, a new wood, and plastic. Nonstructural concrete or cinder
irrigation set start time and end time are established. block masonry structures can be installed without
They then need to be cut back, and the extra water mortar if every hole is filled with mortar and a #3 (3/8
reset, and so forth. inch) reinforcing bar is used to help maintain vertical
alignment. Horizontal reinforcement (i.e., K web) with
mortar, is provided every 16 to 24 inches of height. An
(b) Related structures for gravity extended reinforced concrete structure floor provides
pipelines footings (foundation) for stacked blocks. Number
three or larger reinforcing bars extend out of the
Where gravity flow pipelines are used to distribute foundation into the first two or three layers of blocks.
water to surface or subsurface irrigation systems or to For aesthetics, exposed areas can be plastered with
help pressurize sprinkler irrigation systems, structures mortar.
are typically needed for:
• Trash and debris removal, and perhaps water Durability, installation and maintenance costs, aesthet-
screening (or filtering) ics and environmental compatibility, ease of use, farm
• Pipeline inlet and outlet labor skills, and availability of materials are all neces-
• Flow measurement sary considerations for designing these related struc-
• Miscellaneous valves, such as flow control, air tures. Many standard drawings are available for water
release, vacuum relief, pressure regulation, and control structures. See section 652.0710, State supple-
surge control ment, for standard drawings and design procedures.
• Head control for gated pipe, cablegation, and
surge systems
• Drains
(c) Related structures for pumped

pipelines
Where pumped pipelines are used to distribute water
to surface, sprinkler, micro, and subirrigation systems,
structures are typically needed for pumping plant
inlets (including trash and debris removal), water
screening (filtering), flow measurement, drains, surge
blocks, and valves, such as pressure regulation, air
release, vacuum relief, and flow control.

Irrigation Guide
(a) Planning and design

652.0704 Water measure- considerations
ment To accurately measure water, water measurement
devices must be installed according to requirements
specific to that device. In addition, they must be oper-
A method of measuring water flow onto a field is an ated under the conditions for which they are designed.
important part of every irrigation system. As the demand Maintenance must be performed as with any other part
for water and energy increases, the need for more of an irrigation system. Re-calibration of some devices
efficient use of water increases. Water measurement is may be necessary to assure long-term continuing
essential for equitable distribution of the water supply accuracy.
and for efficient use on the farm. Knowing how much
water is applied is essential for proper irrigation water Many types of devices can be used for flow measure-
management. Flow measurement has other uses; for ment. The best suited device depends on accuracy
example, they can indicate when a pump impeller is desired, ease of use, durability, availability, mainte-
becoming worn and inefficient or when well discharge nance required, hydraulic characteristics, ease of
becomes reduced. Flow changes can also indicate construction, and installation cost. In some areas state
clogged screens or partly closed or plugged valves. and local requirements dictate. The following methods
Water rights and use requirements increasingly specify or devices each have their own flow equation or cali-
that measuring devices be installed. bration process.
The most common methods of water measurement (1) Open ditch flow
and the equipment or structures are described in
Volumetric—Flow measurements are made by mea-
greater detail in NEH, Part 623 (section 15), Chapter 9,
suring time required to fill a known volume.
Measurement of Irrigation Water; the ASAE publica-
tion Flow Measuring Flumes for Open Channel Sys-
Submerged orifices—Sharp edged orifices of vari-
tems written by Bos, Replogle, Clemmens in 1991; and
ous shapes and sizes can be used. Head differential of
the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation’s interagency 1997
water surface upstream and downstream causes flow
publication of the Water Measurement Manual. USDA
through the orifice. Flow is calculated using standard
NRCS and Agricultural Research Service provided
orifice flow equations. The orifice flow “Coefficient”
input to this publication to make it state-of-art in flow
for many types of orifices has been determined experi-
measurement. Publication is late 1997.
mentally.
Common measuring devices are further described
Weirs—Sharp crested (Cipolletti, 90° V-notch, rectan-
in chapter 9 of this guide. Units of flow rate and gular) and broad crested (Replogle). Flow depth
flow volume commonly used are cubic feet per second (head) is measured upstream of crest. Crest width
(ft3/sec), gallons per minute (gal/min), gallons per hour (opening width) can be either standard to fit previ-
(gal/hr), million gallons per day, acre-inches per day, ously prepared tables or measured, and flow is calcu-
acre-feet per day, miners inches, head of water, acres lated using standard equations. Sharp crested weirs
of water, feet of water, shares, acre feet, acre inches, must meet criteria for the specific type (typically 1/8
and inches of water. Head or depth units commonly inch). Tables are readily available for standard crest
used are feet, tenths and hundredths of feet; and widths. Head loss across sharp crested weirs is high,
inches and tenths of inches. often several inches or feet. Where installation and
operation meet standard, accuracy can be within 5
Irrigation consultants must acquaint themselves with percent of actual.
terms and flow units used locally and must be able to
convert to units commonly used in tables, graphs, The broad crested weir (sometimes called a Replogle
charts, and computer programs. Many ARS, commer- flume) is the easiest to install of any weir or flume and
cial, and university computer programs used for de- can accurately measure water with as little as 1 inch of
sign of irrigation system components can use either head loss. There is only one critical surface and it is
English or metric units. level in all directions. However, a short section of

Irrigation Guide
lined ditch or flume is required (plus or minus 10 ft). Rated sections—A staff gage is provided to indicate
With a stilling well, accuracy can be within 2 percent flow depths. Velocity at various depths is measured
of actual. Well designed and constructed shaft gauges using a current meter. Flow is calculated using Q = AV.
are typically within 5 percent of actual. Only one flow A depth versus flow rate curve is developed for each
measurement depth is required. specific cross section; thereafter, only flow depth is
measured. Accuracy depends on technique and consis-
Flumes (Parshall, WSC, cutthroat, or V-notch)— tency of the technician taking readings.
Head is measured, crest width is standard or measur-
able, and flow is calculated using standard equations. (2) Pipe flow
Tables are readily available for standard widths. Mea- Flow meters (propeller, impeller)—Flow meters
surement is fairly accurate at near submerged flow are volumetrically calibrated at the factory for various
condition; however, measurement of flow depth both pipe diameters. Accuracy can be within 5 percent of
upstream and downstream of the control section is actual if meter is well maintained and calibrated
required. Accuracy can be within 5 percent of actual. periodically. Annual maintenance is required. Debris
Because of the numerous critical surfaces, these and moss collect quite easily on the point and shaft of
flumes can be difficult to construct. Since flow mea- the impeller causing malfunction. Therefore, some
suring accuracy is no better (and often worse) these degree of screening for debris and moss removal may
flumes are no longer recommended. The Replogle be necessary.
flume should be used.
Differential head meters—These meters include
Current meter—Actual flow velocity at various pitot tube, shunt flow meters, and low head venturi
points and depths (typically .6 or .2 and .8) within the meters. Pressure differential across an obstruction is
flow cross-section is measured. Flow is calculated measured, thus providing velocity head. Flow is calcu-
based on lated using Q = AV. Coefficients provide for improved
Q=A V accuracy.
Repeated measurements are typically taken at each Orifice plates—Pressure head upstream and down-
measuring location. Technique and practice are impor- stream of an orifice of known cross section is mea-
tant to keep accuracy within 10 percent of actual. sured. Flow is calculated using Q = AV. Coefficients
provide for improved accuracy.
Velocity head rod (jump stick)—Rise in water
surface elevation is measured when a standard rod is Ultrasonic meters—These meters measure changes
placed in the water flow path with the narrow side and in sound transmission across the diameter of the pipe
then the flat side facing upstream. The difference in caused by the flowing liquid. They are generally high
water surface level represents velocity head. Velocity cost and are most often used only in permanent instal-
(V) is calculated from: lations. Some types work well only with turbid water
1 (doppler). Others (transit time) work best in clean
(
V = 2g h ) 2 water. Portable sonic meters are available, but require
a high degree of technology to operate them satisfacto-
rily on different pipe diameters and materials. Fre-
Flow is then calculated using Q=AV, wherein A is the quent calibration can be required.
flow area represented by each velocity and segments
are accumulated to present the total flow.
Float method—Surface flow velocity and flow cross-

section are measured, then flow rate is calculated
using:
Q=CA V
where:
C = coefficient of discharge calibrated for site
conditions, typically 0.80 to 0.95

Irrigation Guide
the field or at the upper end. Facilities that return the

652.0705 Irrigation run- runoff water for direct irrigation require the least
storage capacity. They have automatically cycled
off, tailwater recovery and pumping and are termed cycling-sump facilities.
reuse
One or more types of recovery systems may be appli-
cable to a given farm. A sump is used where land value
Tailwater recovery and reuse (pumpback) facilities is high, water cannot be retained in a reservoir, or
collect irrigation runoff and return it to the same, water ponding is undesirable. Dugouts or reservoirs
adjacent, or lower fields for irrigation use. Such facili- are more common and most easily adapted to storage
ties can be classified according to the method of and planned recovery of irrigation tailwater. Hydrauli-
handling runoff or tailwater. If the water is returned to cally, only tailwater runoff from one irrigation set
a field lying at a higher elevation, it is referred to as a needs to be stored. Storing water from a maximum of
return-flow or pumpback facility. If the water is ap- two irrigation sets improves management flexibility.
plied to adjacent or lower-lying field, it is termed Figure 7–2 displays a typical plan for tailwater recov-
sequence use. In all cases runoff is temporarily stored ery facility involving a pumpback system.
until sufficient volume has accumulated to optimize
application efficiency on each succeeding irrigation Cycling-sump facilities require more intensive water
set. management. When cycling begins, the furrow ad-
vance phase should begin, otherwise additional fur-
Components consist of tailwater ditches to collect the rows must be started. One option is to reduce the
runoff, drainageways, waterways, or pipelines to incoming water supply by the amount equivalent to the
convey water to a central collection area, a sump or return rate being added.
reservoir for water storage, a pump and power unit,
and a pipeline or ditch to convey water for redistribu- Reservoir facilities tend to increase irrigation effi-
tion. Under certain conditions where gravity flow can ciency while decreasing management intensity require-
be used, neither a pump nor pipeline is necessary. ment. Reservoir tailwater reuse facilities collect
(a) Planning and design consider-

ations
Figure 7–2 Typical tailwater collection and reuse facility
(1) Storage for quick-cycling pump and reservoir
A tailwater collection, storage, and return flow facility
must provide for temporary storage of a given amount Water
of water. It includes the required pumping equipment supply
and pipeline or ditch to deliver water at the appropri-
ate rate to the application system. A sequence system
should have storage, a pump, and only enough pipe to
convey water to the head ditch of the next adjacent or Head Regulating
ditch reservoir
downslope field. It may be possible to plan the facility
so there is enough elevation difference between fields
to apply runoff water to a lower field by gravity with-
out pumping. Only the lowest field(s) require
pumpback or have tailwater runoff.
Inlet
Collector ditch
Recovery facilities may also be classified according to
whether or not they accumulate and store runoff
water. Facilities storing precipitation and irrigation
runoff water are referred to as reservoir systems. Sump & Return
Reservoirs can be located either at the lower end of pump pipeline

Irrigation Guide
enough water to use as an independent supply or as a Caution should be used when selecting pump and
supplement to the original supply. Thus they have the power unit size. For example, in a cycling-sump facil-
most flexibility. The reservoir size depends on whether ity the lowest continuous pumping rate that will main-
collected water is handled as an independent supply tain the design flow rate should be used. For reservoir
and, if not, on the rate water is pumped for reuse. type facilities where water is delivered from a tailwa-
ter sump directly to the head ditch, it is better to pump
Tailwater reuse reservoirs should be at least 8 feet at a high rate for the first part of an irrigation set (to
deep, preferably 10 feet deep, to discourage growth of decrease irrigation advance time). Pumping efficien-
aquatic weeds. For weed control, side slopes of 2 or cies can be in the range of 20 to 75 percent, depending
2.5 feet horizontal to 1 foot vertical are recommended. upon the type and size of pump selected, the power
Some soils require flatter slopes to maintain stability. unit used, and pump inlet and outlet conditions. Some
A centrally located ramp with a slope of five to one degree of screening at the pump inlet is generally
(5:1) or flatter should be provided for wildlife, either required. In all cases, irrigation water management
as access or for exiting after accidentally falling in. should optimize use of water, labor, and energy.
The reservoir should remain nearly full when not in
use to help assure a positive hydraulic gradient for (3) Sizing for runoff
reservoir sealing. At least 2 feet of water depth should Runoff (RO) flows must be measured or estimated to
remain in the reservoir to provide pump intake sub- properly size tailwater reuse sumps, reservoirs, and
mergence, protect the reservoir bottom seal, and pumping facilities. Table 7–1 displays expected recov-
provide water for wildlife. Tailwater inflow must enter ery in gallons per minute based on irrigation head or
the reservoir at or near the pump intake. Most sus- inflow and expected runoff. Expected recovery and
pended sediments return to the upper end of the field return to the head of the irrigation system is based on
instead of settling in the reservoir. 65 percent of the runoff. Seepage, evaporation, over-
flow, and miscellaneous losses occur in a recovery,
(2) Pumps storage, and pumpback system. An irrigation system
Cycling-sump facilities consist of a sump and pump evaluation should be used to determine runoff. An
large enough to handle the expected rate of runoff. example of a tailwater recovery and pumpback facility
The sump is generally a vertical concrete or steel follows:
conduit with a concrete bottom. The conduit is about 6
to 10 feet deep when placed on end. Pump operation is Furrow flow analysis gives runoff RO = 35%
controlled automatically by a float-operated or elec- Irrigation head (inflow) Qi = 1,000 gpm
trode-actuated switch. Some storage can be provided Expected recovery at peak runoff Qr = 228 gpm
in the collecting ditch or pipeline upstream of the
sump. Use this recovery flow to size transport and storage
facilities. In addition, capacity should be provided to
The size, capacity, location, and selection of equip- handle concurrent peak runoff events from both
ment for these facilities are functions of the selected precipitation and tailwater, unexpected interruption of
irrigation system, topography, layout of the field and power, and other uncertainties. Where a reservoir,
the water users irrigation management and desires. recovery pit, or dugout is used, it should have the
capacity to store the runoff from one complete irriga-
Many different low head pumps are used with tailwa- tion set. Pump capacity will be dependent on the
ter reuse facilities. Pumps include single stage turbine, method or schedule of reuse planned. Table 7–2 pro-
horizontal centrifugal (permanent or tractor driven), vides data for sizing tailwater reservoirs and sumps
submerged vertical centrifugal, and propeller or axial based on desired pump peak flow and desired set time.
flow pumps. Pumping heads are generally low, conse- Overall irrigation efficiencies obtainable by using
quently energy requirements are low (5 to 10 hp), even tailwater recovery facilities are listed in table 7–3.
for reasonably high flow rates. Tractor driven pumps
are typically overpowered. Where irrigation tailwater cannot enter at or near the
pump, a small collection basin installed at the inlet to
the storage reservoir is more desirable than allowing
sediment to collect in the reservoir. The basin can be

Irrigation Guide
cleaned easily with available farm machinery, while a Solution: From table 7–1:
large pit requires cleaning with contractor-sized equip- Recovery = 260 gpm.
ment. Either way, sediment storage must be provided. This would be the expected flow for a
Generally when an irrigation water user sees how continuously operating pumpback facility.
much sediment accumulates, erosion reduction mea-
sures are taken. They readily relate to costs involved Given: Inflow = 1,000 gpm @ 12 hour set time
in removal. Desired pumpback flow 500 gpm @ 12
hour set
Examples of determining recovery volume and storage
capacity for tailwater recovery and reuse systems Solution: From table 7–2:
using tables 7–1 and 7–2 follow: Volume of storage = 2,000 ft3.
This would be the expected storage
Given: Inflow = 1,000 gpm @ 12 hour set time needed for an intermittent pumpback
Outflow = 40 % facility.
Table 7–1 Expected recovery from runoff 1/
Inflow - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Estimated runoff, Qr (gpm) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Qi (gpm) 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50%
150 20 24 29 34 39 44 49
200 26 33 39 46 52 59 65
300 39 49 59 68 78 88 98
400 52 65 78 91 104 117 130
500 65 81 98 114 130 146 163
600 78 98 117 137 156 175 195

700 91 114 137 159 182 205 228
800 104 130 156 182 208 234 260
900 117 146 176 205 234 263 293
1,000 130 163 195 228 260 293 325
1,200 156 195 234 273 312 351 390

1,400 182 228 273 319 364 410 455
1,600 208 260 312 364 416 468 520
1,800 234 293 351 410 468 527 585
2,000 260 325 390 455 520 585 650
2,200 286 358 429 501 572 644 715

2,400 312 390 468 546 624 702 780
2,600 338 423 508 592 676 671 845
2,800 364 455 546 637 728 819 910
3,000 390 488 585 683 780 878 975
1/ Note: Estimated runoff is that amount of water that normally runs off the end of the furrows or
borders. This flow rate can be arrived at by field measurement or from judgment based on soil or
field intake characteristics, inflow rates, field slope, length of run, method of irrigation, and irrigator’s
ability. Irrigation inflow is the amount of irrigation water (or head) used for the irrigation set.

Irrigation Guide
Table 7–2 Tailwater pit sizing for intermittent

pumpback facility 1/
Pumpback - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Length of set - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

flow (gpm) 6-hour 8-hour 12-hour 24 hour
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ft3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
100 200 267 400 800

200 400 533 800 1,600
300 600 800 1,200 2,400
400 800 1,067 1,600 3,200
500 1,000 1,333 2,000 4,000
600 1,200 1,600 2,400 4,800
700 1,400 1,867 2,800 5,600
800 1,600 2,133 3,200 6,400
900 1,800 2,400 3,600 7,200
1,000 2,000 2,667 4,000 8,000
1,100 2,200 2,933 4,400 8,800
1/
This includes a 10 percent safety factor.
Table 7–3 Overall efficiencies obtainable by using tailwater recovery and reuse facility
Original % of - - - - - - First reuse - - - - - - - - - - - Second reuse - - - - - - - - - - Third reuse - - - - - - - - - - - Fourth reuse- - - - -

applic water % of Effect Accum % of Effect Accum % of Effect Accum % of Effect Accum
effic reused orig use - effect orig use - effect orig use - effect orig use - effect
water % of water % of water % of water % of
% used orig % used orig % used orig % used orig %
60 40 16 9.6 69.6 2.6 1.5 71.1 1.1 0.7 71.8 0.2 0.1 71.9
60 24 14.4 74.4 5.8 3.5 77.9 1.4 0.8 78.7 0.4 0.2 78.9
80 32 19.2 79.2 10.2 6.1 85.3 3.3 2.0 87.3 1.0 0.6 87.9
50 40 20 10.0 60.0 4.0 2.0 62.0 0.8 0.4 62.4 0.2 0.1 62.5
60 30 15.0 65.0 9.0 4.5 69.5 2.7 1.4 70.9 0.8 0.4 71.3
80 40 20.0 70.0 16.0 8.0 78.0 6.4 3.2 81.2 2.6 1.3 82.5
40 40 24 9.6 49.6 5.8 2.3 52.9 1.4 0.6 53.5 0.3 0.1 53.6
60 36 14.4 54.4 13.0 5.2 59.6 4.7 1.9 61.5 1.7 0.7 62.2
80 48 19.2 59.2 23.0 9.2 68.4 11.0 4.4 72.8 5.3 2.1 74.9
30 40 28 8.4 38.4 7.8 2.4 40.8 2.2 0.7 41.5 0.6 0.2 41.7
60 42 12.6 42.6 17.8 5.3 49.9 7.5 2.3 52.2 3.1 0.9 53.1
80 56 16.8 46.8 31.4 9.4 56.2 17.6 5.3 61.5 9.8 3.0 64.5
20 40 32 6.4 26.4 10.2 2.1 28.5 3.2 0.7 29.2 1.0 0.2 29.4
60 48 9.6 29.6 23.0 4.6 34.2 11.0 2.2 36.4 5.3 1.1 37.5
80 64 12.8 32.8 41.0 8.2 41.0 26.2 5.3 46.3 17.5 3.5 49.8

Irrigation Guide
(1) Automatic systems

652.0706 Irrigation Fully automated irrigation systems normally operate
without operator attention except for calibration,
system automation periodic inspections, and routine maintenance. The
irrigator determines when or how long to irrigate and
then turns water into the system and starts pro-
Automated irrigation systems reduce labor, energy, grammed controllers to initiate the automated func-
and water input while maintaining or increasing irrigations.
tion efficiency. Automation is the use of mechanical
gates, valves, structures, controllers, and other devices Fully automated systems typically use either soil
to automatically divert water into an operating irriga- moisture sensors or computer processed climatic data
tion system to satisfy the water requirement of a to activate electric or pneumatic controlled switches
growing crop. and valves. Soil moisture sensors send a signal to a
central controller when soil water has been depleted
Research and development by ARS, state experiment to predetermined levels. Daily climatic data can also
Stations, and industry have produced successful be used to signal a controller to apply irrigations.
structures, controls, computer software, and other NRCS SCHEDULER is a field proven irrigation sched-
devices to automatically control irrigation water. uling software usable nationwide. It can be used with
However, automated irrigation (with the exception of fully automatic, semiautomatic, and manually oper-
micro and solid set sprinkler) use is limited. New ated surface, sprinkle, micro, and subsurface irrigation
technology, including automation, is adopted only systems.
when the irrigation water user views the real (or
perceived) risk as being equal to or less than the Once irrigation has been started, water is diverted into
current procedure being used. Commercially produced the farm distribution system and irrigation is com-
systems and components are currently available. pleted without operator intervention. Irrigation dura-
tion can be controlled by programmed timers, soil
The increasing cost of power for pumping and irriga- moisture sensors, or surface water sensors. Fully
tion labor is increasing water users’ interest in ways of automated systems require a water supply available
reducing costs. Automation of surface and sprinkler essentially on demand, such as from irrigation district
systems is one consideration. Many irrigators who
canals, private wells or reservoirs.
consider switching from surface irrigation to sprinkler
irrigation have continued with surface methods to
(2) Semiautomatic systems
reduce or eliminate pumping costs. All irrigation
Semiautomatic systems and controls require attention
systems that apply water by surface, sprinkler, subsur-
during each irrigation and are usually simpler and less
face, and micro irrigation methods can presently be costly than automatic systems. Most semiautomated
automated to some degree. A high potential exists to systems use mechanical or electronic timers to acti-
increase irrigation efficiencies through improved vate control structures at predetermined times. The
irrigation water management using existing irrigation irrigator generally determines the beginning time and
systems. Reduced labor and increased production are duration, then manually resets or returns the devices
added benefits. to their original position. Some devices can be moved
from one location to another before the next irriga-
tion. Parts of a given system may be automatic, while
(a) Planning and design consider- other parts are semiautomatic or manually operated.
ations for automation Often automation of one irrigation set change (during
the night or offsite working hours) has nearly the same
Automated irrigation systems and their associated benefits as a fully automated system and at consider-
components are classified as either automatic or ably less cost and risk.
semiautomatic.

Irrigation Guide
(3) Communications proceed upstream. A 12 volt battery (or 120 volt AC)
Most automated and some semiautomated system can be used (either directly or to power a pump) for
components can be remotely controlled by centrally electric, hydraulic, and pneumatic opening and closing
located controllers. Such systems require communica- motors and cylinders. Each irrigation head can be
tion between the controller and system components semiautomatic with two gate opening (closing) assem-
located in the field. Communication may be by direct blies. While the second assembly is operating, the first
interconnecting electrical wires, hydraulic or pneu- or previous assembly is moved ahead and adjusted for
matic conduits, radio or infrared telemetry, or a com- the next irrigation set.
bination of these. Spurious signals and interference is
sometimes a problem when telemetry is used. Gates, ports, spiles, notches, or longitudinal overflow
weirs can direct water onto a field. Adequate erosion
(4) Surface irrigation system automation control is always a consideration.
Technology is available to automate most surface
irrigation systems; however, automation use is limited. Gated pipe systems, including surge and cablegation,
New technology adoption by a user must have a real or can be automated using electric or wind-up timer
perceived risk equal to or less than the method or controlled valves to initiate the irrigation cycle. There
system currently in use. If an irrigator cannot sleep after, the surge or cablegation controller operates the
until he or she personally checks to see if a valve or irrigation set. Some field cross slope or fall in the
gate changed during the night, automation is of no gated pipeline is necessary. ARS Publication 21,
benefit. Cablegation Systems for Irrigation: Description, De-
sign, Installation and Performance (ARS 1985), should
Level basin and level furrow surface irrigation systems be referenced for cablegation design. NRCS publica-
are perhaps the easiest to automate. Where irrigation tion Surge Flow Irrigation Field Guide (USDA 1986),
inflows are known application volume can be con- should be referenced for surge design.
trolled by time. With graded furrow and graded border
surface irrigation systems, succeeding irrigation set (5) Sprinkler and micro irrigation systems
changes can be initiated by the presence of free water Several methods of automating sprinkler and micro
on the soil surface at a predetermined location down irrigation systems are available. Center pivot manufac-
the field. turers presently have fully automatic devices including
monitoring of climate for determining crop ET, soil
Drop-open or drop-close gates in a short flume or lined moisture monitoring, and system on-off controllers, all
ditch can be used to control water surface elevation controlled with an onboard computer. Automatic
and location in open ditches. Gravity plus the pressure systems are available with fully automatic controllers
of water in the ditch operates each gate. Typically, including moisture sensors or time clock operation for
irrigation water discharge from a supply ditch onto a solid set sprinkler, micro, and greenhouse irrigation
field is controlled by water surface elevation in the systems.
ditch and the number of openings onto the field.
Ditches must be installed on a predetermined grade Periodic move irrigation systems, such as side roll and
and elevation so that water will be applied uniformly handmove systems, generally are not automated.
to borders or to the correct number of furrows at a However, a simple form of automation is timer con-
proper design rate. Set time is provided to allow a full trolled lateral shutdown and turn-on. With two laterals
or planned irrigation to occur. the dry lateral can be moved at a time more conve-
nient to the irrigator. This allows the irrigator to have
Simple electronic or windup timers can control gate some flexibility when water is changed. Although not
operation. A 12 volt battery (or 120 volt AC) with a necessary, this method works best when water is
solenoid can move a slide bolt initiating gate move- available on demand.
ment. Some batteries are kept charged by solar panels.
Both drop-open and drop-close gates are actuated and
sealed by the energy from water moving in the supply
ditch. With drop-open gates irrigation progresses
downstream. Drop-close gates require that irrigation

Irrigation Guide
Every pump installation has an optimum operating

652.0707 Pumping plants efficiency. The designer should strive to select pump
operation at or near that efficiency. It is very unlikely
that a used (or even new) pump at a bargain price can
As power and equipment costs increase, designing and be obtained that fully meets the system needs without
maintaining efficient pumping plants becomes more first checking the specific Head-Capacity Curve for
important. Designing an efficient, cost effective pump that specific make, model, and size of pump. Horse-
requires close attention to detail and a knowledge of power alone is an inadequate specification for
basic hydraulic principles of pump design. The de- selecting a pump. Flow capacity (Q) and Total Dy-
signer must consider the pump, delivery system, and namic Head (TDH) are required for pump selection. At
irrigation system as a whole. An annual economic high elevations an adjustment factor for elevation may
analysis may be needed to determine the least costly be needed. Manufacturers use different factors to
alternative. See chapter 11 of this guide for economic convert brake horsepower to recommended motor or
analysis procedures. engine horsepower of the drive unit.
Every commercially manufactured pump has a known Detailed examples of pump design are in NEH, Part
and published relationship between head (pressure) 623 (Section 15), Chapter 8, Irrigation Pumping Plants,
and volume (capacity) produced. This relationship is and NEH, Part 624 (Section 16), Chapter 7, Drainage
generally plotted as a curve called the pump character- Pumping. In addition, pump manufacturers’ catalogs
istic curve, pump performance curve, or pump head- and computer programs have information and design
capacity curve. Multiple curves are used to show assistance on pump design and pump head-capacity
characteristics of different impeller diameters and characteristics. Chapter 15 of this guide gives informa-
impeller rotation speeds used in the same size and tion on interpreting pump characteristic curves, and
model pump. Pump characteristic curves are available chapter 11 has information about cost analysis for
from pump dealers and manufacturers free of charge irrigation systems.
to designers and pump owners. Every pumping plant
evaluation should include a review of the pump char-
acteristic curves for the pumps being used. Pump
specific characteristic curves are essential for design-
ing or evaluating pumps operating in series or parallel.
Variables contributing to the head-capacity relation-

ship include:
• Pump make, model number, and discharge size
• Impeller type, diameter, and speed of rotation
• Number of impellers (or pumps) operating in
series
• Net input energy required (usually expressed in
brake horsepower)
• Net positive suction head (in feet)
• Impeller efficiency
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) is the elevation

water can be raised at sea level by the suction side of a
specific pump impeller. Unless the pump is self prim-
ing, the pump impeller must first be filled with water.
If the allowable NPSH for a specific pump is exceeded,
the pump will lose prime.

Irrigation Guide
Properly installed subsurface drainage systems can be

652.0708 Drainage systems used successfully in water short areas as a supplemen-
tal source of irrigation water, if it is of reasonably
good quality. The water may be used on the field that
Purposes of agricultural drainage of irrigated land are was drained or on other crops in a different field.
to control and manage soil moisture in the crop root
zone, provide for improved soil conditions, and im- Increasing the plant root zone (available soil-water
prove plant root development. Soil used for growing storage) is a recommended water conservation prac-
turf, landscaping, and agricultural crops must have tice. In high saline or sodic areas, subsurface drainage
free drainage. In some cases soils are naturally well water may be used on salt-tolerant crops that are
drained; however, many soils need installed surface specifically grown to dispose of drainage water. Spe-
and subsurface drainage systems to provide proper cial disposal methods, such as use of the effluent for
soil moisture management flexibility. The greater the irrigation of agroforestry plots, for constructed wet-
management flexibility, the greater the potential for lands, or in evaporation ponds, may be necessary for
proper water and nutrient management. Thus, to poor quality water that cannot be disposed of in public
improve water quality, management flexibility must water bodies. Caution must be exercised, however, to
improve. Where water tables are in or near the plant know if toxic elements are in the drainage effluent
root zone, water table control is an essential compo- and, if so, the concentration. Because ponded water
nent of irrigation water management. attracts waterfowl, any negative impacts on wildlife
need to be known and avoided.
Capacity of drainage improvements must be based on
an analysis of the area irrigated, the anticipated irriga- In high water table soils, subsurface drainage im-
tion application efficiency, and the proportion of proves soil condition and the potential plant root zone
runoff and deep percolation anticipated as runoff. depth for most crops. This increased soil volume
increases plant-water availability when precipitation is
Subsurface drainage installation on irrigated land is less than adequate, and improves plant nutrient avail-
not a substitute for proper irrigation water manage- ability. Improved soil condition increases soil micro-
ment. However, adequate drainage of the crop root organism activity, thus less fertilizer is generally
zone is essential for long-term production. Only when needed, plus the potential for leaching of nutrients
good irrigation water management is practiced should below the plant root zone is decreased.
subsurface drainage installation be considered as an
additional water management practice. Also, subsur- Laws, regulations, and public perception may increas-
face drainage is a part of, not a substitute for, proper ingly limit new subsurface drainage developments and
salinity, sodicity, nutrient, and pesticide management. methods used to dispose of drainage water. Most
drainage issues will involve maintaining or rehabilitat-
Irrigation with saline or sodic water can inhibit crop ing existing drainage systems. The irrigation/drainage
growth and degrade the soil resource. See chapters 2 planning technician must be thoroughly familiar with
and 13 of this guide for information on irrigation water local laws and regulations governing drainage.
and soil salinity or sodicity. Good water management
along with properly designed and managed subsurface
drainage systems can help maintain a level of salinity (a) Precipitation runoff
or sodicity in the plant root zone that allows sustained
agricultural production. High volume storm water runoff should be safely
stored, diverted around, or carried through the irriga-
Provisions to remove excess precipitation and soil tion system to protect the land, irrigation system, and
seepage water promptly and safely from irrigated land crop. This may require special erosion control mea-
must be maintained as part of farm irrigation water sures or modifications in the design or layout of an
management. Without proper water removal, soil, irrigation system.
water, plant and animal resources can be degraded. In
some cases discontinuation of improperly managed
irrigation may be the only possible alternative.

Irrigation Guide
Standard NRCS procedures, as illustrated in the Tailwater from irrigation must be recovered and reused,
Engineering Field Handbook, are available to deter- or it must be disposed of without damage to down-
mine the volume and rate of runoff from precipitation. stream lands and water supplies.
Runoff from precipitation can leave the land through
natural watercourses or constructed ditches and
channels. Tailwater or wastewater ditches are gener- (c) Subsurface drainage
ally needed at the lower end of irrigation runs to
collect runoff from rainfall and irrigation. Storm Excess percolation of precipitation and irrigation
runoff peaks generally govern capacity requirements. water and nearly impermeable soil layers can cause
Where storage and tailwater recovery facilities are high water tables. High water tables can restrict crop
provided for irrigation, storm runoff containing a root development and promote saline or sodic soil
large sediment volume should bypass or be trapped conditions. Seepage from upslope areas, canals, reser-
before entering the storage reservoir to prevent rapid voirs, and sumps may also waterlog adjacent
loss of storage capacity. downslope lands. Excess water that enters the soil
profile often percolates below the crop root zone.
Unless the underlying material is sufficiently perme-
(b) Irrigation runoff (tailwater) able to allow continued flow, a water table can form
and encroach into the potential plant root zone. The
Surface irrigation systems cannot place 100 percent of water table must be held below the crop root zone to
applied water in the plant root zone. However, level provide aerobic soil conditions for plant root develop-
basin, border, and furrow surface irrigation systems ment and function.
operated with good water management including
planned deficit irrigation in all or part of the field can Subsurface drains are normally designed to control the
approach 100 percent water use. Using tailwater reuse water table at least 4 feet below the ground surface.
on surface irrigation systems along with good water Significant quantities of water can be provided from a
management practices can be efficient. Planned irriga- water table for plant use. Desirable depth to water
tion deficit in all or part of the field, surge, cutback, table is somewhat dependent on soil type. See infor-
blocked ends and tailwater reuse are techniques or mation on upflux rate in Chapter 6, Subirrigation.
modifications that, when properly used, can improve Subsurface drainage systems may consist of intercep-
irrigation uniformity while reducing field or farm tor drains, relief drains, or pumped drains. Subsurface
runoff. drains may also be needed to reduce or eliminate toxic
materials from moving to deeper aquifers that contain
To make a near uniform application of water with a high quality water.
graded surface irrigation system without using some
of the above techniques or modifications, some irriga- Design of subsurface drains should be according to
tion runoff must result, typically 30 to 50 percent. procedures for arid land as described in NEH, Part 624
Often runoff water is reduced or eliminated by reduc- (Section 16), Drainage of Agricultural Lands, chapters
ing inflow streams or blocking the ends of furrows and 4 and 5. Chapter 7 of this guide provides information
borders. This practice without an appropriate change on pumped drainage.
in water management and system layout often trades
runoff water for deep percolation (nonuniformity), (1) Interceptor drains
which cannot be seen. Interceptor drains are used in sloping areas that have a
high water table gradient. They are generally oriented
Theoretically, sprinkle irrigation systems should not perpendicular to the direction of ground water flow.
have runoff. In reality, even with proper water and soil Subsurface drains are commonly used because the
management, local translocation, and perhaps some drain must be located according to soil and ground
field runoff can occur because of the variable conditions water conditions, which may not correspond to field
including soils, topography, and crop interference. If boundaries, fences, or property lines.
field runoff is anticipated, runoff facilities and manage-
ment must be a part of every irrigation system plan.

Irrigation Guide
(2) Relief drains Surface and subsurface drainage can have beneficial
Relief drains are generally used in level to gently wetland effects. Discharges of drainage water can be
sloping areas that have a low water table gradient used to create or enhance wetland areas. Quality of
(slow water movement through the soil). These drains drainage discharges is an important consideration for
generally are planned as a series of parallel drain the creation or enhancement of wetlands used by
conduits in a grid or herringbone pattern in which wildlife.
each lateral is connected to a submain or main that
leads to an open channel or sump pump. (2) Water quality
National and State laws require that drains discharging
(3) Pumped drains into State watercourses meet certain water quality
Pumped drains are used when soils are underlain by standards. Currently irrigation runoff is classified as a
porous sand or gravel with aquifers that can be low- nonpoint source. As such, discharge permits are not
ered by pumping or where insufficient fall exists for a required. However, if a downstream water user files a
gravity outlet. Detailed subsurface and ground water complaint, water quality restrictions may be placed on
studies are required to determine the feasibility of discharges from irrigated land. Permits are required
lowering the water table by pumping, on a large for discharges from point sources, such as feedlots,
enough area to be economical. and can be required for subsurface drain outlets.
Pumped drains are also used where a layering of the

groundwater table is for a short period of time, i.e.,
during harvest for improved soil trafficability, in the
early part of the growing season for plant establish-
ment, and following periods of excess precipitation.
(d) Environmental factors

Drainage planning requires careful consideration of
environmental factors including wetlands, wildlife
habitat, and water quality. An environmental assess-
ment of impacts on soil, water, air, plant, and animal
resources is important when dealing with drainage.
Drainage related environmental issues and laws are
complex and subject to varying interpretation, which
complicates planning. It frequently takes considerable
effort to resolve or to even determine the status of
these issues.
(1) Wetlands
A wetland classification determination is necessary
where wetland conditions are suspected or evident.
Wetlands created by irrigation water seepage or runoff
must be considered under current laws. It may be
necessary to mitigate irrigation caused wetlands if
system improvements in adjacent areas dry up irriga-
tion induced wetlands.

Irrigation Guide
• With soil incorporated herbicides, the appropri-

652.0709 Chemigation ate amount of water can be applied to incorpo-
rate the herbicide to the depth desired and to
activate it immediately.
Chemigation is the application of chemicals via an • Soil compaction is reduced because it is not
irrigation application system. Included are fertilizers, necessary to pass field equipment over the field
soil amendments (gypsum or sulfur), herbicides, to apply chemicals.
insecticides, fungicides, nematicides. Specific forms of • Mechanical damage to crops is less than with
chemigation are sometimes called fertigation, mechanical surface application methods.
herbigation, or insectigation; however the most com- • The hazards to operators are fewer.
monly used term that covers everything is chemiga- • Less fertilizer may be required, particularly under
tion. micro irrigation.
• Losses from wind drift can be reduced or elimi-
Chemigation is accomplished by injecting the chemical nated depending on the method of irrigation.
into a flowing water supply. Most chemigation is This can reduce one cause of chemical loss and
applied by sprinkler systems (linear or center pivots) pollution.
or micro systems. Soil amendments are typically • Chemigation techniques are compatible with no-
applied in surface systems. Unless uniformity is high, till soil management systems.
applying agricultural chemicals through irrigation
systems is not recommended. Always follow instruc-
tions on the chemical label to determine suitability and (b) Disadvantages
methodology of chemigation.
The disadvantages of using chemigation are:
Properly managed chemigation requires injecting • Some chemicals are corrosive to irrigation equip-
chemicals into the water in carefully measured ment, especially immediately downstream of the
amounts. Care must be taken to prevent backflow of injection point. In most cases the chemicals are
chemically laden water into any water source. diluted further downstream to the point that
Backflow prevention devices are required where corrosion is not a serious problem. Injection
chemicals are injected into any pressurized irrigation equipment must be designed to handle concen-
system. Distribution of water on the field must be trated chemicals.
uniform, carefully managed, and controlled. This • Combining chemicals can be dangerous and
requires the proper equipment and careful attention to expensive if not done with full knowledge of the
detail. Water quality laws are strict concerning han- potential, sometimes violent, reactions. Chemi-
dling of chemicals applied through irrigation systems. cals can also produce precipitates, which can
Only chemicals labeled for chemigation (usually clog equipment, or produce toxic vapors.
sprinkler system) application should be used. • Losses because of volatilization can occur,
particularly under sprinkler irrigation.
• Chemicals that can be used successfully under
(a) Advantages chemigation are limited. Many chemicals are
either not registered for chemigation application
The advantages of using chemigation include: or are specifically prohibited from being used.
• Cost of chemigation versus aerial or ground • Excess water application or rainfall during
application can be less. chemigation can cause the loss of chemicals or
• A chemical can be applied when it is needed make them ineffective through deep percolation
without waiting for the proper weather condi- or runoff. Lost chemicals can contribute to water
tions the supplier or labor availability. The proce- pollution.
dure can reduce total labor. • Special injection equipment and irrigation system
• Application can be more uniform than by other safety equipment are required. This adds to the
methods under certain conditions. expense of the operation.

Irrigation Guide
• A potential hazard to water supplies is always (ii) Educator—This is the simplest way of introduc-
present particularly with pesticides and herbi- ing chemicals into the system. Methods used for this
cides. category are:
• Much is still not known about the best and safest • Injection on suction side of pump (fig. 7–4)
ways to handle chemigation. The technique is • Venturi principle injection (fig. 7–5)
relatively new. • Pitot tube injection (fig. 7–6)
• A high degree of management and irrigation
uniformity are required. The chemical injection rate is approximately propor-
tional to water flow. The method requires some oper-
ating attention. It can handle liquids and water soluble
(c) Planning and design or dry material. The educator equipment should be
considerations used where water flow is nearly constant.
The following information is intended to give NRCS

personnel a general understanding of chemigation on
pressure type systems. Detailed design of such sys-
tems must be done by a qualified engineering firm or
by those involved in the sale and servicing of equip-
ment.
(1) Chemical injection equipment

Chemical compounds to be applied through injection
equipment must be in one of the following forms:
• Miscible or emulsible liquid
• Soluble, dry powder (crystal)
• Insoluble, wettable, dispersible powder.
Some equipment is manufactured for specific material

(i.e., type of chemical, chemical concentration, viscos-
ity), so the appropriate types of chemicals and equip-
ment should be chosen. The equipment must have
adequate capacity. The common methods of injecting
chemicals are illustrated in figures 7–3 to 7–8. Pumps
can be powered by electric drives, engine drives, or
water motors. Equipment can be categorized by the
way the inflow rate of the chemical is controlled. The
four categories are gravity flow, educator, metering
pump, and proportioner system.
(i) Gravity flow from chemical storage tanks

(fig. 7–3)—This is the crudest category of chemical
injection. Control of injection rate is accomplished by
adjusting a valve that approximately regulates chemi-
cal flow into the irrigation water. Chemical flow is
either into the suction end of a pump or into an open
gravity flow system. This type injection is generally
used in surface systems, particularly to add soil addi-
tives, such as sulfur compounds. It requires careful
operator attention.

Irrigation Guide
Figure 7–3 Gravity flow from storage tank Figure 7–5 Venturi principle of injection
Supply tank
Pressurized
supply tank
Screen
Screen
Outlet pipe

Control valve Discharge
Control
,,,,
,,
Ditch valves
Backflow prevention
valve
To
sprinklers
Venturi unit
Backflow
prevention
valve
Figure 7–4 Injection on suction side of pump 1/ Figure 7–6 Pitot tube injection
Supply tank
Pressurized
supply tank
,,
Screen
Screen
Discharge
Control
valves Backflow prevention valve Discharge
Control
,,,,
,,
To Backflow prevention
sprinklers valves device
Centrifugal Pitot tube unit
pump
To
sprinklers
Backflow Check
Suction pipe valve
prevention
valve
Foot valve
1/ Note: Check local regulations before using this method of

chemical injection.

Irrigation Guide
(iii) Metering pump (fig. 7–7)—This method (2) Safety equipment

accurately meters the chemical into the irrigation Technology is available to make the safety aspects of
water at a predetermined rate. The chemical inflow chemigation acceptable. However, any time mechani-
rate is constant with respect to time and allows the cal devices are being used there is always the possibil-
operator to make changes in the application rate. It ity of failure, malfunction, or accidents. Successful and
should be used where the rate of water flow is nearly safe chemigation requires safety devices be installed
constant. The method of injection used is the injection on the chemigation system. These devices are de-
pump. It can only inject liquids. signed to eliminate three possible pollution problems:
• Backflow of undiluted chemicals to the nurse
(iv) Proportioner system—This method of injec- tanks or water source
tion accurately proportions chemicals to irrigation • Spill of chemicals on the surface
water flow. It consists of a sensor that determines the • Backflow of water mixed with chemicals from
water flow rate, a chemical flow control module, and the irrigation system.
an injector pump that injects the chemical. This cat-
egory of injection equipment should be used where the American Society of Agricultural Engineering Stan-
irrigation flow rate varies. It is automatic and requires dard ASAE EP409 covers safety standards for chemi-
little operator attention. gation equipment and operation. Bulletins, such as No.
1717, Safety and Calibration Requirements for Chemi-
gation, from Oklahoma State University, Cooperative
Extension Service, are readily available through most
Cooperative Extension Service offices.
Figure 7–7 Pressure metering pump injection The Environmental Protection Agency provides strin-
gent requirements for safety equipment and proce-
dures when applying certain agricultural chemicals
through pressurized irrigation systems. Chemicals
approved for chemigation have specific verbatim
statements on the label. They include:
Supply tank
• The system must contain a functional check
valve, vacuum relief valve, and low pressure
Screen drain appropriately located on the irrigation
pipeline to prevent water source contamination.
• The pesticide injection pipeline must contain a
functional, automatic, quick-closing check valve
Control Motor driven to prevent flow of fluid back toward the injection
valve injector pump pump.
,,,,
,,
• The pesticide injection pipeline must also con-
Backflow prevention valve tain a functional, normally closed, solenoid-
To operated valve located on the intake side of the
sprinklers
injection pump and connected to the system
Backflow prevention valve
interlock to prevent fluid from being withdrawn
from the supply tank when the irrigation system
is either automatically or manually shut down.
• The system must contain functional interlocking
controls to automatically shut off the pesticide
injection pump when the water pump motor/
engine stops.

Irrigation Guide
• The irrigation line or water pump must include a Inspection port—Located between the pump dis-
functional pressure switch which will stop the charge and the mainline check valve, the port allows
water pump motor when the water pressure for a visual inspection to determine if the check valve
decreases to the point where pesticide distribu- leaks. The vacuum relief valve connection can serve as
tion is adversely affected. an inspection port.
• Systems must use a metering pump, such as a
positive displacement injection pump (i.e., a Chemical injection line check valve—This device
diaphragm pump) effectively designed and stops flow of water from the irrigation system into the
constructed of materials that are compatible chemical supply tank and, if the opening pressure is
with pesticides and capable of being fitted with a large enough, can prevent gravity flow from the chemi-
system interlock. cal supply tank into the irrigation pipeline following an
• Do not apply pesticides when wind speed favors unexpected shutdown (figs. 7–9 and 7–10).
drift beyond the area intended for treatment.
Chemical suction line strainer—The strainer is
Safety devices are described in the following para- necessary to prevent clogging or fouling of the injec-
graphs. tion pump, check valve, or other equipment.
Interlock—This connects the irrigation pumping plant Solenoid valve—Additional protection can be pro-
and the chemical injection pump. If the irrigation vided by installation of a normally closed solenoid
pump stops (line pressure drops), the injection pump valve so that it is electrically interlocked with the
stops. engine or motor driving the injection pump. The valve
provides a positive shutoff on the chemical injection
Low pressure drain—An automatic low pressure line. If any portion of the downstream irrigation sys-
drain should be placed on the bottom of the irrigation tem is lower than the chemical tank, the solenoid valve
pipeline. If the mainline check valve leaks, the solution can prevent the chemical from being siphoned out of
will drain away from, rather than flow into the water the tank.
source.
Chemical resistant hose clamps and fittings—All
Backflow prevention valve—Used to keep water or a components that are in contact with the chemical or
mixture of water and chemical from draining or si- chemical mixture, from the strainer to the point of
phoning back into the water source (fig. 7–8). injection on the irrigation pipeline, should be made of
chemically resistant materials.
Check valve—Used in a pipeline to allow flow in one

direction only.
Figure 7–8 Backflow prevention device using check
valve with vacuum relief and low pressure
drain
From chemical tank

7
8
To Solenoid valve
irrigation
system
4 5 Injection
Injection port pump
with check valve 8 9
Pressure Vacuum breaker
Check 4 and inspection
gauge valve port
Flow From water
supply
Gate Low
Coupler
valve 2 pressure
drain

Irrigation Guide
Figure 7–9 Safety devices for injection of chemicals into pressurized irrigation systems using electric power
Irrigation pipe line

Electric motor
Vacuum and pump
breaker
4
3
Backflow prevention 1
device Electrically
Drain interlocked
1 control
Pressure switch point
2 panels
Check valve
Motor
5 9
Pump 8
Discharge line Suction line
7
8 Solenoid
valve Chemical
tank
6
Suction line
strainer
Figure 7–10 Safety devices for injection of chemicals into pressurized irrigation systems
using internal combustion engine power
Irrigation pipe line

Irrigation pump
Vacuum
breaker
4
,,
3
Backflow prevention
device
,,
,,
2
Drain
1 point
Pressure switch
Check valve Pump 8

5 9 Suction line
7
Discharge line Solenoid Chemical
valve tank
8
Suction line
6 strainer

Irrigation Guide
(3) Fertilizer application Dry fertilizers—A wide variety of soluble dry fertiliz-
The great variety of fertilizer products available allow ers is used for injection into irrigation systems. The
several choices to be considered in selecting a fertil- dry fertilizer may be dissolved by mixing with water
izer for a particular situation. The three categories of in a separate open tank and then injected into the
fertilizers used are clear liquid, dry, and suspension irrigation stream, or they can be placed in a pressur-
liquid. ized container through which is bypassed a portion of
the sprinkler stream. In the later case the bypassed
Clear liquid fertilizers—These materials are flowable stream continuously dissolves the solid fertilizer until
products containing nutrients in solution. This makes it has been applied. Typical dry fertilizers are shown
them convenient to handle with pump injectors, ven- in table 7–5.
turi-tubes, and gravity flow from gravity storage tanks.
Liquid fertilizers contain a single nutrient or combina- Suspension liquid fertilizers—Suspension liquid
tions of nitrogen (N), phosphate (P), and potash (K). fertilizers produce higher analysis grades than clear
The most common liquid fertilizers used are listed in grades given the same ratio of N, P, and K. Table 7–6
table 7–4. shows a comparison of typical analysis of clear and
suspension liquid fertilizers. The suspension mixtures
contain 110 to 133 percent more plant nutrients than
corresponding clear liquids. Because of their higher
nutrient content, suspensions generally are manufac-
tured, handled, and applied at less cost than clear
liquids. Another advantage is that they can hold large
quantities of micronutrients.
Table 7–4 Liquid fertilizers (solutions) for sprinkler application 1/
Solution product Total Avail Water Total Approximate pounds of product

nitro phos soluble sulfur for 1 pound of nutrient
acid potash
%N %P %K %S N P K S
Ammonium nitrate 20 5
Ammonium phosphate 8 24 12 4
Potassium ammonium phosphate 15 15 10 7 7 10
(N-P-K liquid mixes) 10 10 10 10 10 10
15 8 4 7 12.5 25
Urea (low biuret) 23 4.4
Urea - ammonium nitrate 32 3.1
Phosphoric acid 52 – 54 1.8 – 1.9
Calcium ammonium nitrate 17 6
1/ Source: National Fertilizer Development Center, Tennessee Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals, Alabama, 1965.

Irrigation Guide
Table 7–5 Dry fertilizers for sprinkler application 1/
Dry product Total Avail Water Total Approximate pounds of product for
nitro phos soluble sulfur 1 pound of nutrient
acid potash
%N % P 2O4 % K 2O %S N P2 O4 K2 O S
Ammonium nitrate 33.5 3

Calcium ammonium nitrate 26 4
(Mono) ammonium phosphate 11 48 2.6 9 2 40
Ammonium phosphate sulfate 13 39 7 8 2.5 14
Ammonium phosphate sulfate 16 20 15.4 6 5 7
Ammonium phosphate nitrate 24 20 4 5

Ammonium phosphate nitrate 27 14 4 7
Diammonium phosphate 21 53 5 2
Ammonium chloride 25 4
Ammonium sulfate 20-21 24 5 4
Calcium nitrate 15.5 6
Sodium nitrate 16 6
Potassium nitrate 13 44 8 2.3
Urea 45-46 2.2
Double or treble super phosphate 42-46 10 2.3 10

Potassium chloride 60-62 1.7
Potassium sulfate 50-53 18 2 5.5
Sulfate potash magnesia 26 15 4 7
Nitrate soda potash 15 14 7 7
1/ Source: National Fertilizer Development Center, Tennessee Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals, Alabama, 1965.
Table 7–6 Comparison of typical analysis of clear

suspension-type liquid fertilizers 1/
Ratio Grade
N-P-K clear Suspension
3:1:0 24-8-0 27-9-0

2:1:0 22-11-0 26-13-0
1:1:0 19-19-0 21-21-0
1:2:2 8-8-8 15-15-15
1:3:1 5-10-10 10-20-20
1:3:2 5-15-10 9-27-18
1:3:3 3-9-9 7-21-21
1/ Source: National Fertilizer Development Center, Tennessee
Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals, Alabama, 1965.

Irrigation Guide
(i) Herbicide application—A few herbicides are

applied by sprinkler systems. Most treatments involve 652.0710 State supplement
combinations of herbicides in suspension. Only herbi-
cides registered for application with irrigation water
can be used. Most application is done with soil applied
herbicides before crop germination. Applying irriga-
tion water at low enough rates to use foliage type
herbicides is difficult.
(ii) Pesticide application—Application of pesti-

cides by sprinkler systems is limited. Only pesticides
for grasshoppers and corn borers are registered for
application by irrigation. Water application must be
less than 0.5 inch per hour.
(iii) Other planning and management consider-

ations—When irrigators apply chemicals through an
irrigation system, consideration needs to be given to
travel time to the field area being irrigated. The time it
takes for a chemical to travel from the point of injec-
tion (usually at the pump) to the area being irrigated
must be known to calculate when to close the valve or
shut down the pump, thus being assured that all the
chemical is applied. Volume of clean water following
chemical application can be reduced.

Chapter 8 Project and Farm Irrigation Part 652
Chapter 8 Project and Farm Irrigation
Water Requirements Irrigation Guide
Water Requirements
652.0801 Project objectives 8–2
652.0802 Requirements 8–3

(a) System capacity requirements .................................................................... 8–3
(b) Alternative delivery schedules .................................................................... 8–5
(c) On-farm irrigation water requirement ........................................................ 8–6
(d) Project irrigation water requirements ........................................................ 8–7
652.0803 Project conveyance, distribution, and delivery facilities 8–8
652.0804 Irrigation delivery system automation 8–9
652.0805 Water budget 8–10
652.0806 Water source 8–12
652.0807 Evaluating alternatives and selection 8–12
652.0808 Project cost and benefits 8–13
652.0809 Planning process for irrigation projects 8–13

(a) Watershed-based planning ......................................................................... 8–13
(b) Project planning relationships .................................................................. 8–14
(c) Outline for irrigation project planning ..................................................... 8–16

8–i
Table Table 8–1 Example of relative canal capacities with different 8–5
water schedules, for greater than 5 deliveries per lateral
Figures Figure 8–1 Processes involved in determining project irrigation 8–4

water requirements and sizing facilities
Figure 8–2 Relationship between relative service area and relative 8–5
canal capacity for different irrigation schedules for
greater than 5 deliveries per lateral
Figure 8–3 Example project water budget 8–11
Figure 8–4 Resource planning process for project plan—steps 1–4 8–14
Figure 8–5 Resource planning process for project plan—steps 5–8 8–15
8–24
Chapter 8 Project and Farm Irrigation
Water Requirements
laterals, or pipelines. The irrigated block generally

652.0800 General involves many farms that can have multiple fields per
farm. Irrigation water requirements used for designing,
managing, or upgrading irrigation projects are similar
The previous chapters of this Guide focused on indi- to an on-farm analysis. With projects, the analysis is
vidual fields where the water supply and other condi- expanded to include all landowners, cropland area,
tions do not limit operation of on-farm irrigation crops, and irrigation systems. General examples are
systems. Where water for multiple farms is supplied by provided to illustrate the procedure. Irrigation projects
an offsite group, a water distribution system and should distribute the available water supply to irriga-
schedule for the irrigated area must be developed. It is tors in an equitable and dependable manner. The
desirable to have an adequate source of water avail- irrigator should be aware of flow rates and frequencies
able and supplied to each irrigated parcel in a timely of available water in their own terms. In some areas, a
manner for the crops selected. Various methods have visual understanding is as important to the water user
been employed to accomplish this distribution. Crop as is an actual flow in gallons per minute (gpm), cubic
irrigation water requirements and water supply are feet per second (ft3/s), miners inches, or local mea-
primary considerations. surement terms.
Experience in planning, design, operation, and man- Project irrigation water requirement analysis include:
agement of existing projects is desirable. When formu- • Determining irrigable lands and project im-
lating a project, a thorough multidisciplinary evalua- pacts on natural resources.
tion is needed to obtain the most technically appropri- • Determining water availability.
ate, economical, and environmentally sound solution. • Determining crop irrigation water require-
The project must be manageable and reasonable to ments.
operate and maintain. It must also be socially accept- • Determining on-farm irrigation water require-
able and meet today’s standards. ments.
This chapter provides concepts that illustrate the use Determining irrigable lands and project impacts
of irrigation water requirement principles when plan- on soil, water, air, plants, animals, and local
ning and designing irrigation projects. This is not a people (SWAPA+H)—A field analysis should be
design guide for irrigation delivery systems. Refer to made to determine suitability of irrigable lands. Basic
other appropriate guidelines for more information on are a quality soil survey and 1- to 5-foot contour topo-
project design. The Natural Resources Conservation graphic maps. To support estimates for soils interpre-
Service (NRCS) reference Economic and Environ- tations, irrigation related field and laboratory tests
mental Principles and Guidelines for Water Related may be needed. The information can include bulk
Land Resource Implementation Studies provides densities to help determine available water capacity,
detailed guidelines for documentation. Section field tests to determine soil intake characteristics,
652.0808 describes in detail a planning outline that will specific ranges in salinity levels, and types and con-
assist planning staffs with irrigation project planning. centration of toxic elements. Other considerations
The intensity of investigations required varies with the include internal drainage capability, water table exist-
level of planning, scope, and significance of the ence and depth, soil erodibility, farmability, and onsite
project. Generally, preliminary planning is less inten- and offsite environmental concerns (wildlife, water
sive than planning for investigation and evaluation of quality, air quality).
the selected alternative. Many computer programs are
available to perform various parts of project evalua- Determining water availability—This includes the
tion. Their use is encouraged. source, quantity, timeliness, location, quality, and
water right availability.
An irrigation project is defined as blocks of irrigated
land within a defined boundary, developed or adminis-
tered by a group or agency. Water is delivered from a
source to individual turnouts via a system of canals,

Determining crop irrigation water requirements

—Composite or weighted crop ET values are devel- 652.0801 Project
oped for on-farm seasonal and peak use periods.
These values are then compiled and weighted to objectives
represent the entire project area. Percent of area of
each crop is determined. Effective precipitation and
Project wide benefits, impacts, and objectives are
ground water contribution during the growing season
considered in the project irrigation water requirement
is accounted for as a reduction of required seasonal
analysis. Sponsors (landowners) must have a net
crop ET and net irrigation requirement (NIR). An
economic benefit from irrigated cropland to continue
analysis should provide a project wide seasonal and
farming. The group, district, or company that delivers
peak net irrigation water requirement.
the irrigation water must deliver water at a reasonable
unit price to the user, but still cover short- and long-
Determining on-farm irrigation water require-
term costs. Economic analysis procedures for project
ments—Overall farm irrigation efficiencies of all
development and operations are not described in
water beneficially used on the farm are combined to
detail in this chapter. Typically, it is a very complex
determine project gross water delivery requirements.
Irrigation efficiencies for single irrigation events as process using project specific criteria. See chapter 11
well as full season must be recognized. Project water for economic evaluations for on-farm irrigation sys-
requirements are typically based on full season irriga- tems. Issues of economics and flexibility must ulti-
tion efficiencies. Application of irrigation water in- mately be considered in irrigation project development
cludes some unavoidable losses. Because of the many and operation. Ultimate size of project is generally
factors associated with irrigation systems, manage- limited by available water supply, soils, topography,
ment, and climate, applying irrigation water at 100 purpose of applying water, and economics.
percent efficiency is currently unachievable. Beneficial
uses of water can include: Irrigation projects provide and affect far-reaching
• providing for crop ET, social, economic, and environmental impacts to sur-
• reasonable losses resulting from application rounding communities as well as to the region. Some
benefits of an irrigation project are:
and distribution inefficiency,
• Value of cropland is increased.
• leaching of excess salts, and
• Crop diversity is allowed.
• climate control for crops (i.e., frost protection,
• Additional labor is required for on-farm crop
slowing of bud development, slowing of ripen-
production.
ing process, seed germination, crop cooling,
• Additional businesses are needed to support
plus others).
irrigation and farming equipment.
• Additional processing and transportation
facilities for agricultural products are neces-
sary.
• Many other less tangible values change includ-
ing aesthetics and community economic stabil-
ity.
Water development facilities, such as reservoirs, open

canals, laterals, and farm ponds, draw many and
varied wildlife. Consideration should be given to
habitat requirements associated with specific wildlife;
i.e., canal and ditchbank vegetation as well as odd
shaped areas.

Without consideration and careful planning, irrigation

project activities can negatively impact water quantity 652.0802 Requirements
and quality, wetlands, fisheries, and wildlife. Certain
pesticides and other toxic elements found in some
irrigation drainage and tailwater (runoff) can nega- (a) System capacity requirements
tively impact certain waterfowl and fish. Tailwater
collection and reuse facilities should be considered. Determining required distribution system capacities is
However, with proper and careful planning, negative generally the most difficult process in computing
impacts can be mitigated with establishment or en- irrigation supply needs. Irrigation systems should
hancement of areas specifically for wildlife, augmenta- supply enough water over prolonged periods to satisfy
tion of water supplies, and establishing and maintain- the difference between crop evapotranspiration (ET)
ing public recreation facilities. demand, rainfall, and ground water contribution. The
most conservative method of designing system capac-
The planning process requires assessment of the ity requirements is to provide enough capacity to meet
impacts, and Resource Management System (RMS) maximum expected or peak crop ET rates. With
planning requires quality criteria be established and projects, this is generally done on a monthly basis. For
met for all resources. In most cases, if the correct high value crops, meeting weekly peak crop ET may be
assessments are done and proper alternatives chosen, necessary where a very high level of water manage-
mitigation is not necessary because adverse impacts ment can be provided.
are collectively avoided with established quality
criteria. A frequency distribution analysis of mean daily crop
ET (daily crop ET vs. frequency, by some time period)
can display risks involved in providing something less
than meeting peak crop ET 100 percent of the time.
Using an example crop in California:
Supplying water for a 95 percent probability

(19 of 20 years) requires system capacity to
meet a mean daily crop ET = .23 inches per day.
By reducing system capacity to meet a mean
daily crop ET = .20 inches per day, an 85 percent
probability (17 of 20 years) can be met. The
reduction in system capacity may be economi-
cally justified.
In areas where rainfall provides a substantial portion

of crop water needs, a frequency analysis of precipita-
tion should be performed. See additional information
in National Engineering Handbook (NEH), Part 623,
Chapter 2, Irrigation Water Requirements, pp 2–187 to
2–226.

Figure 8–1 displays the general procedure used by the opportunity to use larger heads of water with surface
Bureau of Reclamation to size delivery systems for irrigation. Either upstream or downstream water
projects. The flexibility factor displayed accounts for surface control in canals and main laterals can be used
the type and management of the delivery system. The to assist delivery system automation. With open con-
factor is the ratio of the actual delivery compared to veyance systems, it has been shown that controlling
the minimum continuous delivery requirement. A the water surface elevation upstream of the farm
flexibility factor greater than 1.0 provides excess delivery measuring device and headgate contributes
capacity so that individual irrigators can better man- greatly to accurate water deliveries. Accurate farm
age their water; i.e., irrigation scheduling program and deliveries benefit both the irrigator and the delivery
improved uniformity of application because of the organization.
Figure 8–1 Processes involved in determining project irrigation water requirements and sizing facilities
Single field Single farm Multiple farm Conveyance & delivery

facilities
Available
soil water
Crop water Net irrigation

requirements requirements
Project conveyance
Effective Amount of losses
precipitation irrigated land
Onfarm irrigation Gross farm Size delivery

efficiencies delivery requirement facilities
Down time Other
beneficial uses Multiple farm delivery
flexibility factors Operational
Set time Irrigation delivery
losses
time at turnouts
System
move time

(b) Alternative delivery schedules Figure 8–2 Relationship between relative service area
and relative canal capacity for different
irrigation schedules for greater than 5
Alternative delivery schedules should be evaluated for deliveries per lateral (demand and arranged
sizing main canals and pipelines. A slight increase in schedules at 90% performance level; An =
capacity can provide much improved delivery flexibil- normal area of irrigation per delivery, Qn =
normal or guaranteed minimum delivery rate)
ity and scheduling and be quite reasonable in cost.
With new installations, increased pipeline and canal
capacities often can be built with minimal increase in
cost.
14
To develop and maintain good irrigation scheduling
programs, an arranged or demand type delivery sched-
ule is necessary. Continuous and rotational type deliv-
ery schedules limit on-farm irrigation scheduling. 12
Relative canal capacity versus relative service area for
different water delivery schedules and irrigation
Relative canal capacity, Qn
nd
systems is displayed in figure 8–2 (Albert J. Clemmens, 10
ma
ASCE, I and D Division Proceedings, 1987). Note in
de
table 8–1, the increase in canal capacity from a rota-
ce
d
rfa
d
tional delivery system to an arranged delivery system ge
an
n
Su
m
would be about 16 percent. This can represent only a 8 ra
de
ar
r
few inches of water depth in a canal at little increased e al
le
c
a n
nk
cost. Often with new installations, increased pipeline rf tio
ri
Su ta
Sp
Ro ow
and canal capacity can be built with minimal increase 6 fl
in cost. With larger capacity pipelines, there may be no us
uo
increase in cost because standard pipeline diameters tin
on
are readily availability and used. C
4
2
Table 8–1 Example of relative canal capacities with
different water schedules, for greater than 5
deliveries per lateral
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Delivery schedule Normal area of irrigation delivery Relative service area, An
40 acres 80 acres
gpm gpm
Continuous flow 400 800
(at 10 gpm per acre)
Rotational 500 900
Arranged—surface (basins) 580 950
Demand—sprinkler 700 1,080
Demand—surface 950 1,500

(c) On-farm irrigation water • Application efficiencies—Estimate typical over-

requirement all on-farm efficiencies based on method and
system of water application and management.
Chapter 4 and NEH, Part 623, Chapter 2, Irrigation Other factors include typical soil intake charac-
Water Requirements describe methodology for deter- teristics and available water capacity (AWC),
mination of crop ET and crop water requirements. A typical field size, shape and slopes, net applica-
computer spreadsheet is a good tool to evaluate and tions, and climatic factors. Water losses to deep
summarize all parameters for a desired period. Typical percolation and runoff must be estimated. In
crop rotations are used to develop multicrop water some project areas, all or part of this water can
requirements. The evaluation is usually done monthly be available to downslope water users. Seasonal
to provide a basis for monthly storage or diversion and irrigation efficiencies must be established and
delivery needs. Parameters and steps used for a typical used rather than single event application efficien-
on-farm analysis include: cies. It may be advantageous to use realistic
• Crop evapotranspiration (ETc)—Determine a estimated monthly irrigation efficiency values
weighted crop ET including all crops grown. This rather than one value for the entire season.
should be based on various climatic areas in the Typically irrigation efficiencies are lower during
project if the differences are sufficient. Often spring and fall when less water is required by
small valleys adjoining larger valleys have differ- crops.
ent microclimates. • Gross irrigation requirement—Determine
• Effective precipitation (Pe)—Determine weighted weighted gross irrigation water requirements for
effective precipitation for each climatic area. all crops grown in the project area, by irrigation
• Ground water contribution—Determine method and system. Net application per irriga-
weighted contribution to plant growth by the tion is a major factor in application efficiencies
water table. especially for surface irrigation. The formula to
• Net Irrigation Water Requirement (IR)—Deter- determine gross irrigation requirement is shown
mine weighted net irrigation water requirements below.
for all crops grown. Water needed and used for
climate and salinity control (auxiliary water)
must be included. The formula below is used to
calculate the net irrigation water requirement.
Net Irrigation Water Requirement:

Net IR = ETc − Pe − Ground water contribution + Auxiliary water needs
Gross Irrigation Requirement:

Net irrigation water requirement
Gross Irrigation Requirement =
Seasonal irrigation efficiency

(d) Project irrigation water irrigating, highly erosive soils and sediment.
requirements Reuse of runoff water should be strongly con-
sidered rather than allowing the flow to enter
The on-farm water requirement data must now be public water. By reusing runoff water either on
expanded project wide. If the on-farm typical weighted the farm where it originated or on farms
irrigation water requirement represents the entire (fields) at a lower elevation, overall water use
project area, then all laterals and canals are sized efficiency can be improved and diversion flow,
accordingly, with the irrigated area controlling. Often, pumpage, or storage reduced. (For more infor-
specific crops are grown in specific climate, soils, or mation, see chapter 7). Tailwater collection,
geographic areas in the project, even to the extent that redistribution, and proper irrigation water
a single irrigation method and system may be used. management need to be part of a resource plan
For example, micro irrigation systems are well that meets FOTG quality criteria for all re-
adapted to providing irrigation water to vineyards or sources.
orchards on rocky hillsides. Typical gross irrigation
water requirements must then be established for those
specific areas. Parameters for expanding on-farm data
to project wide use include:
• Water requirement—Water delivery require-
ments need to be established using a planned
water delivery schedule and applying manage-
ment flexibility factors. Flow requirements by
lateral or canal are established, based on
weighted gross irrigation water requirement on
a per acre basis.
• When sizing public water distribution laterals,
remember peak water use for a specific crop
can affect only one, two, or portions of several
laterals. Averaging peak consumption across
the entire area may not be realistic.
• Project efficiencies—Project water conveyance
and control facility losses must be analyzed
when determining delivery capacities. These
losses can be as high as 50 percent or more in
long, unlined, open channels in alluvial soils.
• In some existing water districts or companies,
flow through or "management" water consti-
tutes over 30 percent of the canal capacity.
Flow through water is either returned to natu-
ral water courses as operational spills or added
to downstream water deliveries. With today's
technology, simple automatic gate/valve con-
trol devices can limit flow through water to less
than 5 percent.
• Tailwater redistribution—Collection of field
runoff from surface irrigation systems can be
redistributed to meet lower elevation project
water requirements, if allowed by state law.
Quality of runoff is typically less than that
diverted at the source. Irrigation tailwater may
contain nutrients, pesticides, and, when surface

— Using adequate water measuring devices to

652.0803 Project convey- measure flows in all diversion, division,
and delivery facilities. Equitable delivery of
ance, distribution, and water according to water rights and deliv-
delivery facilities ery schedules is essential for user har-
mony. Maintaining an adequate record of
water diverted and delivered is also essen-
Typically, delivery canals and laterals are located to tial. Irrigation organizations that have
provide complete control of water delivery to users. installed water measuring devices on
Main canals are generally installed on relatively flat lateral and farm turnouts typically experi-
grades for ease of control, to reduce water control ence from 20 to more than 40 percent
structures, and to maximize the area irrigated using increase in usable water. It is human na-
gravity flow delivery. However, pumping can be eco- ture to provide a little more water than
nomical for delivery of water to areas at higher eleva- required to minimize complaints. Ditch
tion. riders (person controlling delivery) tend to
open the gate a little more when they are
Sufficient elevation drop along a distribution canal or uncertain about flows. Accurate water
lateral often allows replacement of the open channel measurement is essential for high level on-
with a pressurized irrigation pipeline. Benefits as well farm water management. See discussion on
as negative impacts must be assessed as part of the water measuring devices in chapter 9.
planning process. In some areas, sufficient elevation — Installing, operating, and maintaining
drop can be available to deliver pressurized water to adequate structures for grade control,
operate low to moderate pressure sprinkler heads and water level control, and delivery. (See
for low pressure micro systems. Local wildlife can USBR reference Design of Small Canal
suffer when all existing open canals, laterals, and farm Structures). Consideration should also be
ditches are replaced with buried conduits. Mitigation given to automation of control structures
of lost wet areas because of lining or installing con- and valves (see USBR reference Canal
duits should be considered. An environment assess- Systems Automation Manual, 1991). With a
ment (EA) or environmental impact statement (EIS) fully automated system, almost immediate
may be needed to adequately assess potential impacts. adjustments can be made to increase or
National Environmental Protection Act (NEPA) poli- decrease water availability in a canal or
cies and regulations may apply for project analysis conduit system when changes are made in
where potential effects on the environment can occur water delivery to the user. This may require
and federal funding is involved. increased capacity in main canals or con-
duits. Semiautomation can be very cost
Objectives for conveyance, distribution, and delivery effective.
facilities should include: — Providing a water delivery schedule to the
• Maximizing irrigated acres within physical, user that promotes good irrigation water
environmental and economic limits management and water conservation. As
• Minimizing land disturbance by minimizing mentioned before, consideration should be
excessive cut and fill areas for conveyance given to an arranged or demand type deliv-
system facilities ery schedule so the irrigation decision-
• Providing complete control of all water by: maker can receive water according to plant
— Reducing canal seepage. Install channel needs.
linings or pipelines to reduce seepage
losses in high water loss soils. • Small storage and regulating reservoirs can be
— Reducing operational spills. Use appropri- located within the irrigated area to temporarily
ate distribution system water management store water discharging from canals and later-
to minimize management or flow through als when severe changes in delivery rate(s)
water. Consider semiautomation or full occur, or when excess water is available. These
automation as a management tool. small reservoirs help prevent operational spills

of excess water that cannot be stored within

the main canal system. They balance out, and 652.0804 Irrigation deliv-
generally reduce overall diversion require-
ments. Water levels in these reservoirs tend to ery system automation
fluctuate widely as inflow and outflow change
rapidly. An added advantage occurs when the
Water conveyance facilities can be automated to
water source is a long distance from the irri-
deliver irrigation flow rates on demand for most users.
gated area. A canal or pipeline can contain
Typically only a slight to moderate increase in canal or
(store) several acre feet of water that must be
pipeline capacity is required. Facilities that measure
delivered, stored, or spilled when many irriga-
and control water surface elevation (or pressure) are
tors discontinue irrigation, for example to
generally quite simple. Headgates and valves can be
harvest alfalfa hay, or during an unexpected
calibrated to control water surface elevations within
short rainy period. Check structures or valves
0.01 feet.
should be used to contain or discharge (into
protected watercourses) excess water that
With automation, irrigation delivery systems can
cannot be placed in regulating reservoirs.
operate at capacity with limited manual adjustments.
Water deliveries can be interrupted by the user with-
out jeopardizing the main delivery system. Automation
encourages better user understanding of plant water
needs. When manual water deliveries are changed in
12- or 24-hour increments, fine tuning water applica-
tions to meet actual plant water need becomes more
difficult. With automation, water can be changed at
any time.
With most delivery systems, at least semiautomation

of key headgates or valves is appropriate and cost
effective. Labor to change headgates is reduced.
Experience has shown that controlling the hydraulic

grade line (water surface elevation in open channels)
immediately upstream of farm turnouts provides the
most accurate water deliveries with the least labor.
Also downstream water surface control on laterals
makes it easier to divide water between a few users.
Typically, less water is diverted when agricultural

water delivery systems are automated, mainly because
of more precise control. Automation of urban water
systems often use more water because it is delivered
by a time clock.
Downstream water control can provide flexible and

demand operation. Any change in flow rate within the
system causes upstream gates or pumps to make a
corresponding adjustment automatically, until eventu-
ally the gates or pumps at the far upstream supply
point respond. Therefore, downstream control is
limited to canals or laterals, including pump systems,
which have a flexible supply of water. Downstream

control canals usually are supplied from a regulating

reservoir, but pumps or wells conjunctively used can 652.0805 Water budget
supply some of the flexibility where multiple pumps
are used. An example of the latter may be where the
water source is a multipump pumping plant at a river A project wide water budget can be an effective tool to
or reservoir. analyze total water needs versus total water availabil-
ity. A water surplus or deficit is readily recognized. A
With downstream control, the water surface or pres- budget can show diversion, pumping, or storage re-
sure leaving the structure is controlled. A constant quirements for any selected time period. Typically, a
water surface elevation or pressure is maintained at month-by-month analysis is used for the growing
some point downstream of the control facility regard- season or entire calendar year. Water budgets can be
less of the number of turnouts opened. developed for specific items. For example, budget(s)
may be developed for: individual system peak crop ET,
The nature of automated upstream control is to pass project wide average crop ET, project wide peak crop
all problems downstream while maintaining turnout ET, water quality management, or water conservation.
flow rate control for all upstream users. With up- Often a variety of crops with peak water use require-
stream control, the water surface (or pressure) enter- ments occurring at different periods of the growing
ing the facility is controlled by opening or closing a season are grown to reduce peak water delivery needs.
gate to a lower ditch or pipeline. In open channels, Parameters that might apply to a project wide water
broadcrested weirs can be used to provide constant budget include:
discharge at a given upstream water surface elevation. • Weighted crop ET requirement.
• Effective precipitation that changes soil mois-
Energy for opening and closing small to very large ture within the plant root zone.
gates can use water pressure (head), gravity, electric, • Ground water contribution to plant water
or pneumatic energy. needs.
• Net irrigation water requirement (to make up
Floats, pressure tapes, pressure transducers, sonic soil moisture deficit).
transmitters, and air bubblers are used to sense the • Irrigation efficiency (accounting for unneces-
water surface elevation. A stilling well is necessary if sary irrigations, losses to deep percolation and
the water surface fluctuates more than the open/close runoff).
gate tolerance. Typically, the water surface sensing • Auxiliary water requirement (leaching for
unit requires very little energy. A 12 volt DC, deep salinity control; climate control such as frost,
charge car type battery, or 115 volt AC is generally cooling, or humidity; seed germination).
used. • Gross irrigation water requirement.
• Water conveyance system losses (evaporation,
phreatophyte plant use, seepage, operational
spills).
• Diversion, pumping, and storage requirements.

The following example and data displayed in figure Given: Area = 1,000 acres
8–3 are an example water budget for a sprinkle irriga- Seasonal on-farm irrigation efficiency = 55%
tion project. Design single event irrigation application Seasonal weighted crop ET = 28.0 acre-inches
efficiency of a sprinkler system can be 65 to 70 percent per acre
or higher. For the total irrigation season project wide, Monthly crop ET effective precipitation (Pe)
it is assumed in this example that an overall average of as shown
55 percent is more typical. Project wide efficiencies Root zone moisture level assumed at full AWC
are typically lower because of nonmeasured water at start of season
delivery, extra irrigations, conveyance facility seepage
and leaks, and deliveries and irrigation application not
according to plant needs. A weighted crop ET is deter-
mined that would represent an average for crops
irrigated in a project.
Figure 8–3 Example project water budget
Item April May June July Aug Sept Oct Total
For 1.0 acre - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (acre-inches / acre) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Crop ET 1.4 2.5 5.6 6.8 6.0 4.5 1.2 28.0

Pe 2.5 2.1 0.7 0.2 0.4 1.0 1.5 8.4
Net IR 0.0 0.4 4.9 6.6 5.6 3.5 0.0 21.0
Gross IR 0.0 0.7 8.9 12.0 10.2 6.4 0.0 38.2
Losses:
From Excess Precip. 1/ 1.1 0.3 1.4
From Excess Irrig. 2/ 0.3 4.0 5.4 4.6 2.9 17.2
Total 3/ 18.6
For 1,000 acres - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (acre-ft) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Crop ET 117 208 467 567 500 375 100 2,334

Net IR 0 33 408 550 467 292 0 1,750
Gross IR 0 58 742 1,000 850 533 0 3,183
Losses:
From Excess Precip. 1/ 92 25 117
From excess Irrig. 2/ 25 333 450 383 242 1,433
Total 3/ 1,550
1/ Where effective precipitation (Pe) exceeds crop evapotranspiration (ETc), the excess effective precipitation infiltrates into the soil and is
assumed to go to deep percolation.
2/ Where Pe is less than crop ET, losses or excess is due to irrigation.
3/ Represents total water losses due to both inefficient irrigation and excess effective precipitation. For offsite determination of impacts on
water quality, further partitioning may be desirable to determine how much is lost to each individual item (i.e., Deep Percolation , Runoff ,
and for Spray and Drift). This requires a monthly soil-water and crop-water balance analysis. This is suitable for planning purpose where
only historical normal temperature and precipitation data are available. Where local real time climate data are available, the water balance
analysis process discussed and calculated in NRCS (SCS) SCHEDULER would be appropriate for daily decisions.

652.0806 Water source 652.0807 Evaluating alter-

natives and selection
Irrigation water may be from direct gravity diversion
or pumping from natural streams, springs, or sloughs; Keeping objectives of sponsors and the community in
ground water using wells; lakes and reservoirs; or a mind and evaluating alternatives (including economi-
combination of these. In addition to irrigation project cal, social, and environmental impacts) are probably
needs when using a reservoir, storage may include the most important part of a project analysis. This step
municipal, recreation, fire protection, fishery and requires a multidiscipline approach that should involve
wildlife, sediment retention, flood protection, down- landowners, engineers, agronomists, biologists, econo-
stream natural stream flow augmentation, and power mists, water quality specialists, social science special-
generation. ists, and others. See section 652.0809 and the NRCS
National Planning Procedures Handbook for a more
Determining if water is available and can be used for detailed discussion of the planning process. Param-
irrigation purposes is necessary before spending much eters and steps for evaluating alternatives leading up
time on project planning. This may require a prelimi- to a selection should include:
nary hydrologic analysis and search of issued state • Sponsors identify goals and objectives.
water rights. A permit may be required to divert sur- • Identify community concerns and objectives.
face water, install wells and pumps, and to store and • Research applicable local laws and regulations.
beneficially use public water. Typically, detailed plans • Establish project specific quality criteria.
for irrigation storage reservoirs are required and must • Environmental assessment and impacts of each
be approved by a state regulatory agency before con- alternative component and cumulative effects
struction starts. of components for each alternative are consid-
ered; including soils, water quality and quan-
tity, air quality, plants of concern, and animals
(including fishery, wildlife, and endangered
species). People including cultural resources
and social impacts of alternatives are also a
consideration.
• Benefits for each alternative that reaches final
consideration. Some alternatives drop out early
for obvious reasons; i.e., costs, extreme nega-
tive resource and social impacts.
• Fishery and wildlife impacts and mitigation
needs.
• Project costs for each alternative that reaches
final consideration.
• Interim cost versus benefit analysis, and eco-
nomic impacts on landowner, community, and
region.
• Selection of best alternative, based on
objective(s) and goals of sponsors, that meets
established quality criteria.
• Operation and maintenance.

652.0808 Project cost and 652.0809 Planning pro-

benefits cess for irrigation projects
A detailed project benefit-cost analysis is developed The NRCS National Planning Procedures Handbook
for the selected alternatives. Depending on need, a (September 1993) provides guidance in using the
benefit-cost analysis can be limited to individual NRCS planning process to develop, implement, and
landowners and their ability to pay the cost of water evaluate project plans. The purpose of the planning
and make a net profit with irrigation improvements. and implementation process is to:
Current and reasonable values must be assigned to all • Provide methodology that helps planners work
components of the project. effectively with sponsors to identify opportuni-
ties and needs and to solve identified resource
Project costs: problems or concerns.
• Engineering planning and design, contract • Help sponsors recognize and understand natu-
administration, construction inspection, ral resource conservation principles, concerns,
permits. and problems. Resource treatment and effects
• On-farm land preparation, irrigation system(s), are considered for each alternative.
and distribution facilities. • Develop and evaluate alternatives that lead to
• Cost of water to landowner, which include decisions to implement and maintain conserva-
costs of: tion treatments and management for the
— Conveyance, distribution and delivery facili- project.
ties and all associated structures. • Enable sponsors to achieve their objectives as
— Water source—diversion facilities, wells and well as meet social, legal, and program require-
pumps, storage reservoir. ments.
— Fishery and wildlife mitigation, maintaining • Help sponsors develop a plan that meets estab-
or reconstructing wetlands. lished project specific quality criteria including
— Management, operation and maintenance of environmental concerns.
facilities (buildings, staff, equipment) • Assess the effectiveness of installed practices
in meeting the goals and objectives of the
Note: For a total project benefit-cost analysis, costs sponsors while solving problems and impacts
must also include all landowner ownership and opera- on environmental values.
tion expenses.
Project Benefits: (a) Watershed-based planning

• Economic, social, and environmental benefits
for on-farm, community, and regional levels. The watershed-based planning approach provides a
• Power generation revenue (as applicable). comprehensive process that considers all natural
• Other benefits including fishery, wildlife, and resources in the watershed (project) as well as social,
recreation use of reservoirs and open canals. cultural, and economic factors. The process tailors
workable solutions to ecosystem needs through the
It may be difficult and time consuming to determine all participation and leadership of sponsors. The water-
impacts on soil, water, air, plants, animals, and hu- shed approach follows the established planning pro-
mans (SWAPA+H). For a true benefit-to-cost analysis, cess and empowers local people to recognize prob-
dollar values need to be assigned to community ben- lems and opportunities and find workable solutions
efits including aesthetics, nongame wildlife, environ- for resolving issues and attaining goals related to
ment, social welfare, and economic improvement to ecosystems. This approach provides a forum for
community, state, and region. Other Federal, state, and successful planning and conflict resolution. The result
local agencies can be sources of data. is a watershed plan that is a clear description of re-
source concerns, goals to be attained, and identified

sources for technical assistance, education assistance, (b) Project planning relationships
and funding assistance from Federal, State, and local
entities for implementing solutions. Project planning relationships are displayed in figures
8–4 (steps 1–4) and 8–5 (steps 5–9).
Figure 8–4 Resource planning process for project plan—steps 1–4
Public's and stakeholders' Steering

goals, objectives, resource committee
Technical concerns, problems, etc.
team's
assistance
Benchmark systems
and effects
Inventory Legislated programs

resources and criteria
FOTG State quality

Identify Analyze criteria
problems resource
data
Local quality
criteria
Determine
objectives
Resource
concerns
Next larger
Problems defined and quantified; project plan
objectives established (report)
Steps 5 and 6

Figure 8–5 Resource planning process for project plan—steps 5–9
Established objectives and Public and

defined and quantified problems stakeholders
Steering and resource concerns
committee
s
ct
Effects
fe
CPPE and
Ef
CMS process
Technical
team's
assistance Legislated programs
and criteria
Formulate
alternatives
FOTG State quality
criteria
Discipline
manuals and
handbooks Local quality
Evaluate CED criteria
alternatives
Eff
s ect
ect s
Next larger project area Eff Planning unit
ecosystem components
• Ecosystem components
• Resource concerns • Natural and introduced
• Cause and source of • Human activities
impairment • Interactions and effects
Clients select alternatives
Step 8: Implement plan
Step 9: Followup

(c) Outline for irrigation project • Obtain input from the public, other agencies,
planning and special interest groups. This is generally
best done at one or more public meetings. All
The following outline is a guide for inventorying, personnel or groups affected by the project
investigating, and analyzing physical resources for a should be interviewed for their real (or per-
project. It can assist planning personnel with irrigation ceived) concerns and problems. Small groups
aspects of planning a project. Adherence to the prin- can be effective in identifying resources of
ciples of the outline will help ensure a uniform ap- concern.
proach in estimating physical feasibility, benefits,
effects, and impacts at the various stages of progres-
sive planning. Step 2. Determine objectives
The outline is not intended to indicate a fixed chrono- Help sponsors develop project planning goals and
logical order or procedure. Many of the investigations objectives based on needs and values regarding the
may be carried on concurrently. Perform only those use, treatment, and management of available re-
items described in the outline that are directly appli- sources, both onsite and offsite. Establish project
cable to appraise the capability of satisfying a compo- specific quality criteria for resources of concern. Use
nent need. The procedural outline is subject to addi- or enhance FOTG quality criteria.
tions or deletions should a particular project warrant.
Intensity of investigations required for various outline Step 3. Inventory resources

components varies with the level of planning and the
scope and significance of the project being planned. Review goals and objectives determined in step 2 as
Generally, the lowest intensity is associated with pre- related to land uses, production goals, and problem
application planning level. It increases to full intensity solving. Tailor inventory detail to expected complexity
for investigation of the selected plan. of resource setting. This can be accomplished using
the scoping process. Review with sponsors the pur-
The procedural outline does not describe program pose and importance of the inventory process, what
requirements or format for plan preparation. It pro- should be done, how much time will be required, and
vides an orderly format for planning, implementation what documentation will be provided.
and evaluation. As a part of the planning process, it
provides an orderly format for organizing information Develop Plan of Work (POW) outlining; list of tasks,
to facilitate comparison of alternatives. It also pro- discipline, time frame to do task, and expected prod-
vides guidance for writing of plans, organizing sup- uct for each task.
porting documentation, and facilitating reviews.
Have sponsors assist throughout the inventory process
as much as possible.
Step 1. Identify problems and concerns
(scoping process) Suggested inventory procedure outline:
A. Develop project base map
An interdisciplinary team should review sponsors 1. Identify cultural features, communities, roads,
application and gather and review existing information railroads, public and private utilities, climatic
about the project area and ecosystem(s). They should: stations, sloughs, ponds, streams, lakes, key
• Determine environmental, social, economic, points where resource data have been col-
and cultural resources in the area. Other agen- lected, wildlife preserves, parks
cies and specific interest groups are good 2. Topography or elevations typically one to five
sources for information. contour intervals
• Make a field review of the project area with
specific interest in sponsors concerns, but look
at all natural resources.

B. Overlay maps F. Water supply

1. Soils 1. Quantity records—historical or probability
2. Farm boundaries, irrigation organization a. Reservoir storage availability
boundaries b. Direct stream diversion
3. Water rights by year established (if appropri- c. Ground water including depth
ate) 2. Quality records
4. Skeletal outline a. Chemical and mineral content
a. Project conveyance facilities including b. Sediment content and type
canal and pipeline locations and delivery c. Temperature, if a factor
points 3. Water rights
b. Drainage facilities—surface and a. Listing of water rights as to source
subsurface b. Priorities by date
c. Reservoirs c. Seasonal volume, flow rate, or both
d. Diversion points d. How administered (state, irrigation
e. Wells organization, group, water user)
f. Water control structures, measuring 4. Competing water uses from the same source
devices
5. Irrigation service areas G. Climatic records (mean monthly and seasonal, or
a. Present monthly for historical period)
b. Potential 1. Temperature maximum, minimum, average
6. On-farm irrigation methods, systems, or both daily, and growing degree days, if available
2. Precipitation—effective precipitation during
C. Conservation farm maps growing season
1. Skeletal outline of farm distribution system 3. Humidity
and field layout. Inventory may be by farm, 4. Wind—speed and prevailing direction,
group of farms, project, or sample area as by month or season
determined by intensity of study and variation 5. Pan evaporation
of conditions. Delivery location(s) and amount 6. Solar radiation
of water delivered are shown for each farm. 7. Percent probable sunshine
D. Soils H. Energy sources

1. Description of soil series, surface textures, 1. Type—electric, natural gas, diesel, gravity,
management groups solar
a. Acreage and location 2. Availability—brownouts, lightening
b. Soil moisture storage management groups 3. Cost, rates and power interruption potential
c. Intake characteristics
(1) Furrow, rill, corrugation I. Project conveyance facilities
(2) Border, basins 1. Canals, laterals, pipelines, etc., including
(3) Sprinkler shape, location and size
d. Soil chemistry; i.e., salinity, sodicity, pH 2. Capacity - based on size, shape, and convey-
e. Erodibility designation or group from both ance gradient or elevations
water and wind 3. Length(s)
f. Water table depth by month, season 4. Conveyance losses (preferably measured)
a. Seepage
E. Crops b. Evaporation
1. Crops grown including time of year c. Evapotranspiration—stream side vegeta-
2. Acres of each crop tion, submersed and floating aquatic
3. Acres by irrigation method and/or system(s) weeds
4. Growing season with planting and harvest d. Operational and management spills and
dates for multiple cropping other losses

5. Method of delivery Step 4. Analyze resource data

a. Continuous flow
b. Rotation Use scoping process to determine the types of analy-
c. Demand, including elapsed time between ses needed. Identified problems and concerns,
request and delivery. Is quantity variable? sponsor’s objectives, program criteria, and environ-
Is delivery period (time) variable? Can mental values to be considered. Input from sponsor,
user request variable time and amount? irrigation water user's interdisciplinary team, special
d. Combination interest group(s), public, and other agencies affected
6. Water measuring facilities by the project is necessary. Type of planning, size,
a. Canal and lateral division boxes cost, potential for adverse environmental or social
b. Pipeline division points impact, and controversy need to be considered. Agree-
c. Pumping plant discharge ment by the sponsor(s) and Federal, State or local
d. Farm deliveries agencies is essential.
7. Geology
Define the existing and future resource conditions in
J. Project runoff and wastewater disposal including the project area. This can help define the conditions
reuse facilities that limit sponsors from fully realizing their objectives.
1. Type Separately analyze With and Without Project Condi-
2. Capacity tions. Without Project Conditions can be for existing
3. Location of disposal facilities and areas, conditions or future without project conditions. One of
outlets, pump back or reuse facilities and these is selected and used as the benchmark to com-
areas pare alternatives. Typically several alternatives are
4. Real or anticipated effects of runoff and analyzed, and some are eliminated before the near
wastewater disposal. final selection of best alternative(s).
K. Irrigation methods and systems Analysis of resource data outline:

1. Irrigation method (surface, sprinkle, micro, A. Project area to be irrigated
subirrigation) and systems (furrow, border, 1. Acreage of composite groups of soils that can
handmove sprinkler, line source micro, etc.) be managed similarly
2. Acreage by method and system—Inventory by 2. Acreage by crop
field, farm, group of farms, project area or 3. Acreage by irrigation method and/or system
representative sample areas, as determined by
study, diversity of soils, management areas B. Crop water requirements
3. Quantity of water used or applied 1. Project wide composite for different crops;
a. Per irrigation or application event i.e., weekly, monthly
b. Per irrigation season
c. For auxiliary use; i.e., chemigation, frost C. Water supply, by days, weeks, or months as
protection, temperature control, leaching needed
4. On-farm irrigation scheduling methods 1. Frequency (continuous, intermittent)
5. Project irrigation scheduling methods 2. Historical period (including time of year)
3. Risk assessment (probability)
L. Return flow—tailwater, runoff usable in the
project. D. Conveyance efficiencies, by month
1. Quantity records, field measurements, sample 1. By type and condition of conveyance facility
evaluations, etc. 2. By construction material; i.e., earth, concrete,
2. Quality records PVC pipeline, steel pipeline
a. Chemical concentration
b. Mineral content E. Overall application efficiencies including
c. Organic content management
d. Sediment content 1. By irrigation method and/or system
3. Location in the project 2. By type and condition of on-farm distribution
facilities
F. Crop water budget/balance, by probability, Step 5. Formulate project (components)

historical period alternatives
1. Acres provided full water supply
2. Acres provided partial water supply Identify practices (components) and other treatments
3. Water deficiencies and excesses that address the sponsors goals and objectives.
a. Volume
b. Time periods Land treatment (structural and nonstructural) as well
as preventative measures should be considered. Man-
G. Project delivery system capacity requirements agement improvements using the existing system is
1. Unit peak period water requirements always the first increment to be considered.
2. Composite peak period water requirements
3. Farm turnout capacity and pressure Develop alternatives (composite of components) as
requirements necessary.
4. Project conveyance facility capacity and
pressure requirements Make a preliminary evaluation of the effects of each
5. Water measurement for division of supply for practice on resource concerns, problems, objectives,
farm delivery and environmental values.
H. Irrigation benefits Develop preliminary designs and cost estimates.

1. Net returns
a. Crop yield and quality improvements, Compare alternative to project quality criteria.
optimizing net benefits
b. Reduced farm, irrigation, or both Estimate environmental, social, economic, and human
organization operation costs effects. Acceptability of the alternative by the sponsor,
2. Environmental improvements the public, and State and Federal agencies should be
a. Water quality improvements—reducing established. Needed measures to mitigate any poten-
agricultural related chemicals, salts, tial environmental damages need to be included.
sediments, and organic material in
ground and surface water; reducing Analyze the risk and uncertainty associated with each
stream temperatures alternative.
b. Water quantity improvements—reducing
seepage and deep percolation losses Use sponsor(s) and public affected by the project to
thereby reducing pumping, diversion and help identify and formulate alternatives.
storage requirements resulting in
increased in-stream flows, decreased Develop benefit-to-cost analysis for selected
ground water mining alternative(s).
c. Community benefits
d. Other resource improvements—air
quality, wildlife habitat
I. Review and finalize quality criteria for project with

water users and nonwater users affected by the
project

Step 6. Evaluate project (components) Develop plans for any mitigating loss of environmental
alternatives values that resulting from project plan implementa-
tion. If established project quality criteria was appro-
Quantify effects on soil, water, air, plant, and animal priate, mitigation should be minimal.
resources plus social and economic considerations,
both for the benchmark and each alternative. Quantifi- Develop Operation, Maintenance, and Replacement
cation of effects should be done as agreed to by the (O, M, and R) plan and agreement(s). Identify who will
interdisciplinary team. Evaluation detail for each do the work and the process followed for periodic
alternative will vary and become more refined as inspections and development of plans for remedial
needed in the selection process. The sponsors, public, action.
and other agencies and interest groups affected by the
project should be included in the quantification pro-
cess. Step 9. Evaluate project plan (follow-up)
Compare the effects of each alternative to the bench- Establish evaluation criteria including what use will be
mark. Both beneficial and adverse impacts are consid- made of the results.
ered.
Develop POW to guide evaluation efforts. Develop by
Compare alternative to project quality criteria. component, project, and individual discipline the
products to complete the evaluation. This should
Display evaluations in a manner easily understood by include work to be performed by the sponsor, NRCS,
the sponsor, public, special interest groups, individual contractor, and other agencies. The POW will vary
landowners, and other agencies. based on the project and the purpose of the evalua-
tion. Identify personnel who will be involved in reme-
dial work and together develop procedures to be used,
Step 7. Make decisions time required, and cost. Develop a schedule showing
• Assist the sponsor(s) in reviewing alternatives who has responsibility for a specific action, when it is
and evaluations. to begin, when it is completed, and what is to be the
• Provide opportunity for public response. product.
• Sponsor(s) review the plan, public input,
obligations, and responsibilities. As identified in the Plan of Work, periodically:
• Compare selected alternative to project • Gather information, make analyses, develop
specific quality criteria. recommendations, and prepare necessary
• Sponsor provides a decision, with public infor- reports.
mation (and review) as necessary. • Take necessary action as a result of the
evaluation.
Step 8. Implement project plan Examples of evaluations may include:

• Dam performance and safety inspections
Develop Plan of Work (POW) for implementation of • Monitoring water quality
practices and measures. Include list of tasks, disci- • Performance evaluations of measuring devices,
plines involved, and time required for preparing real conveyance and delivery facilities, and pumps
property acquisition maps, acquiring necessary right- • Delivery (conveyance) system operation and
of-way, prepare design surveys, final design of con- management
struction drawings and specifications, cost estimates,
bid documents, and installation sequence and sched-
ule. Particular attention should be paid to all special
environmental concerns, such as threatened and
endangered species, cultural resources, and wetlands.
Sponsors obtain necessary agreements, permits, and
approvals.



Chapter 9 Irrigation Water Management Part 652
Chapter 9 Irrigation Water Management
Irrigation Guide
Tools, aids, practices, and programs to assist the

652.0900 General irrigation decisionmaker in applying proper irrigation
water management include:
• Applying the use of water budgets, water bal-
Irrigation water management (IWM) is the act of ances, or both, to identify potential water appli-
timing and regulating irrigation water application in a cation improvements
way that will satisfy the water requirement of the crop • Applying the knowledge of soil characteristics
without wasting water, soil, and plant nutrients and for water release, allowable irrigation application
degrading the soil resource. This involves applying rates, available water capacity, and water table
water: depths
• According to crop needs • Applying the knowledge of crop characteristics
• In amounts that can be held in the soil and be for water use rates, growth characteristics, yield
available to crops and quality, rooting depths, and allowable plant
• At rates consistent with the intake characteris- moisture stress levels
tics of the soil and the erosion hazard of the site • Water delivery schedule effects
• So that water quality is maintained or improved • Water flow measurement for onfield water
management
A primary objective in the field of irrigation water • Irrigation scheduling techniques
management is to give irrigation decisionmakers an • Irrigation system evaluation techniques
understanding of conservation irrigation principles by
showing them how they can judge the effectiveness of See Chapter 15 for resource planning and evaluation
their own irrigation practices, make good water man- tools and for applicable worksheets.
agement decisions, recognize the need to make minor
adjustments in existing systems, and recognize the
need to make major improvements in existing systems
or to install new systems. The net results of proper
irrigation water management typically:
• Prevent excessive use of water for irrigation
purposes.
• Prevent excessive soil erosion
• Reduce labor
• Minimize pumping costs
• Maintain or improve quality of ground water and
downstream surface water
• Increase crop biomass yield and product
quality

Irrigation Guide
Quantity of water to be applied is often determined by

652.0901 Irrigation water available water capacity of the soil, planned manage-
ment allowable depletion, and estimated crop evapo-
management concepts transpiration (ETc). When rainfall provides a signifi-
cant part of seasonal plant water requirements, irriga-
tion can be used to supplement plant water needs
(a) Irrigation water management during dry periods resulting from untimely rainfall
concepts events.
Field monitoring techniques can be used to establish Water should be applied at a rate or quantity and in
when and how much to irrigate. The long existing rule such a manner to have sufficient soil-water storage, be
of thumb for loamy soils has been that most crops nonerosive, have minimal waste, and be nondegrading
should be irrigated before more than half of the avail- to public water quality. Irrigations are timed to replace
able soil water in the crop root zone has been used. It the planned depleted soil moisture used by the crop.
has also been demonstrated that certain crops respond Effective rainfall during the growing season should be
with higher yields and product quality by maintaining a taken into consideration.
higher available soil-water content, especially with
clay soils. Desired or allowable soil moisture depletion (2) When to irrigate
levels, referred to as Management Allowable Depletion When to irrigate is dependent on the crop water use
(MAD), are described in Chapter 2, Soils, and Chapter rate, sometimes referred to as irrigation frequency.
3, Crops. If the Available Water Capacity (AWC) of the This rate can be determined by calculation of ETc rate
soil, the crop rooting depth for the specific stage of for specific crop stage of growth, monitoring plant
growth, and the MAD level are known, then how much moisture stress levels, monitoring soil-water depletion,
water to apply per irrigation can be determined. Part or a combination if these. Too frequently, crop condi-
652.0903 reviews measurement of soil-water content tion is observed to determine when to irrigate. When
and describes tools, techniques, and irrigation schedul-
plants show stress from lack of moisture, it is typically
ing. Part 652.0908, Water management, addresses the
too late. Generally, crop yield and product quality have
importance of measuring a predetermined quantity of
already been adversely affected. The over-stress
water onto the field.
appearance may also be from shallow roots resulting
from overirriga-tion or from disease, insect damage, or
(1) Concepts of irrigation water management lack of trace elements. Certain plants can be exces-
The simplest and basic irrigation water management sively stressed during parts of their growth stage and
tool is the equation: have little effect on yield. Part 652.0903 reviews mea-
QT=DA surement of plant moisture stress levels and describes
tools, techniques and irrigation scheduling.
where:
Q = flow rate (ft3/s) (3) Rainfall management
T = time (hr) In moderate to high rainfall areas, managing the timing
D = depth (in) of irrigations to allow effective use of rainfall during
A = area (acres) the irrigation season is a common practice. The irriga-
tion decisionmaker can attempt to predict rainfall
For example, a flow rate of 1 cubic foot per second for events and amounts (which too often does not work),
1 hour = 1-inch depth over 1 acre. This simple equa- or the depleted soil water is never fully replaced with
tion, modified by an overall irrigation efficiency, can each irrigation. Instead, between 0.5 and 1.0 inch of
be used to calculate daily water supply needs by available water capacity in the soil profile can be left
plants, number of acres irrigable from a source, or the unfilled for storage of potential rainfall. Rainfall prob-
time required to apply a given depth of water from an ability during a specific crop growing period and the
irrigation well or diversion. Typically, over 80 percent level of risk to be taken must be carefully considered
of IWM concerns can be at least partly clarified by the by the irrigation decisionmaker. Applied irrigation
application of this equation. water should always be considered supplemental to
rainfall events.

Irrigation Guide
(4) Water supply limitations easiest to use and the least costly. Turnout gates are
Where water supply is limiting, deficit or partial year adjusted to deliver a given share of water on a con-
irrigation is often practiced. Partial irrigation works tinual basis. This delivery schedule however, generally
well with lower value field crops. It does not work promotes the philosophy of use the water (whether
well with high value crops where quality determines the crop needs it or not) or lose it. This practice is
market price, especially the fresh vegetable and fruit not conducive to proper irrigation scheduling. Many
market. Typically, water is applied at times of critical project delivery systems have been designed based on
plant stress (see Chapter 3, Crops) or until the water is this delivery schedule method because of the percep-
no longer available for the season. Yields are generally tion it allows minimum capacity sizing of all compo-
reduced from their potential, but net benefit to the nents. When in fact, only the lower end of laterals (± 5
farmer may be highest, especially when using high water users) is affected.
cost water or a declining water source, such as pump-
ing from a declining aquifer. An economic evaluation (ii) Arranged—The water user requests or orders
may be beneficial. water delivery at a rate, start time, and duration in
advance. Most arranged schedules require a minimum
(5) Water delivery of 24 to 48 hours advance notice for water to be turned
Water supply and delivery schedules are key to proper on or turned off. Arranged schedules often require
irrigation water management. When water users pump water be turned on or off at specific times; i.e., 7 to 9
from a well or an adjacent stream or maintain a diver- a.m., to correspond to ditch riders’ schedules. This
sion or storage reservoir, they control their own deliv- delivery schedule requires good, advance communica-
ery. In some areas delivery is controlled by an irrigation between water user and irrigation company.
tion district or company. Delivery by an irrigation Irrigation districts need to have flexibility in their
district may be controlled by its own institutional delivery with this method. Temporary storage facilities
constraints (management) or by canal supply and are typically needed because water spills out the end
structure capacity limitations. of the delivery system.
Flexibility in delivery generally is controlled by institu- (iii) Demand—A demand schedule is one that allows
tional restraints or capacity limitations on the down- users to have flexibility of frequency, rate, and dura-
stream ends of irrigation laterals. Capacity limitations tion of delivery. A municipal water system meets this
are primarily because required storage is not within or type of delivery schedule system. It also works best
very close to farm delivery locations. Where water where the water user owns and maintains the water
supplies are not limited and delivery is in open canal supply; i.e., well, storage reservoir, and stream diver-
systems, irrigation districts often carry from 10 to 30 sion. On-demand schedules are technically feasible for
percent additional water through the system as man- most moderate to large irrigation districts. Except for
agement water to reduce district water management downstream ends of supply laterals, canal and lateral
requirements. Low cost semi or fully automated con- sizes are the same whether demand, rotation, or ar-
trollers are available for water control structures that ranged deliveries are used. Temporary storage is
accomplish the same purpose with less water. (One provided by main canals and laterals; however, canal
large irrigation district discovered they had over 20 appurtenances (diversions, turnouts, and flow measur-
percent more water available to users when water ing devices) must be sized accordingly. With smaller
measuring devices and semiautomatic gate controls delivery systems, slight oversizing of main canals and
were installed at each major lateral division.) The temporary storage facilities can often be provided at a
following schedules are widely used. small increase in delivery system cost. Modifications
to on-demand schedule can work well. For example,
(i) Fixed and rotation—With fixed delivery time the rate may be limited, but frequency and duration
at fixed delivery rates, irrigation districts provide a made flexible. This method works quite well in many
single delivery point to an individual water user or to a projects if the main canal capacity is increased slightly
group of neighbors that rotate the delivery among and if temporary storage facilities are provided within
themselves. Generally the delivery schedule is the the delivery system.

Irrigation Guide
Most onfarm irrigation delivery and distribution facili-

ties are limited by their capacity. Therefore, variable 652.0902 Soil-plant-water
frequency and duration are typically the best delivery
schedule reasonably available. A good irrigation balance
scheduling program can be developed around this type
of delivery schedule.
Detailed soil and crop characteristics were described
in chapters 2 and 3 of this guide. Applying those char-
(6) Water measurement
acteristics and monitoring changes in soil-water con-
A key factor in proper irrigation water management is
tent, plant moisture tension levels, canopy cover, root
knowing how much water is available to apply or is
development, and water use rates provide valuable
applied to a field through an irrigation application
factors to implement proper irrigation water manage-
system. Many devices are available to measure open
ment. Generally, water budgets are a planning tool,
channel or pipeline flows. See Chapter 7, Farm Distri-
water balance is the daily accounting of water avail-
bution Systems, for more details. Too many irrigators
ability. Both can be important irrigation water manage-
consider water measurement a regulation issue and an
ment tools.
inconvenience. The importance of flow measurement
for proper irrigation water management cannot be
overstressed. Typically, less water is used where
adequate flow measurement is a part of the water (a) Soil
delivery system and a unit cost billing mechanism is
Soil intake characteristics, field capacity, wilting point,
used. In addition to chapter 7, the joint USBR, ARS,
available water capacity, water holding capacity,
and NRCS water measurement publication should be
management allowed depletion, and bulk density are
consulted.
soil characteristics that irrigation consultants and
decisionmakers must take into account to implement
proper irrigation water management. Also see Chapter
2, Soils, and Chapter 17, Glossary.
Field capacity (FC) is the amount of water remain-

ing in the soil when the downward water flow from
gravity becomes negligible. It occurs soon after an
irrigation or rainfall event fills the soil. Field capacity
is generally assumed to be 1/10 atmosphere (bar) soil-
water tension for sandy soils and 1/3 atmosphere (bar)
tension for medium to fine textured soils. For accurate
results these points should be measured in the labora-
tory, but can be measured (reasonably close) in the
field if done soon after an irrigation and before plants
start using soil moisture.
Free or excess water is available for plant use for the

short time it is in the soil. With coarse textured soil,
excess water can be available for a few hours because
free water drains rapidly, but with fine textured soil it
can be up to 2 days because free water drains more
slowly. Laboratory results are typically good for ho-
mogenous soils, but results may be inaccurate for
stratified soils because of free water movement being
restricted by fine textured layers. In stratified soils,
proper field tests can provide more representative
data.

Irrigation Guide
In stratified soils, a common perception that down- Available water capacity (AWC) is that portion of
ward water movement is held up by fine textured soil water in the soil (plant root zone) that can be ab-
layers is not entirely true. In fact, water enters fine sorbed by plant roots. It is the amount of water re-
textured soil layers almost immediately. However, leased between field capacity and permanent wilting
because the fine textured soil has greater soil-water point, also called available water holding capacity.
tension, downward water movement into a coarse Average available water capacities are displayed in
textured soil below is restricted. A recently published table 9–1, based on texture in the profile. A specific
NRCS video, How Water Moves Through Soil, demon- soil series (i.e., Warden) can have different surface
strates water movement in various soil profiles. textures. Average soil-water content based on various
textures and varying bulk density is displayed in figure
Wilting point (WP), sometimes called wilting coeffi- 9–1.
cient, is the soil-water content below which plants
cannot obtain sufficient water to maintain plant Soil-water content (SWC) is the water content of a
growth and never totally recover. Generally, wilting given volume of soil at any specific time. This is the
point is assumed to be 15 atmospheres (bar) tension. It water content that is measured by most soil-water
is measured only in the laboratory using a pressure content measuring devices. Amount available to plants
plate apparatus and is difficult to determine in the then is SWC – WP.
field.
Figure 9–1 Total soil-water content for various soil textures with adjustment for changes in bulk density
1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8

30
0.6
5.5
5.0
Soil-water content (inches of water per foot of soil)

Soil-water content (percent by dry weight of soil)
25 4.5
Excess water Available water 4.0
20 (Example)
3.5
y
cit
pa
ca
3.0
eld
Fi
15 e nt
ici
oeff 2.5
gc
ltin
Wi
2.0
10
1.5
Water not available for plant use 1.0

5
0.5
0
1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8
Sand
Loamy
Sand
Sandy
Loam
Fine
Sandy
Loam
Loam
Silt
Loam
Silty
Clay
Loam
Clay
Loam
Clay
Soil bulk density (gm/cc3)

Soil Texture

Irrigation Guide
Management allowable depletion (MAD) is the NRCS soil scientists use liquid saran to coat soil clods,
desired soil-water deficit at the time of irrigation. It and the volume of the clod is determined in a soils
can be expressed as the percentage of available soil- laboratory using a water displacement technique. This
water capacity or as the depth of water that has been process provides the least disturbance to a soil
depleted in the root zone. Providing irrigation water at sample; however, obtaining clods from sandy soils can
this time minimizes plant water stresses that could be difficult. Techniques to determine density used in
reduce yield and quality. construction, such as using a sand cone, and balloon
methods can also be used in soils with coarse rock
Bulk density is the mass of dry soil per unit bulk fragments or with coarse sandy soils. Rock fragments
volume. It is the oven dried weight of total material cause disturbance of core samples when using a push
per unit volume of soil, exclusive of rock fragments type core sampler.
2 mm or larger. The volume applies to the soil near
field capacity water content. To convert soil-water Soil-water profiles are a plot of soil-water content
content on a dry weight basis to volumetric basis, soil versus soil root zone depth. As a water management
bulk density must be used. Bulk density is an indicator tool, this plot visually displays available water, total
of how well plant roots are able to extend into the soil. water content, or water content at the time to irrigate
See Chapter 2, Soils, for example of conversion proce- level (fig. 9–2).
dure. Core soil samplers are most commonly used to
collect inplace density samples. Commercial samplers The rate of decrease in soil-water content is an indica-
available include the Madera sampler in which a 60 cc tion of plant water use and evaporation, which can be
sample is collected. This sampler was developed for used to determine when to irrigate and how much
use with a neutron probe. The Eley Volumeter and the to apply. This is the basic concept in scheduling
AMS core sampler are other examples. Other commer- irrigations.
cial push type core samplers use known volume re-
movable retaining cylinders. These cylinders contain
the core samples.
Table 9–1 Available water capacity for various soil Figure 9–2 Soil-water content versus depth
textures
Curve number
Soil texture Estimated AWC
1 3 4 2
in/in in/ft 0
Sand to fine sand 0.04 0.5

1
Loamy sand to loamy fine sand 0.08 1.0
Loamy fine sands, loamy very fine 0.10 1.2
Soil depth (feet)
sands, fine sands, very fine sands 2

Available moisture
Sandy loam, fine sandy loam 0.13 1.6

Wilting point (estimated)
Very fine sandy loam, silt loam, silt 0.17 2.0

Field capacity (estimated)
Clay loam, sandy clay loam, 0.18 2.2 3

silty clay loam
Sandy clay, silty clay, clay 0.17 2.0
4
5
0 1 2 3 4 5
Soil moisture (inches/foot)

Irrigation Guide
An interpretation of data that soil moisture curves 1 to 10. Readings represent different specific soil-water
through 4 on figure 9–2 represent includes: content depending on soil type. Most devices that
• Curve #1—This curve shows the upper 6 inches indicate relative values are difficult to calibrate to
of the soil profile is below wilting point. Shallow relate to specific quantitative values. A calibration
rooted plants are excessively stressed. Below a curve for each specific kind of soil and soil-water
depth of 12 inches, soil moisture is still ample at content (tension) should be available with the device
50 percent. If it is desirable to maintain soil or needs to be developed.
moisture at 50 percent of total available moisture
or higher (i.e., for plants with less than 10 inches If the irrigator is only interested in knowing when to
rooting depth), it is time to irrigate, maybe even a irrigate, a specific indicated value on the gauge or
little late to maintain optimum growth condi- meter may be sufficient. The manufacturer may pro-
tions. Deeper rooted plants are still drawing vide this information either prebuilt into the device or
moisture from below a depth of 12 inches. with separate calibration curves. Irrigators must know
• Curve #2—This curve represents what soil mois- what number (value) on the meter represents what
ture may be a day or two after an irrigation. The approximate soil-water content level for their field and
lower part of the soil profile did not reach field soils. They then must associate a specific number on
capacity. However, this situation may be desir- the gauge to when irrigation is needed for each soil
able for crops with less than 25-inch rooting texture. Irrigation system design and water manage-
depth. For deeper rooted crops, additional water ment planning provide the how much to apply. Ex-
should have been applied. ample worksheets are provided in Chapter 15, Plan-
• Curve #3—This curve represents moisture with- ning and Evaluation Tools.
drawal from shallow rooted plants. There is
ample moisture below 12 inches. A light applica- (1) Methods and devices to measure or esti-
tion of water, to 12 inches depth, is needed for mate soil-water content
shallow rooted plants. A heavy application of (i) Soil feel and appearance method—This
water could put excess water below the crop method is easy to implement and with experience can
root zone. be accurate. Soil samples are collected in the field at
• Curve #4—This curve represents what soil mois- desired depths, typically at 6 inch increments. Samples
ture may be a day or two after an irrigation. The are compared to tables or pictures that give moisture
soil profile below a depth of 12 inches is nearly characteristics of different soil textures in terms of
at field capacity, indicating a good irrigation feel and appearance. With practice, estimates can be
application to approximately a 4-foot depth. obtained within 10 percent of actual. Typically the
Water is probably still moving downward. irrigation decisionmaker needs to learn only a few
soils and textures.
(b) Measuring soil-water content Exhibit 9–1 displays the identification of soils and
corresponding available water content when using feel
To measure soil-water content change for the purpose and appearance method for determining soil-water
of scheduling irrigation, several site locations in each content. The NRCS color publication, Estimating Soil
field and each horizon (or if homogenous at 6 inch Moisture by Feel and Appearance, is reproduced in
depth increments) at the site (test hole) should be chapter 15. Figure 9–3 is an example worksheet for
sampled. Quite often, the experienced irrigation determining soil-water deficient (SWD) in the soil
decisionmaker calibrates available soil water in the profile.
soil profile relative to one sample at a specific depth.
Multiple sites in a field are used to improve confidence Every operation can afford tools necessary to use this
in determining when and how much water to apply. method of soil-water determination. Tools required are
a push type core sampler, auger, or shovel. Care
Most commercial soil-water content measuring de- should be taken to not mix soil layers when sampling.
vices provide a numerical measurement range. This Example forms for recording field data and calculating
measurement range is an indication of relative water depleted or available soil-water content are in chapter
content. The range might be 0 to 100 percent AWC or 0 15.

Irrigation Guide
Exhibit 9–1 Guide for estimating soil moisture conditions using the feel and appearance method
Available Coarse texture Moderately coarse texture Medium texture Fine texture
soil fine sand, sandy loam, sandy clay loam, clay loam,
moisture loamy fine sand fine sandy loam loam, silt loam silty clay loam
(%) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Available water capacity (in/ft) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.6 – 1.2 1.3 – 1.7 1.5 – 2.1 1.6 – 2.4
0 – 25 Dry, loose, will hold Dry, forms a very Dry, soil aggregations Dry, soil aggrega-
together if not dis- weak ball 1/, aggregated break away easily, no tions easily sepa-
turbed, loose sand soil grains break away moisture staining on rate, clods are hard
grains on fingers easily from ball fingers, clods crumble to crumble with
with applied pressure applied pressure
25 – 50 Slightly moist, forms a Slightly moist, forms a Slightly moist, forms a Slightly moist,
very weak ball with well weak ball with defined weak ball with rough forms a weak ball,
defined finger marks, finger marks, darkened surfaces, no water very few soil aggre-
light coating of loose and color, no water staining on fingers gations break away,
aggregated sand grains staining on fingers few aggregated soil no water stains,
remain on fingers grains break away pressure clods flatten with
applied
50 – 75 Moist, forms a weak Moist, forms a ball with Moist, forms a ball, Moist, forms a
ball with loose and defined finger marks, very light water stain- smooth ball with
aggregated sand grains very light soil water ing on fingers, dark- defined finger
remain on fingers, dark- staining on fingers, ened color, pliable, marks, light soil
ened color, heavy water darkened color, will forms a weak ribbon water staining on
staining on fingers, will not slick between thumb and fingers, ribbons
not ribbon 2/ forefinger between thumb and
forefinger
75 – 100 Wet, forms a weak ball, Wet, forms a ball with Wet, forms a ball with Wet, forms a ball,
loose and aggregated wet outline left on hand, well defined finger uneven medium to
sand grains remain on light to medium water marks, light to heavy heavy soil water
fingers, darkened color, staining on fingers, soil water coating on coating on fingers,
heavy water staining makes a weak ribbon fingers, ribbons ribbons easily
on fingers, will not between thumb and between thumb and between thumb and
ribbon forefinger forefinger forefinger
Field Wet, forms a weak ball, Wet, forms a soft ball, Wet, forms a soft ball, Wet, forms a soft
capacity light to heavy soil free water appears briefly free water appears ball, free water
(100%) water coating on on soil surface after briefly on soil surface appears on soil
fingers, wet outline squeezing or shaking, after squeezing or surface after squeez-
of soft ball remains medium to heavy soil shaking, medium to ing or shaking, thick
on hand water coating on fingers heavy soil water soil water coating
coating on fingers on fingers, slick and
sticky
1/ Ball is formed by squeezing a hand full of soil very firmly with one hand.
2/ Ribbon is formed by when soil is squeezed out of hand between thumb and forefinger.

Irrigation Guide
Figure 9–3 Available soil-water holding worksheet (feel and appearance)
U.S. Department of Agriculture

Natural Resources Conservation Service Soil Water Holding Worksheet
Field ________________________________ Location in field _____________________________________

Year _________________________ By ___________________________________
Crop ___________________________________________________________________________________
Planting data _________________________________ Emergence data _________________________
Soil name if available ______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Season
Factor 1st 30 days Remainder of season
Root zone depth or max soil depth - ft
Available water capacity AWC - in
Management allowed deficit MAD - %
Management allowed deficit MAD - in
(Note: Irrigate prior to the time that SWD is equal to or greater than MAD - in)
Estimated irrigation system application efficiency ____________________ percent

Data obtained during first field check Data obtained each check
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
Soil Available AWC Field Soil Soil
Depth layer Soil water in check water water
range thickness texture capacity soil number deficit deficit
(AWC) layer (SWD) (SWD)
(in) (in) (in/in) (in) (%) (in)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Total AWC for root zone depth of ________ ft= ________ SWD summary
Total AWC for root zone depth of ________ ft= Check Check SWD
number date totals
1
2
AWC(5) = layer thickness(2) x AWC(4) 3
4
5
SWD(8) = AWC(5) x SWD(7) 6
100 7
8

Irrigation Guide
(ii) Gravimetric or oven dry method—Soil (iii) Carbide soil moisture tester—A carbide soil
samples are collected in the field at desired depths moisture tester (sometimes called Speedy Moisture
using a core sampler or auger. Care must be taken to Tester) can provide percent water content of soil
protect soil samples from drying before they are samples in the field; however, practice is necessary to
weighed. Samples are taken to the office work room, provide satisfactory and consistent results. The tester
weighed (wet weight), ovendried, and weighed again is commercially available. Typically, a 26-gram soil
(dry weight). An electric oven takes 24 hours at 105 sample and a measure of calcium carbide are placed in
degrees Celsius to adequately remove soil water. A the air tight container. Some models use a 13-gram
microwave oven takes a few minutes. Excessive high sample. When calcium carbide comes in contact with
temperatures can degrade the soil sample by burning water in the soil, a gas (oxy-acetylene, C2H2) develops.
organic material. The drying oven can exhaust mois- As the reaction takes place, the gas develops a pres-
ture from several samples at one time, but the micro- sure in the small air tight container. The amount of gas
wave typically dries only one or two samples at a time. developed is related to amount of water in the soil
Percentage of total soil-water content on a dry weight sample (providing excess carbide is present).
basis is computed. To convert to a volumetric basis,
the percentage water content is multiplied by the soil Caution: If inadequate carbide is available to react
bulk density. Available soil water is calculated by with all of the water, indicated moisture content is
subtracting percent total soil water at wilting point. low. The higher the water content, the higher the
pressure. The tester provides a gauge that reads per-
Tools required to use this method are a core sampler cent soil-water content on a wet-weight basis. A stan-
or auger, soil sample containers (airtight plastic bags dard chart is available to convert percent soil-water
or soil sample tins with tight lids), weighing scales, content from wet weight basis to dry weight basis.
and a drying oven. Soil moisture will condense inside Figure 9–4 displays an example worksheet for deter-
plastic bags, when used. This is part of the total soil mining soil-water content of the soil profile. The
moisture in the sample and must be accounted for in worksheet shown in figure 9–5 can help determine soil
the weighing and drying operation. Standard electric moisture and bulk density using the Eley volumeter
soils drying ovens are commercially available. A much and carbide moisture tester. Table 9–2 displays oven
shorter drying time can be used with a microwave dry moisture content, Pd, based on meter gauge read-
oven or infrared heat lamp, but samples need to be ing, WP. This instrument measures total water held in
turned and weighed several times during drying to the soil sample. To obtain AWC, subtract water held at
check water loss. Samples should be allowed to cool WP.
before weighing. These drying procedures are more
labor intensive than using a standard drying oven at
105 degrees Celsius. Figure 9–4 displays an example
worksheet for determining soil-water content of the
soil profile.

Chapter 9
Figure 9–4 Soil-water content worksheet (gravimetric method)
U.S. Department of Agriculture Worksheet

Natural Resources Conservation Service Soil-Water Content
(Gravimetric Method)
Land user____________________________________________________ Date ___________________ Field office ___________________________________________________

Taken by _____________________________________________ Field name/number ____________________________________________________________________________
Soil name (if available) ____________________________________________________ Crop _____________________________ Maximum effective root depth ______________ ft
Soil Sample Net Volume Moisture Soil- Layer

layer Wet Dry Water Tare dry of per- Bulk water water
Depth thickness weight weight loss weight weight sample centage density content content
range inches Soil g g g g g cc % g/cc in/in inches
inches d texture WW DW Ww Tw Dw Vol Pd Dbd SWC TSWC
Irrigation Water Management

(210-vi-NEH, September 1997)
Irrigation Guide
Part 652
Dry weight (Dw) of soil = DW - TW = ________g Weight of water lost (Ww) = WW - DW = ________g Bulk density (Dbd) = Dw(g) = ________g/cc
Vol (cc)
Percent water content, dry weight Pd = Ww x 100 = ________% Soil-water content (SWC) = Dbd x Pd = ________in/in
Dw 100 x 1
Total soil-water content in the layer (TSWC) = SWC x d = ________inches

9–11
9–12
Chapter 9
Figure 9–5 Determination of soil moisture and bulk density using Eley volumeter and Speedy moisture tester
U.S. Department of Agriculture Determination of Soil Moisture and Bulk Density (dry)
Natural Resources Conservation Service Using Eley Volumeter and Carbide Moisture Tester
Farm ____________________________________________ Location ________________________________ SWCD ________________________________________________

Crop _____________________________________________ Soil type ______________________ Date _____________ Tested by _____________________________________
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13)
Volumeter
Texture Thickness Bulk Soil- Soil- Soil-

of Reading Reading Volume % % % % density water water water
layer before after (cc) Wet Dry Wilting Soil- (g/cc) content content deficit
(cc) (cc) wt. wt. point water (in) at (in)
field
capacity
d V Wp Pd Pw SWCp Dbd SWC AWC SWD
Irrigation Guide
Part 652
Wet weight of all samples in grams unless otherwise shown. Totals
Dbd = 26 SWC = Dbd x SWCp x d SWCp = Pd - Pw

V(1 + Pd) 100 x 1
100
Irrigation Guide
Table 9–2 Oven dry moisture content based on 3-minute carbide moisture tester readings
Gauge - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Oven dry moisture, Pd (%) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

reading 1/ 0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9
2 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9
3 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9
4 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9
5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.7 5.8 5.9 6.0 6.1
6 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.8 6.9 7.0 7.1 7.2
7 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.9 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3
8 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4
9 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5
10 10.6 10.7 10.8 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.6 11.7
11 11.8 11.9 12.0 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.8 12.9
12 13.0 13.1 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.7 13.8 13.9 14.0 14.2
13 14.3 14.4 14.6 14.7 14.8 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.5
14 15.6 15.7 15.9 16.0 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.6 16.7 16.9
15 17.0 17.1 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.7 17.8 17.9 18.0 18.2
16 18.3 18.4 18.6 18.7 18.9 19.0 19.1 19.3 19.4 19.6
17 19.7 19.8 20.0 20.1 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.7 20.8 21.0
18 21.1 21.3 21.4 21.6 21.7 21.9 22.0 22.2 22.3 22.5
19 22.6 22.8 22.9 23.1 23.2 23.4 23.5 23.7 23.8 24.0
20 24.1 24.3 24.4 24.6 24.7 24.9 25.0 25.2 25.3 25.5
21 25.6 25.8 25.9 26.1 26.2 26.4 26.5 26.7 26.8 27.0
22 27.1 27.3 27.4 27.6 27.7 27.9 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.5
23 28.6 28.8 28.9 29.1 29.2 29.4 29.6 29.7 29.9 30.0
24 30.2 30.4 30.5 30.7 30.8 31.0 31.1 31.3 31.4 31.6
25 31.7 31.9 32.0 32.2 32.3 32.5 32.7 32.8 33.0 33.1
26 33.3 33.5 33.6 33.8 33.9 34.1 34.3 34.4 34.6 34.7
27 34.9 35.1 35.2 35.4 35.5 35.7 35.9 36.0 36.2 36.3
28 36.5 36.7 36.8 37.0 37.1 37.3 34.5 37.6 37.8 37.9
29 38.1 38.3 38.4 38.6 38.8 39.0 39.1 39.3 39.5 39.6
30 39.8 40.0 40.1 40.3 40.5 40.7 40.8 41.0 41.2 41.3
31 41.5 41.7 41.8 42.0 42.2 42.4 42.5 42.7 42.9 43.0
32 43.2 43.4 43.5 43.7 43.8 44.0 44.2 44.3 44.5 44.6
33 44.8 45.0 45.1 45.3 45.5 45.7 45.8 46.0 46.2 46.3
1/ Carbide moisture tester—3-minute readings = Wp

Irrigation Guide
(iv) Tensiometers (moisture stake)—Soil-water When installing tensiometers, make a heavy paste
potential (tension) is a measure of the amount of from part of the soil removed at the depth the ceramic
energy with which water is held in the soil. Tensiom- tip is to be placed. When the hole has been augured
eters are water filled tubes with hollow ceramic tips about 2 inches below the desired depth of the ceramic
attached on the lower end and a vacuum gauge on the tip, the paste is placed in the hole. As you install the
upper end. The container is air tight at the upper end. tensiometer tube, move the tube up and down a few
The device is installed in the soil with the ceramic tip times to help assure good soil paste contact with the
in contact with the soil at the desired depth. The water ceramic tip. Do not handle or touch the ceramic tip as
in the tensiometer comes to equilibrium with soil contamination from material and body oil on the
water surrounding the ceramic tip. Water is pulled out hands affects water tension on the tip. If the soil is wet
of the ceramic tip by soil-water potential (tension) as at the desired ceramic tip depth, tensiometers can be
soil water is used by plants. This creates a negative installed by driving a rod or 0.5-inch diameter galva-
pressure (vacuum) in the tube that is indicated on the nized iron pipe to the desired depth. The end of the
vacuum gauge. When the soil is rewetted, the tension driving rod should be shaped the same as, but slightly
gradient reduces, causing water to flow from the soil smaller than the tensiometer tip. Pour a little water in
into the ceramic tip. the hole, move the driving rod up and down a few
times to develop a soil paste at the bottom of the hole.
The range of tension created by this devise is 0 to 100 Insert tensiometer tube, move the tube up and down a
centibars (0 to 1 atmospheres). Near 0 centibars is few times to help assure good soil paste contact with
considered field capacity, or near 0 soil water tension. the ceramic tip.
Practical operating range is 0 to 80 centibars. The
upper limit of 80 centibars corresponds to about: 90 Tensiometers installed at different rooting depths have
percent AWC depletion for a sandy soil and about 30 different gauge readings because of soil water poten-
percent AWC depletion for medium to fine textured tial change in rooting depths. With uniform deep soil,
soils. This limits the practical use of tensiometers to about 70 to 80 percent of soil moisture withdrawal by
medium to fine textured soils with high frequency plant roots is in the upper half of the rooting depth.
irrigation or where soil-water content is maintained at Recommended depths for setting tensiometers are
high levels. Tensiometers break suction if improperly given in table 9–3.
installed and if the soil-water tension exceeds practi-
cal operating limits, typically 80 to 85 centibars. Once
vacuum is broken, the tube must be refilled with water Table 9–3 Recommended depths for setting tensiometers
and the air removed by using a small hand-operated
vacuum pump. A period to establish tensiometer-soil-
water stability follows. Plant root Shallow Deep
zone depth tensiometer tensiometer
(in) (in) (in)
Tensiometers require careful installation, and mainte-
nance is required for reliable results. They must also
be protected against freeze damage. Maintenance kits 18 8 12
that include a hand vacuum pump are required for 24 12 18
servicing tensiometers. The hand pump is used to
draw out air bubbles from the tensiometer and provide 36 12 24
an equilibrium in tension. Tensiometers should be > 48 18 36
installed in pairs at each site, at one-third and two-
thirds of the crop rooting depth. A small diameter
auger (or half-inch steel water pipe) is required for
making a hole to insert the tensiometer. Figure 9–6
shows a tensiometer and gauge and illustrates installa-
tion and vacuum pump servicing. Tensiometers are
commercially and readily available at a reasonable
cost.

Irrigation Guide
Figure 9–6 Tensiometer, installation, gauge, and servicing
Vacuum
gauge
Soil line
Water-filled
tube
Drive shaped rod

to exact depth of
ceramic tip, or auger
Porous hole and use soil
ceramic paste.
tip
Installation procedure
12 15
9 40 50 18
30 60
6 IRRIGATION
21
20 RANGE 70
ET
DR
W
3
10 80 24
NEAR LIMIT
0 0 SATURATION
90 27
100
30
C E N TIB A R S
IN C
H E S O F M E R C U RY
Vacuum gauge Servicing tensiometer using

a vacuum pump

Irrigation Guide
(v) Electrical resistance (porous) blocks— Handling or touching the electrical resistance block
Electrical resistance blocks are made of material may affect soil moisture readings. With the electrical
where water moves readily into and out of the block. resistance block carefully held on the end of the dowel
Materials are typically gypsum, ceramic, nylon, plastic, by the wires, place the block in the hole at the desired
or fiberglass. When buried and in close contact with depth with a slight up and down movement to help
the surrounding soil, water in the block comes to assure soil paste contact with the block. Check for
water tension equilibrium with the surrounding soil. broken wires with an electric meter. Hold the electric
Once equilibrium is reached, different properties of wires along the side of the hole and carefully fill the
the block affected by its water content can be mea- hole with soil. Soil should be replaced by layers. It
sured. Electrical resistance blocks work best between should be from the same layer from which it was
0 and 2 atmospheres (bars). Thus, they have a wider removed. Repeat soil paste and block procedure at
operating range than do tensiometers, but are still each electrical resistance block depth.
limited to medium to coarse textured soils.
When electrical resistance blocks are located properly,
Electrical resistance blocks are buried in the soil at almost anyone can obtain readings. One person with a
desired depths. Intimate contact by the soil is essen- meter can provide readings for many field test sites.
tial. With porous blocks, electrical resistance is mea- Where farms are small, neighbors can share a single
sured across the block using electrodes encased in the meter. Following each reading a report is developed
block. Electrical resistance is affected by the water and given to each farm irrigation decisionmaker. The
content of the block, which is a function of the soil- irrigation decisionmaker must learn to interpret meter
water tension. Electrical resistance is measured with readings to decide the right time to irrigate.
an ohm meter calibrated to provide numerical read-
ings for the specific type of block. Higher resistance Electrical resistance blocks and resistance meters
readings mean lower water content, thus higher soil- (battery powered) are commercially and readily avail-
water tension. Lower resistance readings indicate able. Table 9–4 displays interpretations of readings
higher water content and lower soil-water tension. from a typical electrical resistance meter.
Gypsum blocks are affected by soil salinity, which (vi) Thermal dissipation blocks—These blocks
cause misleading readings, and are prone to break- are porous ceramic materials in which a small heater
down in sodic soils. They are best suited to medium and temperature sensors are imbedded. This allows
and fine texture soils. Being made of gypsum, the measurement of the thermal dissipation of the block,
blocks slowly dissolve with time in any soil. The rate is or the rate at which heat is conducted away from the
dependent upon pH and soil-water quality. Freezing heater. This property is directly related to the water
does not seem to affect them. Blocks made from other content of the block and thus soil-water content.
material do not dissolve; therefore, have a longer life. Thermal dissipation blocks must be individually cali-
Electrical resistance blocks are relatively low cost and brated. They are sensitive to soil-water content across
with reasonable care are easy to install. Close contact a wide range. Meter readings can be used directly, or
with soil is important. translated using manufacturer’s charts to soil-water
tension. Specific meters are to be used with specific
Installation tools required are a small diameter auger type of blocks.
for making a hole for inserting blocks, a wooden
dowel to insert blocks, and water and a container for
mixing soil paste. (Multiple electrical resistance
blocks can be installed in the same auger hole.) After
the hole has been augured to about 2 inches below the
deepest block installation depth, a soil paste is made
from removed soil and placed about 6 inches deep in
the bottom of the hole. Wet resistance block with
clean water.

Irrigation Guide
(vii) Neutron scattering—A neutron gauge esti- to the volumetric soil-water content in a sphere rang-
mates the total amount of water in a volume of soil by ing from 6 to 16 inches. A higher count indicates
measuring the amount of hydrogen molecules in the higher soil-water content, and a lower count indicates
soil. Hydrogen is a key element in water (i.e., H2O). lower soil-water content.
The device is commonly called a neutron probe. The
probe itself consists of a radioactive source that emits When properly calibrated and operated, the neutron
(scatters) high energy neutrons and a slow speed gauge can be the most accurate and most repeatable
neutron detector housed in a unit that is lowered into method of measuring soil-water content. When plot-
a permanent access tube installed in the soil. The ted, count versus soil-water content is a linear rela-
probe is connected by a cable to a control unit (neu- tionship. The gauge as it comes from the manufacturer
tron gauge) remaining at the surface. The control unit is calibrated to a general kind of soil (medium texture)
includes electronics for time control, a neutron and to a medium soil bulk density. A microprocessor
counter, memory, and other electronics for processing calculates soil-water content in acre-inches or percent,
readings. dry weight basis. However, the gauge must be cali-
brated for inplace soils and type of access tube mate-
Fast neutrons, emitted from the source and passing rial being used; i.e., PVC, aluminum, or steel. Calibra-
through the access tube into the surrounding soil, tion is done using gravimetric sampling procedures.
gradually lose their energy (and speed) through colli- Also, for any soil texture other than what the device
sions with hydrogen molecules. The result is a mass of was calibrated to by the manufacturer, or with widely
slowed or thermalized neutrons, some of which diffuse varying bulk density, the device must be recalibrated.
back to the detector. The detector physically counts This is a time consuming process in layered soils on
returned neutrons. The number of slow neutrons alluvial sites where the texture and bulk density vary
counted in a specific interval of time is directly related widely. Recalibration is generally not necessary in
medium textured, medium bulk density, uniform soils.
Table 9–4 Interpretations of readings on typical electrical resistance meter
Soil water Meter Interpretation

condition readings 1/
(0 – 200 scale)
Nearly saturated 180 – 200 Near saturated soil often occurs for a few hours following an irrigation.
Danger of water logged soils, a high water table, or poor soil aeration if
readings persists for several days.
Field capacity 170 – 180 Excess water has mostly drained out. No need to irrigate. Any irrigation
would move nutrients below irrigation depth (root zone).
Irrigation range 80 – 120 Usual range for starting irrigations. Soil aeration is assured in this range.
Starting irrigations in this range generally ensures maintaining readily
available soil water at all times.
Dry < 80 This is the stress range; however, crop may not be necessarily damaged or
yield reduced. Some soil water is available for plant use, but is getting
dangerously low.
1/ Indicative of soil-water condition where the block is located. Judgment should be used to correlate these readings to general crop conditions
throughout the field. It should be noted, the more sites measured, the more area represented by the measurements.

Irrigation Guide
The total volumetric soil-water content reading • Small square of canvas

(count) of the neutron gauge should be translated into • Tool box containing a variety of tools
available soil-water content (AWC). Field capacity and • Film badges for everyone involved
wilting point levels must be known. It is more conve-
nient if field measurements could be taken near those (vii) Diaelectric constant method—The diaelectric
soil-water content levels. The neutron gauge method is constant of material is a measure of the capacity of a
highly accurate (1 to 2 percent of actual) if properly nonconducting material to transmit high frequency
operated and adequately calibrated except: electromagnetic waves or pulses. The diaelectric
• in the upper 6 inches of soil profile where fast constant of a dry soil is between 2 and 5. The diaelec-
neutrons tend to escape above the soil surface; tric constant of water is 80 at frequency range of 30
• in high clay content soil that contain tightly MHz – 1 GHz. Relatively small changes in the quantity
bound hydrogen ions that are not reflected in the of free water in the soil have large effects on the
detecting process; electromagnetic properties of the soil-water media.
• in soil with high organic matter content; and Two approaches developed for measuring the
• in soil containing boron ions. diaelectric constant of the soil-water media (water
content by volume) are time domain reflectometry
These soil conditions all require recalibration of the (TDR) and frequency domain reflectometry (FDR).
gauge. Chapter 15 contains example worksheets,
typical calibration curves, and sample displays for soil- For TDR technology used in measuring soil-water
water content by depth relationships. content, the device propagates a high frequency trans-
verse electromagnetic wave along a cable attached to
Because a neutron gauge contains a radiation source parallel conducting probes inserted into the soil. A
and is a potential safety hazard to a technician using a TDR soil measurement system measures the average
gauge, special licensing, operator training, handling, volumetric soil-water percentage along the length of a
shipping, and storage are required. The wearing of a wave guide. Wave guides (parallel pair) must be care-
radioactive detecting film badge is required by all fully installed in the soil with complete soil contact
technicians when handling and using a neutron gauge. along their entire length, and the guides must remain
The use of a neutron gauge is not to be taken lightly. parallel. Minimum soil disturbance is required when
NRCS operates under a site license held by the USDA inserting probes. This is difficult when using the
Agricultural Research Service. Inspections of storage device as a portable device. The device must be prop-
facilities are made periodically. Disposal of old neu- erly installed and calibrated. Differing soil texture,
tron probes (radioactive source) is strictly controlled bulk density, and salinity do not appear to affect the
by U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). diaelectric constant.
A neutron probe is recommended for large farms or FDR approaches to measurement of soil-water content
farm groups where use efficiency and accuracy can are also known as radio frequency (RF) capacitance
justify high initial cost, maintenance, and operating technique. This technique actually measures soil
under NRC requirements. capacitance. A pair of electrodes is inserted into the
soil. The soil acts as the diaelectric completing a
Tools needed are: capacitance circuit, which is part of a feedback loop of
• Approved storage facility for the probe at the a high frequency transistor oscillator. The soil capaci-
workshop and in the vehicle tance is related to the diaelectric constant by the
• Small diameter soil auger geometry of the electric field established around the
• Soil bulk density sampler electrodes. Changes in soil-water content cause a shift
• Watertight access tubes that fit snugly against in frequency. University and ARS comparison tests
the soil have indicated that, as soil salinity increases, sensor
• Gravimetric soil sampling equipment (core moisture values were positively skewed, which sug-
sampler, auger, sample bags, weighing scales, gests readings were wetter than actual condition.
drying oven) for calibration
• Neutron gauge

Irrigation Guide
FDR devices commercially available include: Other electronic sensors—Numerous sensors are
commercially available using microelectronics. Inex-
Portable hand-push probes—These probes allow pensive devices sold at flower and garden shops
rapid, easy, but only qualitative readings of soil-water measure the electrical voltage generated when two
content. Probe use is difficult in drier soil of any dissimilar metals incorporated into the tip are placed
texture, soils with coarse fragments, or soils with in an electrolyte solution; i.e., the soil water. Most of
hardpans. A pilot hole may need to be made using an these devices are sensitive to salt content in the soil-
auger. The probe provides an analog, color-coded dial water solution.
gauge (for three soil types—sand, loam, and clay), or a
digital readout. The volume of soil measured is rela- Factors to be evaluated for the selection and applica-
tively small (a cylinder 4 inches tall by 1 inch in diam- tion of a soil-water content measuring program in-
eter). Several sites in a field should be measured, and clude:
can be, because probes are rapid and easy to use. • Initial cost of device, appurtenances, special
Proper soil/probe tip contact is essential for accurate tools, and training
and consistent readings. • Irrigation decisionmaker's skill, personal
interest, and labor availability
Portable device that uses an access tube similar to a • Field site setup, ease of use and technical skill
neutron gauge—The probe suspended on a cable is requirements
centered in an access tube at predetermined depths • Repeatable readings and calibration requirement
where the natural resonant frequency or frequency • Interpretations of readings—qualitative and
shift between the emitted and received frequency is quantitative needs
measured by the probe. The standard access tube is • Accuracy desired and accuracy of device
2-inch diameter schedule 40 PVC pipe. Installation of • Operation and maintenance costs
the access tube requires extreme care to ensure a snug • Special considerations including licensing from
fit between the tube and the surrounding soil. Air gaps NRC (private individuals do not operate under
or soil cracks between the tube and soil induce error. ARS licensing), storage, handling, film badge use,
training required, disposal of radioactive devices,
The device is calibrated by the manufacturer to sand and special tools required for access tube instal-
and to an average bulk density for sand. Recalibration lation
is required for any other soil texture and differing bulk
density. The volume of soil measured is not texture or
water content dependent, and approximates a cylinder (c) Crops
4 inches tall and 10 inches in diameter. Accuracy can
be good in some soils with proper installation and Crop characteristics are important for the irrigation
calibration, and there are no radioactive hazards to planner and decisionmaker to know. Those character-
personnel such as when using a neutron gauge. Proper istics necessary for implementing a proper irrigation
installation of the access tube is essential and can be water management program include purpose of crop,
quite time consuming. Accuracy of data is largely crop evapotranspiration, critical growth periods, and
dependent on having a tight, complete contact be- root development.
tween the access tube and the surrounding soil. Before
making a large investment in equipment, it is highly (1) Crop evapotranspiration
recommended that adequate research be done on Crop evapotranspiration (ETc) is the amount of water
comparison evaluations that are in process by various used by the crop in transpiration building of plant
universities and the ARS. Good sources of information tissue and evaporated from the soil or plant foliage
are technical papers and proceedings of ASAE, ASCE, surface. It is determined by using local climatic factors
and Soil Science Society of America, as well as direct and stage of growth. Several equations can be used
discussion with personnel doing evaluations. depending on climate data availability and degree of
intensity of IWM program. ETc provides one of the key
ingredients in scheduling irrigations; i.e., how much
water the crop uses or is projected to use.

Irrigation Guide
(2) Critical growth periods (i) Crop Water Stress Index (CWSI)—The crop
Plants generally need sufficient moisture throughout water stress gun measures plant canopy (foliage),
the growing season. Most crops are sensitive to water temperature, ambient air temperature, relative humid-
stress during one or more critical growth periods ity, and a range of solar radiation. The CWSI gun is
during their growing season. If adequate moisture is commonly mistakenly called infrared gun or IR ther-
not available during the critical period(s), irreversible mometer. In the CWSI gun a microprocessor calcu-
loss of yield or product quality results. With many fruit lates plant water stress and expresses it as an index
and fresh vegetable crops, lack of available water at from 0 to 1.0 or 0 to 10, depending upon the manufac-
critical growth periods can result in a product that turer. (The latter avoids using a decimal. Overall range
may be partly or totally unmarketable on the fresh is the same.) Threshold stress levels are developed for
market because of poor quality. See Chapter 3, Crops, each crop for determining when to irrigate. Once
for critical growth stages, and chapter 15 for IWM developed, the stress index for a specific crop appears
tools. to be usable in all climate zones and for similar crop
species. When first used in an area, it is best to affirm
(3) Root development calibration based upon local conditions. When the
Roots develop as plants grow and mature. Major canopy temperature in relation with other climate
factors controlling root development are stage of plant factors increases to a predetermined upper target
growth, usable soil depth, soil compaction, soil condi- level, the plants are considered stressed. A well wa-
tion, and amount of water in the soil. Irrigation should tered plant has relative cool foliage because of the
be planned to provide water only to the usable plant continual plant transpiration and has an index near
root zone unless leaching for salinity control is neces- zero. When plant canopy temperature reaches ambient
sary. temperature, the plant is not transpiring moisture and
is probably beyond permanent wilting point. When
Never assume a plant root zone depth. Observe and following good water management practices, the
measure the actual depth roots penetrate a soil profile irrigator can provide irrigations before upper target
by digging a shallow pit and auguring. Notice the threshold stress levels are reached.
pattern of root development in the side of the pit.
Check for roots in handfuls of augured soil. Generally Periodic soil-water content checks should be made to
2 to 4 feet of total depth is adequate. If root develop- relate plant water stress indexes and soil-water con-
ment pattern depth is overestimated, an overirrigation tent levels. Observe and measure the depth of plant
recommendation is guaranteed. Plants will show roots. Adequate soil moisture may be present below
unneeded stress between irrigations. the plant root zone. CWSI readings can be observed
over several days to predict the need for irrigation 3 to
(4) Yield (quality) versus water use relation- 5 days in advance.
ships
Most crops respond to water availability and use to This device is relatively easy to use and can provide
provide a given biomass or yield. Limited data are rapid results at varied locations in a field. Proper
available for predicting specific yield versus water use techniques for use are important. Readings can be
relationships except for a few crops. With most crops, taken when the sky is clear or overcast, but not
yield and product quality are reduced where excess clouded over. The best time is midmorning to early
water is applied. Too much water can also be detri- afternoon, and the foliage must be dry. Readings must
mental to crop yield by leaching of otherwise available be taken only of foliage, not bare soil, landscape, sky,
plant nutrients below the root zone. Water is also or other factors. Average several readings to improve
wasted. Tables or curves for several crops are in accuracy. The gun is held at least 1 meter above the
Chapter 3, Crops. crop canopy, but not more than 10 meters. Direct the
device more or less down onto the crop canopy. This
The following methods and devices are commercially creates a challenge with tall crops (corn, cotton, fruit,
available to measure plant moisture tension levels. citrus, nuts). Caution must be exercised because
They can provide indications of plant moisture stress. apparent high stress levels may be from factors other
than moisture, such as insects and disease. The user

Irrigation Guide
should be able to observe field conditions and cor- (iv) Evaporation pans—U.S. Weather Bureau Class
rectly interpret readings. Several models are commer- A evaporation pans are standard sized, opentop metal
cially available. Different crops have different target water containers. Water is evaporated from a satu-
stress levels. rated source (water body) with solar energy. Coeffi-
cients must be applied to the evaporation rate repre-
Technology exists to provide CWSI readings from senting pan coefficients and crop growth stage coeffi-
aircraft and satellite. Current limitations include cients. Nonstandard pans have been tried with varying
getting information into the hands of the irrigation degrees of success. Materials range from galvanized
decisionmaker for timely irrigation water management metal wash tubs to PVC pipe (placed vertically). The
decisions. Other uses of the CWSI gun include identifi- devices are generally calibrated to a local Class A
cation of plant stress before visual observation signs evaporation pan, and can be reasonably effective in
appear. Observing irrigation uniformity across the determining when to irrigate. Coefficients are applied
field and damage from crop insects, fungus (including to the pan evaporation rate to represent crop evapo-
root rot), and rodents are a few other uses. transpiration rate.
(ii) Leaf moisture stress (pressure chamber)— (v) Infrared photography—Aerial infrared pho-
This method involves encasing a part of the plant, such tography can show current plant condition by the
as a leaf, inside a pressure chamber, and checking the darkness of green vegetation. Red color intensity on
amount of pressure required to force the fluid stored photo prints displays dark green and lighter green
in the sample back out the stem. Nitrogen gas is typi- patterns in the vegetation. Infrared photography is a
cally used. The pressure required to reverse the flow valuable tool to visually observe local areas within an
of plant moisture is interpreted to indicate plant mois- irrigation system or field(s) that receive either insuffi-
ture tension (stress). Target tension (stress) points cient or excess irrigation water. Red color intensity
must be developed for specific plants, after which it differences can result from:
can be used as a reference for subsequent tests. Suc- • Wrong sized or plugged nozzles or broken sprin-
cess of this method depends on standardization of the kler heads giving poor distribution patterns
test protocol. It is desirable to take readings at pre- • Shallow or coarse textured soil areas
dawn. Predawn plant water tension is controlled by (inclusions)
soil-water tension, and daytime plant moisture tension • Insect, fungus, or disease damage
is controlled by climate. Plant moisture stress can be
several times higher during the heat of the day than at Some skill is required to interpret color intensity on
predawn and not be consistent at any specific time of infrared photo prints. Plant canopy (foliage) tempera-
day for each day. Sun angle, cloud cover, temperature, ture measured with a crop water stress gun may also
humidity, and wind all affect plant moisture tension be helpful.
levels during daylight hours.
(vi) Visual—Observation of plant condition is too
(iii) Evaporimeter (atmometer)—An evaporimeter often the only basis used for determining when a crop
consists of a flat, porous ceramic disk (Bellani plate) needs irrigated. By the time leaf color or degree of curl
in which water is drawn up by capillary action as indicates the need of water, the plant generally is
water is evaporated from the disk. It is used to directly overstressed and yield and product quality are nega-
estimate crop evapotranspiration rate. Several com- tively affected. However, certain crops can be stressed
mercial models can be easily installed near the edge of at noncritical growth stages with little effect on yield.
a field or on a roadway in a field. (The unit must be Some well-watered crops normally show visual signs
located far enough into the field to avoid field bound- of stress at or following solar noon on hot days.
ary effects.) One commercial model provides a green Overirrigation, especially early in the growing season,
canvas-like material covering the ceramic disc to limits plant root development volume and depth,
simulate crop leaf color. Reasonably good correlation which limits the volume of soil containing water
has been found between field measurements and that available for plant use. Often adequate soil water
calculated from Penman-type equations. Small differ- exists below existing plant root systems, but roots
ence in evaporation rates may be found between cannot grow rapidly enough to obtain adequate mois-
individual meters. Maintaining water levels and re- ture to maintain plant evapotranspiration and growth.
moval for freeze protection are necessary.
Irrigation Guide
Some irrigation decisionmakers randomly locate (or

plant small areas in critical locations) a plant that 652.0903 Irrigation
shows moisture stress before the main crop. Corn is
often used as a moisture stress indicator plant because scheduling
it shows stress several days before many other crops.
Many other indicator plants can be used. See Chapter
3, Crops. (a) General
Irrigation scheduling is that part of proper irrigation
water management involving the decision, when to
(d) Upward water movement irrigate and how much water to apply. Scheduling
(upflux) tools provide information that irrigation decision-
makers can use to develop irrigation strategies for
When a water table exists close to the root zone, crops
each field on the farm. Such strategies may be based
extract water from the capillary fringe or water mov-
on long-term data, representing average conditions, or
ing upward (upflux) into the crop root zone. The rate
may be developed as the season progresses, using real
of upward flow depends primarily on the depth to the
time information and short-time predictions. In both
water table and soil texture. See Chapter 6, Irrigation
cases information about the crop, soil, climate, irriga-
System Design, for additional discussion.
tion system, water deliveries, and management objec-
tives must be considered to tailor irrigation scheduling
procedures to a specific irrigation decisionmaker and
field condition. An irrigation scheduling tool needs
only be accurate enough to make the decision when
and how much to irrigate.
The need for proper irrigation water management,

including irrigation scheduling, can best be demon-
strated by identifying physical effects. To be most
effective, identify the physical effects the irrigation
decisionmaker is most concerned about, then show
how proper irrigation water management will affect
the concerns. The concerns include:
• Energy cost per season (fuel or electricity)
• Irrigation labor (kind of labor, timing, and
amount)
• Wear and tear on irrigation equipment
• Plant response (yield) compared to potential
• Quality of product or crop
• Amount of irrigation water used
• Soil condition
• Plant response to fertilizer used
• Water quality onsite or offsite
Modern scheduling is based on soil-water balance or

crop-water balance for one or more points in the field.
By measuring existing and estimating future soil-water
content or monitoring crop-water stress level, irriga-
tion water can be applied before damaging crop stress
occurs. Scheduling irrigation involves forecasting of
crop water use rates to anticipate future water needs.

Irrigation Guide
Figure 9–7 displays a flowchart for an irrigation sched- All these factors must be taken into account when
uling process that uses soil-water content monitoring determining what irrigation scheduling procedure will
as the crop-water use indicator. Other techniques used be best suited to a water user. A good rule to follow,
to monitor current crop condition, such as infrared keep it simple and easy to understand, even when
photography and leaf and plant moisture stress level a computer system is used. Adaptation requires main-
index typically do not include a continual monitoring taining the risk perceived equal to or less than the
of soil-water content. Periodic checking of soil mois- current way irrigation water is being scheduled.
ture status is generally sufficient to validate or update
scheduling model.
(b) Irrigation scheduling methods
The producer's management objective must be consid-
ered when developing a scheduling program. Maximiz- Irrigations can be scheduled using methods varying
ing net return is a common objective; other objectives from simple soil water monitoring using the feel and
may be to minimize irrigation costs, maximize yield, appearance method to sophisticated computer as-
use less water, minimize ground water and down- sisted programs that predict plant growth. Scheduling
stream surface water pollution, optimize production involves continual updating of field information and
from a limited water supply, use less energy for pump- forecasting future irrigation dates and amounts.
ing, or to improve product quality.
Crop yield and quality can be improved with most
Several scheduling techniques and levels of sophistica- plants by maintaining lower soil-water tensions
tion can be applied to track the amount of soil water in (higher moisture levels). Thus, it is wise to irrigate
the crop root zone and crop water use. In some loca- when the soil profile can hold a full irrigation. Waiting
tions crop water use information is made available via until a predetermined percent of soil AWC is used can
newspapers, telephone call-in, television, or by com- cause unnecessary stress.
puter modem systems. All irrigation scheduling pro-
grams should account for rainfall measured at the field (1) Soil and crop monitoring methods
site. Because of the spatial variation in rainfall, Some scheduling practices are based solely on moni-
amount recorded at the farmstead or in town often toring soil-water content or crop water use. Irrigations
does not represent precipitation at the field site. With are needed when the soil-water content or crop water
precipitation (usually rainfall) at the field site known, use reaches predetermined critical levels. Soil-water
accuracy for scheduling irrigations is improved. The content and plant moisture tension measuring devices
amount available to meet plant water needs is called and procedures are described in section 652.0902(b).
effective precipitation. Using the monitoring data is briefly described in this
section.
In addition to soil water to plant relationships, other
factors are important in selecting a method of schedul- Accurate monitoring should provide the irrigation
ing irrigations and setting up the scheduling proce- decisionmaker information at or soon after the time of
dures. Labor skill, availability, and personal interest measurement. The data must be available to ensure
dictate what type and level of intensity for readings that the field can be irrigated before moisture stress
and calculations can be made to make the scheduling occurs. Monitored data must be displayed so that the
procedure work. Irrigation district policies and capa- information is easy to understand and use to predict
bilities often dictate when and for how long an irriga- an irrigation date. When past data are projected for-
tor will get water; i.e., delivery schedule. Cultural ward, usually the future will resemble the past. Rap-
operations, such as hay cutting, over-canopy pesticide idly growing crops and weather changes must be
application, or row crop cultivation, have a major considered. Local weather forecasts can provide a
impact on scheduling. Some farmers do not like to guide as to when to irrigate, but frequent field mea-
keep written records; however, most have accepted surements are often necessary.
the fact that they must for other purposes. Many
farmers have a personal computer system. Some
prefer to hire management services to give them
information needed.

Irrigation Guide
Figure 9–7 Example irrigation scheduling program flowchart using soil water content for validation
START
Used Retrieve
Yes
before data file
No
Start building file
Input: Name, address, etc.

Field
Site location in field
Soil
Crop
Purpose for applying water
Calculate available
water capacity-AWC (use one) Adjust for
soil salinity
1. Soil survey data or excess rock
2. Site specific data fragments
3. Textural class basis
Adjust AWC for current

root development depth
based on observation or
days post emergence
Determine current soil water

status (use one)
1. Tensiometers
2. Electrical resistance blocks
3. Feel and appearance
4. Neutron gauge
5. FDR devices
6. Others
Determine current and/or projection

of water use rate (use one)
1. Using climate data from historical records

2. Using real time climate data from local station
3. Evaporation pan
4. Evaporometers
5. Crop water stress index
6. Leaf water potential
7. Infrared photography
8. Other
Determine next irrigation date Yes Printout

Irrigation Guide
(i) Crop water use monitoring—Monitoring crop content at various depths may be desirable at each
conditions can be used to estimate when to irrigate, monitoring site. Too little or too much soil moisture in
but it does not provide any information on how much the profile becomes more apparent when displayed
water to apply. Crop water use can be measured, but it graphically.
is usually calculated or estimated. The Crop Water
Stress Index (CWSI) method measures plant condition Soil moisture monitoring is used to calibrate or affirm
and compares that status to a known reference for a other irrigation scheduling methods that predict plant
well watered plant condition. Infrared photography water use by measuring plant stress (crop water stress
indicates presence or lack of surface moisture, either index, plant tissue monitoring) or calculate plant
on soil surface or plant leaf surface. Some skill is water use based upon climatic data. Examples are
necessary to interpret color intensity on infrared NRCS (SCS) SCHEDULER computer software or
photographs. What appears to be plant moisture stress checkbook method. With these other methods, check-
may result from other causes, such as insect damage, ing actual soil moisture is like receiving your bank
lack of key nutrients, or from other toxic materials on statement from the bank. It affirms or cautions you
leaf surfaces. Number of sets, days, and rotation or when an error may exist or other adjustments are
cycle time to get across a field should be considered needed. See Section 652.0902(b), Measuring soil-water
when using a field monitoring method. content.
Some level of soil and crop monitoring is essential for Many computer scheduling programs use soil moisture
efficient irrigation water management. Growing high measurements for updating methods based on com-
value crops can support a sophisticated monitoring puting the soil-water balance. Figure 9–8 provides a
and scheduling program whether it be for optimizing schematic of a basic soil-water content monitoring
water use and crop yield, maintaining desirable crop display to schedule irrigations. The same principal can
quality, minimizing use of fertilizer, or educing runoff, be used regardless of units provided by a soil-water
deep percolation, or both. Monitoring can be accurate content or plant moisture tension level measuring
where irrigators are adequately trained and personally device. Displaying may be desirable the various
interested. The monitoring schedule should fit into the depths, if applicable, at each monitoring site.
pattern of irrigation. Monitoring dates before and after
an irrigation should be flexible and adjustable to
provide better management information. Figure 9–8 Soil-water measurements used to predict day
to irrigate
(ii) Soil moisture monitoring—Monitoring soil-
water content before, during, and after the crop grow-
ing season is the primary tool to schedule irrigations Measured soil-
or calibrate other less labor intensive irrigation sched- water content
uling tools. in soil profile
Soil-water content
Allowable
Soil moisture monitoring is perhaps the most accurate depletion Forecast
irrigation scheduling tool. With experience the feel and
appearance method can be used to accurately deter-
mine soil moisture available for crop use. If other High Avg. Low
methods are used to determine soil moisture, the feel ET ET ET
and appearance method should also be used to check Today
the other method and to experience the fingers in
determining soil moisture. At first three to five Previous soil Time
water check
samples are examined at four or five sample sites in a
field. Again with experience and a specific crop and
soil, one soil sample at a depth of 12 to 18 inches can
be sufficient per sample site. At this depth soil samples
can be removed with a soil probe or small auger,
typically under the growing plant. Displaying moisture

Irrigation Guide
(2) Checkbook method (3) Computer assisted methods

The checkbook irrigation scheduling method is similar Computerized irrigation scheduling allows the storage
in principle to using a checkbook to transfer money and transfer of data, easy access to data, and calcula-
into or out of a home checking account. In this case, tions using the most advanced and complex methods
instead of a bank holding the money, the soil profile for predicting crop ET. Many computer software
holds water available for plant growth in the root zone. programs are available to assist in scheduling irriga-
If the amount of available water (bank balance) in the tions. Most programs access data bases for soil char-
root zone at the end of day one is known and if the acteristics, crop growth characteristics, climate, water
water losses (withdrawals) and gains (deposits) that supply, irrigation system, and economic data. The
occurred on day two are known or can be estimated, ability to directly access and process climate data
then the amount of soil water in the root zone at the from a regional network of local stations or an onsite
end of day two can be calculated. weather station has greatly streamlined data entry and
analysis for computerized scheduling. Scheduling
Deposits of water to the plant root zone are effective programs are no better than the data used or the
precipitation, irrigation, or water table contribution. ability of the irrigator to interpret output data.
Withdrawal of water from the root zone is primarily
crop evapotranspiration (ETc) and soil evaporation. (i) Daily crop evapotranspiration—ETc is
Manual, adding machine, hand calculator, or computer computed to the day of real-time climate data avail-
bookkeeping methods can be used. Checkbook crop ability, then the method predicts crop ET for up to 10
use data can be forecasted crop ET, pan evaporation, days in the future. The data can be used by the irriga-
or other data. Because of spatial variability, rainfall tor to keep a water balance worksheet (fig. 9–9) for
amounts should be measured at the field. Net irriga- each field. This type program generally is used by a
tion or precipitation application amounts can be local agency or district, consultant, water company, or
reasonably estimated. Soil-water content measure- water district to provide information to local irriga-
ments should be made to calibrate calculations and tors. Crop ET data are often available to the irrigation
other measurements. decisionmaker in local newspapers, telephone dial-up
service, or television. Irrigation decisionmakers for
Deep percolation cannot be directly measured in a large farms or farms growing high value crops often
field situation, but is accounted for in field application use onfarm weather station(s) and the farm computer
efficiency, which also includes improper irrigation to calculate daily plant water use. However, almost
timing (too much water too late). Irrigation depths any size farm can support the use of a computer. The
applied under sprinkler systems can be measured by computer facilitates the management of all natural
using catch cans (rain gauges) to determine applica- resource data as well as record keeping on the farm.
tion amounts, flow measuring devices to measure The method is similar to the checkbook method.
irrigation flows to laterals or from sprinkler heads, and
estimates of evaporation losses. A water balance (ii) Local real-time climate data—Climate data
method, such as the checkbook method, is used by the are retrieved by computer phone modem, soils data
irrigator to track crop water use and soil-water deficit. and crop growth characteristics are accessed, current
crop ET is computed, monitored soil-water content is
Crop evapotranspiration reporting services are some- input if available, and a complete crop-soil water
times available. This community wide, private, or balance set of records is developed by computer
public service calculates daily crop evapotranspiration software for each field being scheduled. Actual onsite,
for selected crops and provides this information to field by field, irrigation system performance is used as
irrigators through radio, newspaper, television, or by a basis to determine net irrigation application values.
special telephone service. The TV Weather Channel This type program is used directly by the irrigator
displays maps showing ET of well-watered grass for (or farm consultant) using their own computer and
the preceding week. telephone modem.
The Water Balance Irrigation Scheduling Worksheet

(fig. 9–9) may be used with the checkbook method.

Irrigation Guide
Figure 9–9 Typical water balance irrigation scheduling worksheet

Typical Water Balance Irrigation

Scheduling Worksheet
Grower ______________________________________ Field ID ___________________________ Crop ______________________________

Planting date _________________________________ Full cover date ______________________ Harvest date ________________________
Soil water holding capacity (in/ft) _________; _________; _________; __________ Rooting depth ___________________________________
Management allowable depletion ______________________________ Minimum soil-water content __________________________________
Date Daily Forecast Cum Rainfall Irrigation Cumulative Allowable Soil- Predicted
crop crop total applied total depletion water irrigation
ET ET ET irrigation balance content date
(in) (in) (in) (in) (in) (in) (in) (in)

Irrigation Guide
A good irrigation scheduling program can be updated US Bureau of Reclamation Scheduling program
on a regular basis with soil-water content data to (Agrimet)—Bureau of Reclamation has adopted and
improve efficiency and accuracy of determining when modified a computer scheduling program developed at
to irrigate and how much water to apply. Following USDA Agriculture Research Station at Kimberly,
periods of excess rainfall when soils are probably at or Idaho. Agrimet is the Northwest Cooperative Agricul-
near field capacity is an easy calibration point. Calcu- tural Weather Network. It is cooperatively sponsored
lated available soil water should be near field capacity. by land grant universities, Cooperative Extension
When crop ET and water costs versus crop yield data Service, NRCS, local soil and water conservation
are known, a true current economic evaluation can be districts, ARS, local irrigation districts, and other state
presented to the irrigation decisionmaker. Improved and local water resource agencies and organizations.
predictions from computerized irrigation scheduling
allow the irrigation decisionmaker to lengthen the Sensors collect real time climate data (air tempera-
period between field monitoring and reduce the uncer- ture, relative humidity, solar radiation, precipitation,
tainty of the soil-water balance. Adequate and timely and wind run speed and direction). A data collection
water can be provided to the crop and deep percola- platform (DCP) interrogates the sensors at pro-
tion losses minimized when following a good irrigation grammed intervals, every 15 minutes or hourly, de-
scheduling program. pending on the parameter. The DCP transmits the data
every 4 hours via the GOES satellite to a central re-
Some currently available computer programs are ceive site in Boise, Idaho. The recorded parameters
briefly described in the following paragraphs. Docu- are used to calculate a daily reference ET based on the
mentation required to run the program must be avail- 1982 Kimberly-Penman equation. Crop water use
able and easy to understand. models are run daily to translate the local climatic
data into daily ET information for crops at each
NRCS (SCS) Scheduler (DOS Version 3.0 as of 6/96) weather station. Anyone with a computer, a modem,
—This irrigation scheduling program was developed and an Agrimet user name can access Agrimet for
for NRCS by Michigan State University. It is usable weather data or site-specific daily crop water use
nationwide and is applicable in most climates. Using information from throughout the Pacific Northwest
onfarm characteristics and local real time climate Region. Other onfarm factors to considered when
data, a simple accounting process is employed to: using the published crop ET data include water used
• Determine daily and monthly evapotranspiration for environmental control, salinity control, and irriga-
of the crop. tion system application efficiency and uniformity.
• Determine seasonal irrigation requirement.
• Account for change in soil-water content since it ARS personnel at Ft. Collins, Colorado, developed a
was last measured. computer assisted irrigation scheduling program.
• Predict rate at which soil water will decrease Program software uses minimum to optimum field
over the next 10 days. data to predict when to irrigate. Default values replace
measured data where necessary. In general, the better
This program works with any soil and may be applied the field data input, the more precise the data output.
to any number of crops as crop-specific growth data
become available. Currently the program includes 42 University scheduling programs—Several computer
crop curves. Climatic data and crop information neces- scheduling programs are available and supported by
sary for local irrigation scheduling should be devel- many local universities. Typically, these programs
oped or adapted from local information. Accounting apply statewide or to more localized areas within a
for onsite rainfall is essential. Climate data may be state. The State Supplement section at the end of this
entered manually or transferred directly from a local chapter gives additional information on programs
real-time climatic data collection station via phone available from local universities.
modem. To update the soil-water balance, soil-water
content monitoring data can be input at anytime.
Figures 9–10 and 9–11 display seasonal crop ET curves
and soil-water content status using NRCS (SCS)
SCHEDULER computer program.

Irrigation Guide
Figure 9–10 NRCS (SCS) SCHEDULER—seasonal crop ET
Personal Computer Irrigation Scheduler
Farm home: XFARM Emergence Date: May 21, 1998 Reference ETo
Crop type: CORN Growing Season: 119 days Calculated Crop ETc
.30
Cumulative ETo : 12.28 inches
Cum. Calc. ETc : 12.14 inches
.25
Inches/day of water
.20
ET
.15
.10
.05
0
05/21 06/15 07/10 08/04 08/29 09/23
Date
Figure 9–11 NRCS (SCS) SCHEDULER—seasonal soil moisture status
Personal Computer Irrigation Scheduler
Farm home: XFARM Irrigation Type : CENTER PIVOT Rain Water

Emergence Date : May 21, 1998 Irrigation Water
Crop type: CORN
Growing Season : 119 days Soil AWC-Actual
6.00
@FC
5.00 100
4.00 Available 80
Inches of water
soil water
AWC %
3.00 60
@WP
2.00 40
1.00 20
0 0
05/21 06/15 07/10 08/04 08/29 09/23
Date

Irrigation Guide
(4) Consultative irrigation scheduling

services 652.0904 Irrigation sys-
Consultants are available who will (for a fee) provide
irrigation scheduling services throughout the irrigation tem evaluation procedures
season. These consultants often offer other agricul-
tural services including fertilizer and pest management
programs. (a) General
The effectiveness of irrigators’ irrigation water man-
The advantages of this type scheduling are:
agement practices can be determined by making field
• The consultant is generally well trained and
observations and evaluations. The results of these
professional.
observations and evaluations are used to help them
• The latest techniques are typically used, includ-
improve water management techniques, upgrade their
ing state-of-art soil-water content measuring
devices and computers. irrigation system(s), or both. Improvements to opera-
• Fine tuned management can be maintained. tions and management can conserve water; reduce
• Water management integrated with fertilizer, labor, energy, and nutrient losses; generally improve
pest, and other management programs can result crop yields, biomass, and product quality; and reduce
in optimum plant growing conditions. existing or potential water pollution. The following
• The farm manager who is willing to pay for such principles apply to all irrigation methods and systems.
services is probably going to follow the recom- • Irrigation should be completed in a timely man-
mendations faithfully. ner to maintain a favorable soil-water content for
• The saving or proper timing of one irrigation desired crop growth. An exception may be made
often pays for the service for the entire growing where the water supply is limited. In this situa-
season. tion, water should be applied in a manner that
maximizes water use benefits.
• The amount of water applied should be sufficient
(5) Commercial service
to bring the crop root zone to field capacity
Associated with crop growing contracts, many com-
minus allowable storage for potential rainfall
mercial companies provide field assistance to the
events.
irrigator to assure that expected crop yield and crop
• Water should be applied at a rate that will not
quality are obtained. Assistance from a field specialist,
cause waste, erosion, or contamination of
involving irrigation and fertilizer recommendations
ground water and downstream surface water.
and insect control, is typically provided as part of the
• Improving management of the existing system is
crop contract arrangement.
always the first increment of change for im-
proved water management. Each irrigation
evaluation should consider a change in water
management decisions only, and then a change
in water management decisions and irrigation
system performance.
Evaluation is the analysis of any irrigation system and

management based on measurements taken in the
field under conditions and practices normally used. An
examination of irrigation water management practices
should attempt to answer the following questions:
• Is the water supply sufficient (quantity and
quality) and is it reliable enough to meet the
producers objective?
• Are irrigations being applied in a timely manner?

Irrigation Guide
• How is the need for irrigation determined? What (b) Irrigation efficiency defini-
is the planned soil-water deficit (SWD)? Is it dry tions
enough to irrigate, too dry, or wet enough to stop
irrigating? Irrigation efficiencies are a measure of how well an
• How much water is being applied by each irriga- irrigation system works as well as the level of manage-
tion? How is this amount determined? ment of the system. The definitions that follow are
• Is irrigation causing erosion or sediment deposi- similar to standard definitions developed by ASAE and
tion in parts of the field? Off the field? ASCE, and are used in NRCS.
• How uniform is water being applied over the
irrigated area? (1) Conveyance efficiency
• How much water is being infiltrated into the area Conveyance efficiency (Ec) is the ratio of water deliv-
being irrigated? ered to the total water diverted or pumped into an
• Is there excessive deep percolation or runoff in open channel or pipeline at the upstream end, ex-
parts of the field? pressed as a percentage. It includes seepage losses,
• How much deep percolation or runoff? Are evaporation, and leakage inherent in the specific
amounts reasonable? conveyance facility. With appropriate identification it
• Does water applied for salinity management could also include operational spills.
meet salt level balance needs throughout the soil
profile? meet quality of water being used? for the (2) Irrigation efficiency
crop being grown? during the desirable crop Irrigation efficiency (Ei) is the ratio of the average
growth period? over the field? depth of irrigation water beneficially used to the
• Does water applied for climate control meet average depth applied, expressed as a percentage.
uniformity and rate objectives?
• Are pesticides or fertilizers being applied (3) Application efficiency
through the irrigation system? (May require a Application efficiency (Ea) is the ratio of the average
high level of management, more or less water per depth of irrigation water infiltrated and stored in the
application, and such additional safety devices as plant root zone to the average depth of irrigation water
back flow prevention devices.) applied, expressed as a percentage. Average depth
• Is there a real or potential pollution problem stored in root zone (or intercepted by plants) cannot
being caused by irrigation? exceed soil-water deficit (SWD), but may be equal. If
• What is the overall irrigation application effi- the entire root zone will be filled to field capacity
ciency (mostly affected by management deci- during an irrigation, then average depth infiltrated and
sions) and irrigation system distribution unifor- stored in the root zone is SWD.
mity of application (highly dependent on system
flow rates and configuration)? (4) Application efficiency low quarter
• On a sprinkle (or micro) irrigated field, is there Application efficiency low quarter (AELQ or Eq) is the
translocation of water from the point of applica- ratio of the average of the lowest one-fourth of mea-
tion to adjacent areas? How does this affect surements of irrigation water infiltrated and stored in
uniformity of application? the plant root zone to the average depth of irrigation
applied; it is expressed as a percentage.
(5) Application efficiency low half

Application efficiency low half (AELH or Eh) is the
ratio of the average of the low one-half of measure-
ments of irrigation water infiltrated and stored in the
plant root zone to the average depth of irrigation water
applied; it is expressed as a percentage.

Irrigation Guide
(6) Project application efficiency Sprinkler systems:

Project application efficiency (Ep) is the ratio of the Average low - quarter depth received
average depth of irrigation water infiltrated and stored DU = × 100
Average catch can depth received
in the plant root zone to the average depth of irrigation
water diverted or pumped; it is expressed as a percent-
age. Project application efficiency includes the com- Surface systems:
bined efficiencies from conveyance and application. It Average low - quarter depth infiltrated
can be the overall efficiency of only onfarm facilities, DU = × 100
Average depth infiltrated
or for community projects, it may include both on and
off-farm efficiencies.
The average low-quarter depth of water received is the
average of the lowest one-quarter of the measured
(7) Potential or design application efficien-
values where each value represents an equal area. For
cies
calculation of DU of low one-half, substitute average
Potential or design application efficiencies are usually
low half depth received or infiltrated in place of low
those recommended in the irrigation guide and in
quarter.
various tables and charts in NEH, Part 623 (Section
15), Irrigation. These efficiencies are typically used for
designing irrigation systems. The efficiency recom- (10) Christiansen’s uniformity
Christiansen’s uniformity (CU) is another parameter
mendations usually assume good management and
that has been used to evaluate uniformity for sprinkle
maintenance of a well designed and installed system.
and micro irrigation systems. DU should be used
If it is anticipated that a specific irrigator will not meet
instead of CU. Thus, sprinkler and micro irrigation
these criteria, then a lower potential application effi-
application uniformity can be directly compared to
ciency should be used than those recommended in
other irrigation methods and systems. Christiansen’s
references. Judgment by the designer is required.
uniformity is expressed as:
Overestimating the operator’s level of management
can result in an inadequate irrigation system design.  ∑X
CU = 1001.0 − 
 m n
(8) Uniformity of application
How uniform an irrigation system applies water across
the field is important. Within a range of physical condi- where:
tions and management, any irrigation method can X = absolute deviation of the individual observations
apply water in such a manner that over 90 percent of from the mean (in)
applied water is used by the plant. However, the range m = mean depth of observations (in)
of physical conditions (topography, soils, water sup- n = number of observations
ply) in which this level of uniformity and management
can be accomplished, can be narrow. Selection of a CU can be approximated by:
different irrigation method and system may provide a Average low - quarter of water received
CU = × 100
wider, more reasonable range of conditions; thus m
fewer management limitations.
and the relationship between DU and CU can be
(9) Distribution uniformity approximated by:
Distribution uniformity (DU) is a measure of the
CU = 100 – 0.63 (100 – DU)
uniformity of infiltrated irrigation water distribution
DU = 100 – 1.59 (100 – CU)
over a field. DU is defined as the ratio of the lowest
one-fourth of measurements of irrigation water infil-
Some parameters that affect uniformity tend to aver-
trated to the average depth of irrigation water infil-
age out during a series of irrigation applications. Other
trated, expressed as a percentage. For low value
aspects of nonuniformity tend to concentrate in the
crops, maintenance of vegetation, or areas of partial
same areas, either over or under irrigation during each
season irrigation, DU of low one-half may be more
application. See discussion in NEH, Part 623, Chapter
economical than using low one-quarter.
11, Sprinkle Irrigation, Sprinkle Irrigation Efficiency.

Irrigation Guide
(c) Irrigation system evaluations • Are there dry spots in the field? wet spots? Are
large areas of the field under irrigated?
(1) First step overirrigated?
Many important factors concerning how well an irriga- • Crop production:
tion system is operating and how well it is being man- — What is the average production of each field
aged can be determined with a few simple observa- irrigated?
tions and evaluation procedures. These procedures are — Does it meet or exceed county or area aver-
used for a simple, abbreviated, or detailed evaluation ages?
and are the first step in any system evaluation. — Does production vary across the field? If so,
what does the irrigation decisionmaker feel
For any irrigation method or system, equipment are the causes (irrigation system, field sur-
needed to check soil moisture and compacted layers is face nonuniformity, water supply amount
a soil auger, push tube sampler, or soil probe. If the and location of source or delivery, soil,
soil is rocky, a shovel (sharp shooter) is also needed fertilizer, chemigation, pests)?
• How much control does the irrigator have over
A pressure gauge with pitot tube attachment, drill bits when and how much irrigation water is avail-
to check nozzle wear, short piece of hose, and cali- able? delivery schedule?
brated container to check nozzle discharge are needed • What are farm manager’s objectives?
for sprinkler irrigation systems. For micro irrigation • What is the skill level, timing, and amount of
systems, special fittings for pressure gauge and catch labor available?
containers to check the head and emitter discharge are • Can water be changed at night? during the
needed. Surface irrigation systems require measuring middle of the day? at odd hours? If short set
devices to check furrow and border inflow and out- times are necessary, is a semiautomatic or com-
flow. Flow measuring devices are needed for sub- plete automatic control system available?
irrigation systems.
Step 2—Observe the field in question. Look at other
fields. Look at the supply system. Look for and ask:
(2) Evaluation procedures • Are there erosion or sediment deposition areas?
Step 1—Determine basic data about the irrigation • Are there indications of excessive runoff from
system and management from the irrigation part or all of the field?
decisionmaker. Some questions that might be asked • Are there problems (benefits) created by exces-
include: sive irrigation tailwater or field runoff?
• How does the irrigation decisionmaker deter- • Do leaky ditches and pipelines appear to have
mine when to irrigate and how much water to excessive water loss (seeps or leaks)? (1gpm=1
apply? acre inch every 20 days)
• How is length of time for each irrigation set • Are crops uneven or discolored? Do they show
determined? obvious stress?
• For sprinkler and micro irrigation systems, what • Are there water loving plants and weeds present?
are the operating pressures at several locations If so, is there an obvious wildlife benefit?
along a selected lateral? • Are there saline or swampy areas?
• How is the time to shut water off determined? • Are there obvious signs of poorly maintained
• How long does it take for water to reach the end micro and sprinkler hardware, including leaky
of borders or furrows? gaskets, weak or broken springs, plugged emit-
• What is the irrigation water supply flow rate in ters, or worn nozzles?
early season? mid season? late season? • Are there poorly maintained diversion or turnout
• How is flow rate determined? gates, leaks, uneven flows from siphon tubes or
• What is the rate of flow onto each border or into gated pipe gates, uneven irrigation heads, weeds,
a furrow? into the system? and trash?
• What problems (or concerns) have the irrigator • Are there measuring devices? Are they in satis-
experienced with the system? factory operating condition? Are they used to
make onfield water management decisions?

Irrigation Guide
Step 3—With the irrigation decisionmaker, auger or (d) Simplified irrigation system
probe several holes at selected locations in the field. and water management evalua-
This is the best time to start talking to the farm man- tions
ager or irrigation decisionmaker about proper irriga-
tion water management. The feel and appearance Some simple evaluation items can be done by irriga-
method of moisture determination can also be demon- tion system operators that will help them make man-
strated. Look for such information as: agement and operation of irrigation equipment deci-
• Is there evidence of an excessive high water sions. They include:
table or indications of a fluctuating water table? Item 1—For sprinkler and micro irrigation system,
• Locate hard pans, compacted layers, mineral they can check:
layers, or other characteristics that can restrict • Operating pressures at pump, mainline, sprinkler
root growth and the movement of water in the heads, upstream and downstream of filters to
soil. What is the apparent cause(s) of each re- assure they match design.
striction? • Application depth for the irrigation set by using a
• Does soil texture change at various levels in the few 3- to 4-inch random placed, straight sided,
soil profile? vegetable or fruit tin containers for catch con-
• Observe water content of each soil layer. Demon- tainers. Measure water depth in catch containers
strate the feel and appearance method of mois- with a pocket tape. Does it match design and
ture determination to the irrigation what is desired?
decisionmaker. Is the location of wetted soil • Discharge from a few microsystem emitters
shallow (typically under irrigated) or deep (typi- using a one-quart container and a watch. Do not
cally overirrigated) in the soil profile? raise emitter more than a few inches. Compute
• Are root development patterns normal (unre- flow in gallons per hour. Do flows match design?
stricted by soil compaction, overirrigation) for • Translocation and runoff from sprinkler systems.
the time of year and stage of crop growth?
• Is soil condition favorable for plant growth? Item 2—For all irrigation systems, simplified field
checking by the operator can include calculation of
Step 4—Discuss with the irrigation decisionmaker the depth of irrigation for a set using the basic equation,
findings and information so far obtained. Listen for QT = DA.
management reasons. Make recommendations if
enough information is available to do so. Make sure where:
there is a true communication with the farm manager Q = flow rate (ft3/s)
or irrigator. Use sketches and narratives, if appropri- T = time of irrigation application (hr)
ate. Are decisions based on tradition or field observa- D = gross depth of water applied (in)
tions and measurements? A = area irrigated (acres)
Item 3—Using a probe, shovel, soils auger, or push

type core sampler, the operator can put down a few
holes after an irrigation to determine depth of water
penetration. Does it match plant rooting depths?
Depending on the irrigation system and soil, checking
on water penetration could be anywhere from an hour
after the irrigation to the next day.
Item 4—Check runoff. Is it excessive? Does it contain

sediment?

Irrigation Guide
(e) Abbreviated water manage- of fuel used per hour. Totalizing time clocks that
ment and irrigation system operate from the engine ignition can also be used.
evaluations
Irrigators try all too often to cover more acres than the
An abbreviated evaluation can determine whether a water supply will adequately provide, or they
problem(s) exists in a field and how serious it may be. overirrigate a large part of the field to satisfy a small
Frequently, a simple evaluation provides enough area. Applying the formula QT = DA will solve four out
information to make a decision. Such an evaluation of five IWM problems. Net irrigation depth can be
should always precede a more detailed evaluation. calculated by multiplying gross depth by the overall
With some guidance the irrigation decisionmaker can irrigation efficiency expressed as a decimal.
perform abbreviated irrigation evaluations themselves.
Abbreviated management and irrigation system evalu- Some irrigators estimate plant water need accurately
ations can be made by onfarm managers or NRCS field then fail to measure flow onto the field, thus applying
staff. Many times, needed changes can be identified in an unknown quantity of water. Flow measuring de-
less than an hour. vices are one of the most valuable water management
tools available to the irrigator. Accurate devices for
(1) Sprinkle irrigation pipelines and open channels may cost as little as $50
Before irrigation, randomly place calibrated catch to over $1,000. Where water supply is not limited,
containers (or rain gauges) at plant canopy height. farmers typically apply too much water, especially
Containers should be straight sided with a reasonably where plant water needs or water applied are not
sharp edge. When irrigation is complete, a pocket tape measured. This is also common with an irrigation
or graduated cylinder may be used to measure depth delivery system where water is delivered on a rotation
of water caught in each container. This provides an basis.
indication of average depth of application only. When
sufficient number of containers is used with a uniform (4) Surface and sprinkle irrigation
spacing pattern within all of the sprinkler lateral The ball or tile probe is perhaps the most versatile and
application area, pattern uniformity can be calculated cheapest tool available to the irrigation
(see section 3 in this section). decisionmaker. Following irrigation, the probe can be
inserted in the soil at various points along the length of
(2) Sprinkle irrigation (center pivot or linear run (surface irrigation) or across the field (sprinkle
move) irrigation) to measure the depth of water penetration.
Using the design nozzle package, source pressure, and (Penetration is easy where water lubricates the soil.)
lateral size provided by the owner or dealer, a com- By knowing the soil AWC, the effective irrigation
puter evaluation can be made in a few minutes if the water applied is calculated. Both management applica-
computer program is readily available. Field observation efficiency and system distribution uniformity can
tion of an operating system can identify improper be calculated. The ball or tile probe works best where
(usually plugged or wrong nozzle size) nozzle opera- there is an abrupt boundary between a wetted soil and
tion. A computer equipment evaluation or field inspec- a soil with moisture at less than field capacity. In
tion of irrigation equipment in use (including lateral rocky soil, a sound is emitted when the probe strikes a
pressures and nozzles used) should always precede a rock, otherwise no sound should be heard.
detailed system evaluation.
The ball or tile probe can also be used to detect excess
(3) Sprinkle, surface, and micro irrigation moisture in lower portions of the soil profile even
A portable or permanently installed flow measuring though soil at or near the surface appears dry, thus
device can be used to evaluate gross irrigation water delaying irrigation and improving plant vigor.
applied. By knowing the flow rate and kilowatt hours
per hour energy used with electric powered pumps,
the volume of water pumped can be determined using
the common electric meter. When using gas or diesel,
hours of operation can be determined by knowing the
cubic feet, pounds, or gallons of fuel used and the rate

Irrigation Guide
(5) Surface and sprinkle irrigation • Record the time when 90 percent of the soil
A soil auger or push type core sampling probe can be surface area is no longer covered by water at
used at various locations in a field to determine depth each station. These times will be used later in
of irrigation, extent of lateral movement, and available plotting a recession curve. No long time ponding
soil moisture. With experience the irrigation decision- should occur.
maker can schedule irrigation applications based upon • Measure or estimate the volume of runoff in
soil moisture at a relatively shallow depth. Application terms of percent of inflow volume. (Duration of
efficiency (Ea) and irrigation system distribution runoff is determined from the records mentioned
uniformity (DU) can be calculated using soil auger or above.)
probe observations. An advantage in using the ball • Probe approximately 24 hours following irriga-
probe, soil probe, or soil auger is that you observe tion, the soil profile down the border strip to
other field crop conditions when walking through the check uniformity of water penetration. Where
field, thus use the multiresource planning process. soil and crops are uniform, a previously irrigated
Many locations in the field can be quickly checked. border strip may be used for this purpose.
• Determine adequacy of the irrigation with an
additional simple check if the rate of inflow is
(f) Water management and irriga- known or can be estimated. Use the basic equa-
tion system evaluations tion QT = DA to calculate the gross depth of
irrigation application from the known rate of
(1) Graded or level border (basin) inflow, duration of irrigation, and length and
(i) Equipment—Equipment needed for a graded or width of border strip. An example to determine
level border includes: gross application depth, D, for a border strip 100
• Soil auger, probe, push type core sampler. feet wide and 1,200 feet long, with 3 cubic feet
• Watch, 100-foot tape. per second inflow for a set inflow time of 4.5
• Lath or wire flags for marking stations. hours, would be:
(Q × T)
• Portable water measuring device, such as sharp
crested weir, Replogle flume, Parshall flume, D=
broadcrested weir, and pipe flow meter. Capacity A
needed depends on typical inflows used in the
area. D=
( ) (
3.0 ft 3 / s × 4.5 hr ) = 4.9 in.
A
(ii) Procedures—The following procedures should where:
be followed.
A=
(100 ft ) × (1, 200 ft ) = 2.75 acres
Before start of irrigation: 43, 560 ft 2 / acre
• Estimate the soil-water deficit (SWD) at several
locations down the border being investigated. When the gross depth of application, D = 4.9 inches, is
Use feel and appearance method. multiplied by the estimated overall application effi-
• Set flags or stakes at uniform distances down the ciency (decimal), average net depth of irrigation can
border (generally 100-foot spacing). be estimated. The field technician needs to have
experience in ranges of average application efficien-
During irrigation: cies for the farm or in the general area.
• Observe how uniformly water spreads across the
border (basin) width. The soil surface should not Ave. net depth = 4.9 x 60% = 3 inches (approx.)
have excessively high or low spots, and no inter-
mittent ponding should occur.
• Observe and record the time when the water
reaches each station. These times will be used
later in plotting a simple advance rate curve.
• Record the time and location of the water front
when inflow is turned off.

Irrigation Guide
(iii) Use of field data—The following steps should Step 7—Are there water, soil, or plant management
be used with the field data: changes that can be made to reduce beneficial water
use, fertilizer use, or water lost?
Step 1—Using distance down the border (stations) and
elapsed time in minutes, plot advance and recession (2) Graded or level furrows
curves for the border (fig. 9–12). Show the time when (i) Equipment—The equipment needed includes:
water was shutoff and location of water front at that • Soil auger, probe, push type core sampler,
time. The opportunity time is the time water was in shovel.
contact with the soil surface (the interval between the • Portable flow measuring devices (broadcrested
advance and recession curves) at any given point weir/flume, Replogle flume, Parshall flume, v-
(station) along the border. With basins, the water front notch flume, v-notch sharpcrested weir, orifice
at various times is plotted on an area basis, similar to flow plate, siphon tubes, flow meter in a short
topographic contour lines. Advance and recession length of pipe, bucket).
curves can be plotted at select locations radiating • Watch with second hand or stop watch.
away from the water supply onto the field. • Stakes or wire flags for locating stations.
Step 2—Compare probe depths at various locations At least three furrows should be evaluated. Included
down the border (basin) keeping in mind that water should be the correct proportion of wheel rows,
movement through the soil may not be complete. Does nonwheel rows, and guess rows. A judgment decision
it appear that parts of the border (basin) have had too must be whether these few furrows adequately repre-
short an opportunity time? sent the entire field.
Step 3—If information on accumulated intake versus (ii) Procedures—The following procedures should
time (intake characteristic [family] curve) for the be followed.
particular soil is available, compare actual opportunity
times throughout the length of the border to the op- Before the start of irrigation:
portunity time required for the net application as • Estimate the soil-water deficit (SWD) at several
interpolated from intake characteristic curves. locations down furrows being investigated (use
feel and appearance method). Check soil mois-
Step 4—Large variations in opportunity times along ture in the root zone (not necessarily in the
the length of the border indicate changes need to be center of the furrow). Is it dry enough to irrigate?
made in the rate of flow, duration of flow, or field • Note the condition of furrows. Has there been a
surface conditions. Large variations between the cultivation since the last irrigation?
opportunity time determined from the intake charac- • Set stakes or wire flags at 100-foot stations down
teristic (family) curve and the actual opportunity times the length of each furrow evaluated.
indicate that changes need to be made in the applica-
tion or that the estimated intake characteristic (fam-
ily) curve number is wrong. If it appears that the
intake characteristic (family) curve number used is Figure 9–12 Plot of example advance and recession
wrong, then a complete system analysis, including ring curves
infiltrometer tests, may be required if more detailed
recommendations are desirable.
Recession
Step 5—If possible, check the original design. Is the curve
system being operated in accordance with the design Elapsed Intake
(hours of each set, return frequency)? Should redesign time opportunity
(min or hr)
be considered? time Advance
curve
Step 6—Are irrigation water screening facilities 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

needed? Station (100's ft)

Irrigation Guide
During an irrigation: Plot the advance curve for the furrow (see fig. 9–12).
• Measure (or estimate) the inflow rate (example Plotting of the furrow advance curve is basically the
9–1). If siphon tubes are used, a siphon tube same as the plot of the border advance curve. Shape of
head-discharge chart can be used to estimate advance curve can indicate adequacy of inflow rates in
inflow. If total inflow is known, divide total relation to soil intake characteristics for that specific
inflow by the number of furrows being irrigated. length of furrow. Estimates for adjustments in furrow
Timing furrow flow catch in a bucket of known irrigation operation values can be made using inflow
capacity or using a portable furrow flow measur- and advance rate estimates.
ing device are both accurate.
• Observe the time it takes water to reach each Step 3—Was there runoff? How much? Water ponding
station (lath or wire flag) and to reach the lower with blocked end nearly level furrows or running off at
end of each furrow evaluated. the lower end of nonblocked furrows is essential for
• Measure furrow outflow with a portable flow practical operation and a full, uniform irrigation.
measuring device periodically during the runoff Runoff water can be collected and reused by using a
phase to get an average outflow rate in gallons tailwater collection and return-flow facility.
per minute, or estimate runoff rate in terms of
percent of inflow rate (example 9–1). Step 4—Are the water supply and conveyance systems
• Check for erosion and sedimentation in the capable of delivering enough water for efficient and
furrow or tailwater collection facilities. convenient use of both water and labor? Supplies
• Dig a trench across a furrow (plant stem to plant should be large enough and flexible in both rate and
stem) to be irrigated by the next set. The wetted duration. Furrow streams should be adjustable to the
bulb can also be observed following an irrigation. degree that flow will reach the end of most furrows in
Observe conditions, such as: about a quarter to a third of the total inflow time. If
— Actual root development, location, and appropriate, tailwater reuse, cablegation, cutback, or
pattern surge irrigation techniques can significantly increase
— Compaction layers—identify cause (cultiva- distribution uniformity (see chapter 5).
tion, wheel type equipment, plowing,
disking) (iv) Observations—Did soil in the crop root zone
— Soil textural changes contain all of the irrigation water applied? Is there still
— Salt accumulation and location a soil-water deficit in the root zone or is deep percola-
• About 24 hours following irrigation, probe the tion below the root zone occurring? A simple before
length of a representative furrow to check unifor- and after soil-water content check can provide data to
mity of water penetration. Where soil and crops estimate amounts before and after irrigation. However,
are uniform, a previously irrigated furrow set can this does not account for uniformity or nonuniformity
be used for this purpose. in application depths throughout the length of the
furrow. By simple soil probing or push core sampling
(iii) Use of field data—The following steps should throughout the length of the furrow the next day
be used with the field data: following an irrigation (or on a previous set), depth of
water penetration along the furrow can be observed.
Step 1—Was the soil dry enough to start irrigating?
What was the soil-water deficit in the root zone at With some field experience, inflow rate and set time
various points along the furrow before irrigating? adjustments can be recommended to improve depth of
water penetration and uniformity of water penetration
Step 2—Did water penetrate uniformly along the along the furrow length. A detailed field evaluation is
length of furrow? Good uniformity usually is achieved necessary for fine tuning recommendations. Often
if the stream progresses uniformly and reaches the these measurements can be observed by the farm
lower end of the furrow without erosion in about a irrigation decisionmaker or irrigator. Until a field
quarter to a third of the total inflow time. Should technician is experienced with furrow irrigation, a
furrow length be reduced? increased? Should inflow complete evaluation process with data should be used.
rate be changed?

Irrigation Guide
Was the soil dry enough to start irrigating? Was it too Is there soil erosion? water translocation? or runoff? Is
dry? Compare the SWD to application. How does the it general or only at specific locations? A solution may
crop look? Is there evidence of under irrigation, salin- be to improve irrigation water or tillage management.
ity problems, overirrigation? Are there obvious dry
spots? dry strips?
Example 9–1 Estimating furrow inflow and outflow depths
Use the basic equation QT = DA (altered to use common field units; i.e., conversion factor of 96.3 so flow can
be shown in gallons per minute and furrow spacing and length in feet)
Depth, D =
(furrow flow, gpm ) × (set time, hr ) × (96.3)
Inflow:
(furrow spacing, ft ) × (furrow length, ft )
Field data: 10 gpm per furrow inflow
12 hours set time
30-inch furrow spacing (with flow every furrow)
1,000-foot furrow length, gives:
D=
(10 gpm ) × (12 hr ) × (96.3)
(2.5 ft ) × (1,000 ft )
RO =
(average furrow outflow, gpm ) × (outflow time, hrs) × 96.3
Outflow:
(furrow spacing, ft ) × (furrow length, ft )
Field data: 3.5 gpm average outflow and 9.5 hours outflow time, gives:
RO =
(3.5 gpm ) × (9.5 hr ) × (96.3) = 1.3 inches
(2.5 ft ) × (1,000 ft )
Summary: Infiltration = 4.6 inches – 1.3 inches = 3.3 inches, or 72 percent
1.3 inches
RO = = 28%
4.6 inches

Irrigation Guide
(3) Sprinkler systems

(i) Periodic move laterals—This type sprinkler I=
(96.3) × (q)
systems include sideroll wheel lines, handmove, end Sl × Sm
tow, and fixed or solid set operations.
and
Equipment—The equipment needed includes:
• Soil auger, probe, push type core sampler. Depth of water applied = I × H
• Bucket calibrated in gallons (2 to 5 gal).
• 5-foot piece of 3/4-inch garden hose. where:
• Set of new twist drill bits (1/8 to 1/4 inch by I = precipitation (application) rate, in/hr
64ths). q = nozzle flow, gpm
• Watch with second hand or stop watch. H = set time, hr
• Pressure gauge with pitot tube attachment. Sl = spacing of heads along lateral, ft
Suggest using liquid filled pressure gauges for Sm = lateral spacing along main, ft
increased durability, plus the indicator needle
does not flutter when making a reading. Step 4—Take pressure readings at several locations
along the lateral(s) using the pitot tube pressure
Procedures—The following procedures should be gauge. If not in the critical position, measure eleva-
used in the evaluation. tions and calculate pressure differences if the lateral
was moved to that location. Critical location is usually
Step 1—Estimate the soil-water deficit (SWD) at determined by elevation and distance from the main-
several locations ahead of the sprinkler lateral. Check line or pump. Pressure differences should not exceed
irrigation adequacy behind the sprinkler. Use the feel 20 percent between any two sprinkler heads on the
and appearance method. same lateral. This provides for less than 10 percent
difference in discharge between heads on the lateral.
Check uniformity of water penetration into the soil
between sprinkler heads and laterals on the previous Desirable and design operating pressure should occur
irrigation set using a probe or push core sampler. in the area that affects most sprinklers; i.e., about a
Properly overlapping sprinkler-wetted areas (pressure, third the distance from upstream end, on uniform
discharge, sprinkler head, and lateral spacing) pro- diameter, level laterals. Excessive operating pressure
vides nearly uniform application. A detailed evaluation produces small droplets, or fogging, and irregular
using a complete grid of catch devices can accurately turning of sprinkler heads. Small droplets are subject
determine application pattern uniformity. to wind drift and result in increased application close
to the sprinkler head. Too low of a pressure causes
Step 2—Using the IWM formula, QT = DA, determine improper jet breakup giving large droplet sizes. This
depth of water applied by an irrigation. This is accom- typically produces a doughnut-shaped spray pattern,
plished by first measuring nozzle discharge by placing which if not corrected, results in a similar plant
the hose over the nozzle and then timing the flow into growth pattern. Larger droplets are less affected by
the calibrated container. wind. Very little water is applied close to the sprinkler
head. Both conditions, excessive and too little pres-
Step 3—To check nozzle discharge, fit hose over sure, result in poor distribution patterns.
sprinkler head nozzle (two hoses for double nozzle
sprinkler heads). A loose fit is desirable. Direct water Step 5—Using the shank end of a new, same size twist
into a calibrated bucket. Using a watch or timer, drill bit, check the orifice diameter of several sprinkler
determine the time period it takes to fill the calibrated nozzles for appropriate size and wear. The twist drill
bucket. Check several sprinkler heads on the lateral. shank should just fit into the orifice without wiggle.
Calculate nozzle flow rate in gallons per minute. Excess wiggle indicates excessive wear (or too large
Calculate the precipitation rate from manufacturer nozzle diameter), which indicates nonuniform dis-
tables or charts, or use the IWM equation (96.3 is units charge from nozzles and poor distribution pattern
conversion factor when using gallons per minute and between heads. Nozzles are considered worn if the
sprinkler head spacing in feet): next diameter bit fits into the orifice or the drill bit can

Irrigation Guide
be moved sideways more than 5 degrees. Wear is (ii) Continuous (self) move—This type sprinkler
typically caused from abrasive sediment in the water. system includes center pivot, linear, or lateral move.
Often excessive wear creates an oblong opening and is
readily apparent. Equipment—The equipment needed includes:
• Soil auger, probe, small diameter (1 inch) push
Utilization of field data—The following steps type core sampler.
should be used with field data: • Calibrated catch containers or rain gauges.
• Measuring tape (50 ft).
Step 1—Was the soil dry enough to start irrigating? • Pressure gauge with pitot tube attachment.
Was it too dry? What was the soil-water deficit at Suggest using liquid filled pressure gauges for
various locations in the field ahead of the sprinkler? increased durability, plus the indicator needle
does not flutter when making a reading.
Step 2—Compare the SWD to application. How does • Electrical resistance meter (tick meter) to check
the crop look? Is there evidence of under irrigation, for stray voltage.
salinity problems, overirrigation? Are there obvious • Stakes to set containers or rain gauges above
sprinkler application pattern problems? dry spots? dry crop canopy.
strips? donut-shaped patterns?
Procedures—The following procedures should be
Step 3—Is there soil erosion, water translocation, or used in the evaluation.
runoff? Is it general or only at specific locations? This
indicates whether the application rate is too great. A Step 1—Safety precautions should be followed before
solution may be to improve irrigation water or tillage touching or climbing upon an electric powered self
management rather than changing hardware. moving lateral system. Check for stray electric cur-
rents with a properly grounded tick meter or other
Step 4—Are sprinkler heads vertical and are self approved equipment or methods, then use the back of
leveling risers on wheel lines operating properly? Are the hand to briefly touch metal lateral components the
sprinkler heads rotating evenly and timely? (They first time. Don’t grab any part of the system until it is
should rotate at 1 to 2 revolutions per minute.) Do checked. Muscles in the hand and fingers contract
sprinkler head type, nozzle size, and pressure match when subjected to electrical currents, causing the
spacing on lateral and along mainline and design? If it fingers to close and stay closed. If portable ladders are
is apparent that sprinkler heads along the wheel line used to reach any of the sprinkler heads, it is advisable
are not plumb, installation of self leveling heads to use ladders made from OSHA approved nonconduc-
should be recommended. Installing new, proper sized tive material. Hooks should be installed on the upper
nozzles can be one of the most cost effective opera- end of the ladder because the system moves during the
tional inprovements. evaluation.
Step 5—If possible, check the original design. Is the Step 2—Uniformly place catch containers or rain
system being operated in accordance with the design gauges at or slightly above the crop canopy equidistant
(pressure, hours of each set, return frequency)? apart (the closer the spacing the more accurate the
Should redesign be considered? results, generally not greater than 30 feet apart) and
ahead of the moving lateral so the lateral will cross
Step 6—Are gaskets in good condition with no exces- perpendicular over them. For best accuracy, two rows
sive leaks? Are nozzles plugged or partly plugged? Are of catch containers are set out and catch is averaged.
return springs broken? Is a screening system needed? However, one row is typically used to provide informa-
If the nozzles are oversize, of varying size, or worn, tion needed to make general decisions. For center
they should be replaced. Replacement with new pivot systems, select representative spans near the
nozzles of uniform size generally is one of the most middle and end of the lateral.
cost effective actions an irrigator can take.
Catch containers or rain gauges are often omitted
within 400 feet of the pivot point, as containers repre-
sent a small area (less than 3 acres). Uniformly space

Irrigation Guide
containers or rain gauges within each test section. The Step 1—Uniformly space catch containers or rain
nearer to the outer end of the lateral, the shorter time gauges across the path of the traveling sprinkler.
period required for the lateral to pass over the catch Catch should represent a cross section of the total
containers. Let the lateral completely cross the con- application. When the sprinkler has completely passed
tainers. The start-stop operation of self move systems, over the catch containers, measure the depth of water
evaporation losses between night and day operation, in each can and record the distance from the sprinkler
and changing wind speeds and direction can cause travel path. Combine sprinkler catch where lap would
nonuniformity in catch volume for a single spot. If this have occurred. Calculate the average irrigation appli-
appears to be a problem, use two lines of containers or cation.
rain gauges at different lateral positions. Use the same
container spacing and start distance from pivot point Step 2—With water shut off, use calipers (for im-
for both rows of catch containers. Water caught in proved accuracy) to check inside diameter of nozzles
containers positioned at the same distance from the on big gun sprinkler heads. It is rather difficult and
pivot point represent the same area on the lateral. hazardous to check nozzle discharge with a hose and
Averages should be used. Identify tower positions bucket or use nozzle pressure with a pitot tube on a
when laying out catch containers for later reference pressure gauge. If attempted, hold the driving arm
when presenting results to the irrigation decision- down to prevent sprinkler head rotation. An access
maker. plug that is often near the base of the big gun can be
used to temporarily install a pressure gauge. Line
If containers are left for an extended time, a small pressure should be corrected for elevation of the
amount of mineral oil placed in them will reduce nozzle. Manufacturer charts and tables should be
evaporation effects. referenced.
Step 3—Calculate the average depth of water caught in Utilization of field data—The following steps
all containers to find average application depth for the should be used with the field data:
length of lateral tested. The longer the lateral length
tested, the more representative the average depth of Step 1—Was the soil dry enough to start irrigating?
application. Testing the full length of the lateral would Was it too dry? What was the soil-water deficit (SWD)
represent the total area, but requires more time. Oper- at various locations in the field ahead of the sprinkler?
ating pressure should be measured at several points following the sprinkler?
along the lateral.
Step 2—Compare the soil-water deficit (SWD) to the
Special and unique field catch devices and evalua- water application. How does the crop look? Is there
tion procedures must be used for low energy preci- evidence of under irrigation? salinity problems?
sion application (LEPA), low pressure in-canopy overirrigation? Are there obvious sprinkler application
(LPIC), and low pressure systems using specialty pattern problems? dry spots? dry strips? donut shaped
heads. patterns? wet areas?
(iii) Continuous (self) move—This type sprinkler Step 3—Is there soil erosion, water translocation, or
system includes the traveling gun sprinkler. field runoff? Is it general or only at specific locations?
These items indicate whether application rate is too
Equipment—The equipment needed includes: great. A solution may be to improve irrigation water or
• Soil auger, probe, push type core sampler. tillage management rather than changing hardware.
• Calibrated catch containers or rain gauges. Increasing traveler speed to apply less water or
• Pressure gauge with pitot tube attachment. changing tillage to increase soil surface storage are
Suggest using liquid filled pressure gauges for examples of low cost management changes.
increased durability plus the indicator needle
does not flutter when making a reading. Step 4—Are sprinkler heads positioned vertically? Are
sprinkler heads rotating evenly and timely? Do sprin-
Procedures—The following procedures should be kler head type, nozzle size, pressure, and lane spacing
used in the evaluation. match the design?

Irrigation Guide
Step 5—If possible, check the original design. Is the Step 2—Use a probe or push core sampler to deter-
system being operated in accordance with the design mine wetted area and depth of water penetration for
(pressure, speed, return frequency)? Should redesign all types of emitter devices, including single and line-
be considered? source emitters for both surface installed and buried
laterals. Wetted width should reach the drip line of
Step 6—Are gaskets in good condition with no exces- plants (perennials). Wetted depth should reach poten-
sive leaks? Are nozzles and equipment worn? Is a tial root zone depth. For annual plants, such as row
screening system needed? Should nozzles be replaced? crops, wetted width should be at a planned width, but
generally not less than 50 to 65 percent of the total
Step 7—Are there water, soil, or plant management surface area.
changes that can be made to reduce beneficial water
use, fertilizer use, or water loss? (iii) Utilization of field data—The following steps
should be used with the field data:
(4) Micro systems
(i) Equipment—The equipment needed includes: Step 1—Was the soil dry enough to start irrigating?
• Soil auger, probe, or small diameter (1 inch) Was it too dry? What was the soil-water deficit (SWD)
push core sampler. at various locations in the field ahead of the emitter
• Catch devices, graduated cylinder with 250 mL system? following irrigation? If soils are uniform, a
capacity. Devices used for catching discharge are previous irrigation can be used.
generally home crafted so the catch device is
fitted to the specific type of emitter device(s). Step 2—Compare the soil-water deficit to application.
Examples of catch devices are: How does the crop look? Is there evidence of under
— Troughs made from rain gutter (preferably irrigation, salinity problems, or overirrigation? Are
plastic) or rigid plastic pipe (cut in half there obvious pattern or distribution problems?
longitudinally) for line source emitters.
— Single catch container for single emitters. Step 3—Are visible emitters operating properly? Are
— Cut and fit 2-liter plastic soda bottles for minispray heads and sprinklers rotating evenly and
minispray heads (fig. 9–13) timely?
• Watch with second hand or stop watch.
• Pressure gauge with special adapters to fit poly- Step 4—If possible, check the original design. Is the
ethylene pipe microsystem fittings. system being operated in accordance with the design
• Manufacturer emitter performance charts. (pressure, hours of each set, return frequency)?
• Measuring tape. Should redesign be considered?
(ii) Procedures—The following procedures should Step 5—Are there excessive leaks? Are emitters or
be used for the evaluation. nozzles plugged? Is the filter system appropriate and
being operated satisfactory?
Step 1—Set catch devices under selected drippers or
over minispray heads and sprinklers, or both. Check- Step 6—Compare catch against manufacturer’s flow
ing a few emitters can give an idea if a detail evalua- rate chart. Discharge variation could be because of
tion is necessary. Figure 9–13 shows a home fabri- plugging, inadequate or excessive pressure, excessive
cated catch device made from a 2-liter plastic soda main, submain and lateral head loss, or manufacturing
bottle that can be used to catch flow from minispray discharge variation.
heads and sprinklers. Check operating pressure at
head and end of lateral or wherever possible and Step 7—Are there water, soil, or plant management
practical. Fittings may need to be installed. A low changes that can be made to reduce water use, water
range reading pressure gauge (0 to 20 psi) may be lost to nonbeneficial uses, and fertilizer use?
necessary to obtain reasonably accurate pressure
readings. Do not raise a micro irrigation emitter device
more than a few inches. Raising the emitter reduces
the operating pressure and discharge.

Irrigation Guide
Figure 9–13 Minispray head catch device (made from a 2-liter plastic soft drink bottle)
Step 1. Make cuts as shown

Part 1
To be the new spout.
Cut just below stiffener ring.
Part 2
Cut just below shoulder.
Part 3
Cut hole same diameter as threaded neck.
Step 2.
Invert part 3
Insert part 2 into part 3 as shown.
,
Enlarge hole in part 2 as needed so it
Step 3. fits over minispray heads.
, ,
Insert part 1 through hole from inside of part 3.
Seal with silicone caulking compound.
Seal with silicone caulking compound.

Allow silicone caulking compound to cure before using.
Operation:
Place device over minispray head, allow flow from
spout to stabilize, check for splash losses, and make
field adjustments as necessary.

Irrigation Guide
(g) Detailed irrigation system Providing detailed field evaluations is time consuming
evaluation procedures and must be comprehensive enough to provide de-
tailed recommendations for improvements to both
More detailed irrigation system evaluations are occa- management and system operations.
sionally needed when complete field data, including
pattern uniformity and distribution efficiency, are This part of chapter 9 describes procedures for per-
needed at a particular site. The first-step procedures forming detailed irrigation system evaluations. In-
described in 652.0904(c) should always be completed cluded are detailed procedures for performing irriga-
before deciding to expend the considerable time and tion system evaluations for surface, sprinkle, micro,
effort required to do a complete irrigation system and and subirrigation systems and for pumps. Examples
management evaluation. Each detailed system evalua- and blank worksheets are included in chapter 15 of
tion consumes from one to five staff person days, this guide.
depending on type of irrigation system. The objective
of any evaluation is to improve irrigation system (1) Graded border irrigation systems
operation and water management. Improving water use efficiency of border irrigation has
great potential for conserving irrigation water and
The product for the irrigation decisionmaker would be improving downstream water quality. A detailed
an evaluation report and a comprehensive irrigation evaluation can provide the information for design or
system operation and management plan. Depending on help to properly operate and manage a graded border
local concerns and priorities (i.e., water quantity or irrigation system. It can help the irrigation
quality), it may be desirable to set up multi-agency decisionmaker determine proper border inflows,
sponsored IWM teams that have the necessary full- lengths of run, and time of inflow for specific field and
time staff and equipment to provide assistance to farm crop conditions. It should also be recognized that soil
managers and irrigation decisionmakers. Irrigation intake characteristics have the biggest influence on
decisionmakers should be present during the evalua- application uniformity. Intake rate for a specific soil
tion so they can observe measurements being taken. series and surface texture varies from farm to farm,
The weighted importance (or effect) of measured field to field, and throughout the growing season;
observations can also be discussed. typically because of the field preparation, cultivation
and harvest equipment, and other field traffic.
In addition to site specific benefits derived from a
complete evaluation for the irrigation decisionmaker, To approximate the infiltration amount (intake rate)
collected field data can support or modify estimated based upon advance and opportunity time for a bor-
values in the local irrigation guide. The data can be der, a correlation is made using cylinder infiltration
used as a basis for future irrigation system planning test data. A detailed irrigation system evaluation can
and design. Another benefit is local on-the-job training identify soil intake characteristics for site conditions
opportunities for NRCS irrigation personnel. The best within that particular field. It can also provide valuable
way to learn about planning, designing, and operating data to support local irrigation guides for planning
irrigation systems is to closely observe and evaluate graded border irrigation systems on other farms on
irrigation system(s) operation and management as similar soils.
they are taking place. Every person performing irriga-
tion planning and design should occasionally go (i) Equipment—The equipment needed for a
through a complete evaluation on each type of system graded border irrigation system includes:
being used in the area. It is a fantastic learning oppor- • Engineers level and rod, 100 foot tape
tunity. To become adequately experienced in irrigation • Pocket tape marked in inches and tenths/hun-
to where sound knowledgeable and practical recom- dredths of feet
mendations can be made, typically is a long-term • Stakes or flags, marker for stakes or flags
process. True communication takes place when the • Measuring devises for measuring inflow and
irrigation decisionmaker perceives the consultant’s outflow
knowledge being equal to or expanded beyond their • Carpenters level for setting flumes or weirs.
own. • Cylinder infiltrometer (minimum of 4 rings) set
with hook gauge and driving hammer and plate

Irrigation Guide
• Equipment for determining soil moisture Set stakes or flags at 50- to 100-foot stations down the
amounts (feel and appearance charts, Speedy center of the border to be evaluated. Mark stations so
moisture meter and Eley Volumeter, or Madera readings can be observed from at least 50 feet; i.e.,
sampler and soil moisture sample cans) border dike or adjacent border. Determine field eleva-
• Water supply and buckets to provide tion at each station and for a typical cross section of
infiltrometers with water the border.
• Soil auger, push tube sampler, probe, shovel
• Graded border evaluation worksheet, clipboard, Record border width (center to center of border dike),
and pencil strip width (distance between toes of border dikes),
• Soils data for field and wetted width (width to which water soaks or
• Stop watch, camera spreads beyond the edge of dike).
• Boots
Set flumes, weirs, or other measuring devices at the
(ii) Procedures—The field procedures needed for upper end of the border and at the lower end if runoff
this system are in two main categories: General and is to be measured. Continuous water level recorders
inventory and data collection. in the measuring devices may be convenient to use.
General Part of the objective during a detail evaluation is to

determine infiltration rate under actual field condi-
Choose a typical location in the field to be irrigated. tions using cylinder infiltrometers. Set three to five
The typical location should be representative of the cylinder infiltrometers in carefully chosen typical
type of soil for which the entire field is managed. Use locations within the border strip. Generally the most
standard soil surveys, where available, to locate bor- convenient location is a couple of hundred feet from
der evaluation sites. Then have a qualified person the upper end of the strip (close to the water supply).
determine the actual surface texture, restricted layers, Continuous water level recorders are convenient to
depth, and other soil characteristics that affect irriga- use in the infiltrometers. USDA publications reviewing
tion. Soil surveys are generally inadequate for this the installation of the cylinders are nearly nonexistent.
level of detail. Almost all mapping units have inclu- See Part 652.0905(b) for additional information on
sions of other soil. Extension of results to other areas installation and operation of cylinders.
also has more reliability. The site selected should
allow measurement of runoff if it occurs. The evalua- Step 3—Estimate soil water deficit at several locations
tion should be run at a time when soil moisture condi- along the border. Use the feel and appearance method,
tions are similar to conditions when irrigation would Eley Volumeter/Speedy Moisture Meter, push type
normally be initiated. This procedure is described in core sampler and gravimetric, or some other portable
the following steps. method. Pick one location as being typical for the
border strip and record the data for that location on
Step 1—Obtain information from the irrigation the worksheet.
decisionmaker about the field and how it is irrigated;
i.e., irrigation set time; borders irrigated per set with Step 4—At the same time make note of soil profile
typical inflow rates, advance rates (times), adjust- conditions. With uniform soils, this can be done in an
ments made during irrigation set time, and number of adjacent border during a later portion of the test when
irrigations per season; and tillage and harvesting infiltration rates are typically slower. Soil conditions
equipment. to consider include:
• Depth to water table
Step 2—Record field observations, such as crops • Apparent root depth of existing or previous crop
grown, crop color differences in different parts of the (to determine effective plant root zone)
border or field, crop uniformity, salinity, and wet • Restrictive (compacted) soil layers to root devel-
areas. Also make field observations concerning ero- opment and water movement; i.e., tillage pans
sion and sediment deposition areas. The border to be • Mineral layers
evaluated should have uniform cross slope grade and • Hard pans or bedrock
uniform downslope grade. • Soil textural changes

Irrigation Guide
Inventory and data collection the area is covered by water. Another method is to
judge when there is about as much cleared area below
Steps to following during irrigation are: the station as there is above the station.
Step 1—Irrigate with inflow rates normally used by the Step 8—On slopes of less than 0.5 percent, a smaller
irrigator, and record starting time. proportion of the water moves down the strip. Some
water may be trapped in small depressions and may
Step 2—Measure and record the inflow rate at 5- to 10- not be absorbed for some time after surrounding areas
minute intervals until it reaches a constant rate. Dur- are clear. The important thing is to determine when
ing the trial, periodically check inflow rate and record the intake opportunity time has essentially ceased. The
the values. More frequent checks are needed if the recession time may be recorded for a station when 80
inflow rate fluctuates considerably. to 90 percent of the area between it and the next
upstream station has no water on the surface.
Step 3—Observe and record how well water spreads
across as water advances down the border strip. Step 9—Immediately after recession, use a probe or
auger to check depth of water penetration at several
Step 4—Record the time when the leading edge of the locations down the border. A check at this time will
water reaches each station. If the leading edge is an indicate the depth to which water has already perco-
irregular line across the border strip, average the time lated. A ball type probe (a 1/2-inch diameter ball
as different parts of the leading edge reach the station. welded onto the end of a 3/8-inch diameter push
probe) is handy for this task. In the absence of rock,
Step 5—Fill cylinder infiltrometers (rings) as the the probe inserts easily where soil has been lubricated
leading edge of the water flow in the border passes by water, and stops abruptly when the wetted front
through the test site. An alternative to measuring (dry soil) is encountered.
infiltration while the border is being irrigated is to
build berms (or install a larger ring) around Step 10—If possible, check for adequacy and unifor-
infiltrometers being measured. Maintain water be- mity of irrigation time when the soil profile has
tween the berm and infiltrometer ring at the same time reached field capacity. Sandy soils can be checked 4 to
water is poured into and measured inside infiltrometer 24 hours after irrigation. Clayey soils typically are
rings. Using a hook gauge or other water level record- checked about 48 hours after irrigation when most
ing device, record water levels in each infiltrometer at gravitational water has drained.
times shown on the infiltrometer worksheet. See
procedure and worksheets in section 652.0905, Soil Step 11—If field capacity must be established, deter-
intake determination procedure. mine the soil water content when checking the ad-
equacy of irrigation. With uniform soils, a previously
Step 6—If there is runoff, record the time when it irrigated border strip can be used for this purpose at
starts. If outflow is being measured, periodically the same time cylinder infiltrometer rings are being
measure the flow rate and record the rate and time of observed.
measurement until it ceases.
(iii) Evaluation computations—Information
Step 7—Record the time when water is turned off at gathered in the field procedures is used in the detailed
the head of the border and the time water recedes past system evaluation computations. Example 9–2 outlines
each station. This requires good judgment. On slopes computations used to complete the Surface Irrigation
of 0.5 percent or greater, a large part of the water System Detailed Evaluation Graded Border Worksheet
remaining in the border strip when the supply is shut (exhibit 9–2)
off may move downslope in a fairly uniform manner.
On these fields, record recession time at each station
when the water has disappeared from the area above
it. If the recession line across the border strip is irregu-
lar, record the time when less than 10 to 20 percent of

Irrigation Guide
Exhibit 9–2 Completed worksheet—Surface irrigation system, detailed evaluation of graded border system
U.S. Department of Agriculture Sheet 1 of 8

Example - Surface Irrigation System Detailed Evaluation

Graded Border Worksheet
Joe Example
Land user __________________________________________________ Field office ____________________________________
West 40
Field name/number ________________________________________________________________________________________
Observer ____________________ Date ______________________ Checked by ________________________ Date ___________
Field Data Inventory:

40
Field area ____________________________ acres
5
Border number ________________________ North
as counted from the __________________________ side of field
Alfalfa
Crop ________________________________ Root zone depth ____________________ ft 3.6
MAD ________________________%
Stage of crop _____________________________________________________________________________________________
Soil-water data for controlling soil:

2+00
Station ____________________________ Feel & appearance
Moisture determination method __________________________________________
Glenberg loam
Soil series name ________________________________________________________________________________________
Depth Texture AWC (in)* SWD (%)* SWD (in)*

0 - 1'
____________ L
______________________________ 2.0
_________________ 50
_________________ 1.0
_________________
1 - 2'
____________ LFS
______________________________ 1.5
_________________ 40
_________________ 0.7
_________________
2 - 3.5'
____________ VFLS
______________________________ 2.2
_________________ 40
_________________ 0.9
_________________
3.5 - 5.0'
____________ GLS
______________________________ 1.5
_________________ 20
_________________ 0.3
_________________
____________ ______________________________ _________________ _________________ _________________
Total 7.2
_________________ 2.9
_________________
50 X 7.2
MAD, in = MAD, % x total AWC, in = __________________________________________________________ 3.6
= ______________ in
100 100
Compact layer @ 10 - 14 inches
Comments about soils: ______________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.5
Typical irrigation duration __________________ 14
hr, irrigation frequency ___________________ days
12 +/-
Typical number of irrigation's per year ______________________________
22.1
Annual net irrigation requirement, NIR (from irrigation guide) ________________________ in
Siphon tubes from concrete lined head ditch
Type of delivery system (gated pipe, turnouts, siphon tubes) ________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
5 - 4" siphon tubes per border

Delivery system size data (pipe size & gate spacing, tube size & length, turnout size) ____________________________________
30'
Border spacing ________________, 28'
Strip width __________________, 29'
Wetted width ________________, 700'
Length _____________
Field Observations:
Notes
Evenness of water spread across border ________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Notes
Crop uniformity ____________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Notes
Other observations _________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
NOTE: MAD = Management allowed deficit AWC = Available water capacity SWD = Soil water deficit

Irrigation Guide
Exhibit 9–2 Completed worksheet—Surface irrigation system, detailed evaluation of graded border system—Continued


Data: X
Inflow __________ Outflow ___________
5– 4"x10' Al. siphon tubes

Type of measuring device __________________________________________________________________________________
Clock 1/ Elapsed ∆T Gage Flow Average Volume 2/ Cum.

time time (min) H rate flow rate volume
(min) (ft) (gpm) (gpm) (ac-in) (ac-in)
Turn on
(1051) 0 .25 490

9 525 .1740 .1740
1100 9 .33 560
10 625 .2302 .4042
1110 19 .50 690
10 657 .2402 .6462
1120 29 .41 625
15 627 .3464 .9926
1135 44 .42 630
15 632 .3491 1.3417
1150 59 .43 635
38 635 .8887 2.2304
1228 97 .43 635
Turn off
(1228)
2.23
Total volume (ac-in) __________________
Average flow rate =
2.23 x 60.5 1.4

Total irrigation volume (ac-in) x 60.5 = ________________________ = _______ ft3/s
Inflow time (min) 97
Unit flow:
1.4 0.047
qu = Average flow rate = ____________________________ = __________ ft3/s/ft
Border strip spacing 30
1/ Use a 24-hour clock reading; i.e., 1:30 p.m. should be recorded as 1330 hours.
2/ Flow rate to volume factors:
Find volume using ft3/s: Volume (ac-in) = .01653 x time (min) x flow (ft3/s)
Find volume using gpm: Volume (ac-in) = .00003683 x time (min) x flow (gpm)

Irrigation Guide


Graded border advance recession data
Advance time Recession time

Station Clock* Elapsed Clock* Elapsed Opportunity
(ft) time ∆T time time T time 1/ time (To)
(min) (min) (min) (min)
Turn off Inflow T 2/

Lag (97)
0+00 Turn on (1228)
(13)
0+00 (1051) 0 1241 110 110
10 35
1+00 1101 10 1316 145 135
14 16
2+00 1115 24 1332 161 137
12 16
3+00 1127 36 1348 177 141
14 8
4+00 1141 50 1356 185 135
15 5
5+00 1156 65 1401 190 125
19 3
6+00 1215 84 1404 193 109
26 3
7+00 1241 110 1407 196 86
*Use a 24 -hour clock reading; i.e., 1:30 p.m. would be recorded as 1330 hours.
1/ Time since water was turned on.

2/ Inflow time = turn off time - turn on time.

Irrigation Guide

Example - Surface Irrigation System

Detailed Evaluation Graded Border Worksheet
Depth infiltrated
Typical intake curve Adjusted intake curve
Station Opportunity Depth 2/ Ave. depth Depth 3/ Ave. depth
time 1/ infiltrated infiltrated infiltrated infiltrated
TQ (in) (in) (in) (in)
(min)
0+00 110 3.6 4.0

1+00 135 4.1 3.9 4.5 4.3
2+00 137 4.1 4.1 4.5 4.5
3+00 141 4.2 4.2 4.7 4.6
4+00 135 4.1 4.1 4.5 4.6
5+00 125 3.9 4.0 4.3 4.4
6+00 109 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.1
7+00 86 3.1 3.3 3.4 3.7
Border extension
8+00 2.3
9+00 0
Sum of ave. depths

31.3 34.5
1/ Difference in time between advance and recession curve.
2/ From "typical" cumulative intake curve.
3/ From "adjusted" cumulative intake curve.
Average depth infiltrated (typical)

= Sum of depths (typical) 31.3
= ___________________ = ________ in34.5
Length (hundreds of feet-extended) 9
Extended border area (acres)
900 x 29 0.60
= Extended border length x wetted width = ___________________ = ________ acres
43,560 43,560
Actual average depth applied to extended border length

1.4 x 97/60 3.8
= Ave inflow (ft3/s) x duration (hr) = ______________________ = __________ in
Extended border area (acres) 0.60
Average depth infiltrated (adjusted)
= Sum of depths (adjusted) 34.5
= ______________________ = __________ in 3.8
Length (hundreds of feet - extended) 9
Note: Should be close to actual depth applied.

Irrigation Guide


Average depth infiltrated low 1/4 (LQ):
700
Low 1/4 strip length = Actual strip length = _____________________________________ = _________________ ft 175
4 4
LQ = (Depth infiltrated at begin of L1/4 strip) + (Depth infiltrated at the end of L1/4 strip)
2
4.2 + 3.4
= _____________________________________ = _______________ in 3.8
2
Areas under depth curve:
1. Whole curve 33.9

______________sq in
2. Runoff 4.4
______________sq in
3. Deep percolation 9.2
______________sq in
4. Low quarter infiltration 26.6
______________sq in
Actual border strip area:
700 + 29 .47
= (Actual border length, ft) x (Wetted width, ft) = ______________________________ = ______________ acres
43,560 43,560
Distribution uniformity low 1/4 (DU):
26.6 x 100
DU = Low quarter infiltration area x 100 = _______________________________ = _____________% 92
(Whole curve area - runoff area) 33.4 - 4.4
Runoff (RO):
4.4 x 100
RO, % = Runoff area x 100 = _________________________________________ = _____________ % 13
Whole curve area 33.9
2.23 x 13
RO = Total irrigation volume, ac-in x RO, % = _____________________________ = _____________ in 0.62
Actual strip area, ac x 100 .47 x 100
Deep percolation, DP:
9.2 x 100 28
DP = Deep percolation area x 100 = ___________________________________ = ______________ %
33.9
2.23 x 28
DP = Total irrigation volume, ac-in x DP, % = _____________________________ 1.33
= ______________ in

Irrigation Guide


Evaluation computations, cont:
Gross application, Fg:
2.23
Fg = Total irrigation volume, ac-in = _________________________________________ = _______________ in 4.7
Actual strip area, ac .47
Application efficiency, Ea:
(Average depth stored in root zone = Soil water deficit (SWD) if entire root zone depth will be filled to
field capacity by this irrigation, otherwise use Fg, in - RO, in)
2.9 x 100
Ea = Average depth stored in root zone x 100 = _________________________________ = _______________ % 62
Gross application, in 4.7
Application efficiency low 1/4, Eq:
92 x 62
Eq = DU x Ea, % = _____________________________________________________ = ________________ % 56.8
100 100
Average net application, Fn
2.23 x 56.8
Fn = Total irrigated volume, ac-in x Ea, % = _________________________________ = ________________ % 2.7
Time factors:
3.0
Required opportunity time to infiltrate soil water deficit of ______________________ in
70
To = __________________ 1
min (________________ 10
hr - _____________________ min)
Estimated required irrigation inflow time from adv.-recession curves;

81 1 21
Tin = _________________ min (________________ hr - _____________________ min)
At inflow rate of:

1.4
Q = ______________________ ft3/s per border strip

Irrigation Guide


Present management:
3.0
Estimated present average net application per irrigation _____________________ inches
Present gross applied per year = Net applied per irrigation x number of irrigations x 100
Application efficiency (Ea)1/
3.0 x 12 x 100
= _______________________________________ = ______________ in 58
62
1/ Use the best estimate of what the application efficiency of a typical irrigation during the season may be.
The application efficiency from irrigation to irrigation can vary depending on the SWD, set times, etc. If the
irrigator measures flow during the season, use that information.
Potential management:
22.1 alfalfa
Annual net irrigation requirement _________________ inches, for ______________________________ (crop)
70
Potential application efficiency (Epa) _______________________ percent (from irrigation guide, NEH or
other source)
Potential annual gross applied = Annual net irrigation requirement x 100

Potential application efficiency (Epa)
22.1 x 100
= _______________________________________ = _____________ in 31.6
70
Total annual water conserved
= (Present gross applied - potential gross applied) x area irrigation (ac)

12
(58 - 31.6) x 40 91
= ________________________________________________________ = ________________ acre feet
12
Annual cost savings:
55 electric
Pumping plant efficiency _________________________ Kind of fuel _________________________________
7¢/kwh 14.33
Cost per unit of fuel _____________________________ Fuel cost per acre foot $ ______________________
Cost savings = Fuel cost per acre foot x acre feet conserved per year
14.33 x 91
= __________________________________ = $ ________________ 1304

Irrigation Guide


Potential water and cost savings, cont.
Water purchase cost
12 x 91
= Cost per acre foot x acre feet saved per year = ____________________________
1092
= $ _______________________
1304 + 1092 2396

Cost savings = pumping cost + water cost = __________________________________ = $ _______________________
Recommendations
Notes
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________

Irrigation Guide
Example 9–2 Evaluation computation steps
1. Plot the border downslope profile and cross section.

The plot displayed in figure 9–14 shows uniformity of downslope and cross slope. Average downslope
gradient is determined.
Figure 9–14 Border downslope profile and cross-section
Profile and Cross Section Joe Example

Land user ____________________
Date _________________________
Field office ____________________
Cross Section at sta. __________
3
Rod Reading or elevation - feet
4
0 10 20 30 40
Distance - feet
Profile
2
3
Slop
e=0
.003
5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Distance (stations) - feet x 100

Irrigation Guide
Example 9–2 Evaluation computation steps—Continued
2. Compute the soil water deficit (SWD). Compute SWD as shown on worksheet at the test location.
This is the net depth of application (Fn) needed for the evaluated irrigation.
3. Plot a cumulative intake curve for each infiltrometer. Using log-log paper (fig. 9–15), plot the
cumulative intake curve for each infiltrometer and the average of all infiltrometers used. Example field
cylinder infiltrometer data are shown in figure 9–16. After all curves have been plotted on the same sheet
and deviations have been considered, a typical straight line can be drawn for use in the evaluation. The
typical position is later adjusted to represent the duration of irrigation used by the irrigator.
Figure 9–15 Cylinder infiltrometer curves
Cylinder Infiltrometer Curves Joe Example

Land user ____________________
Date _________________________
Field office ____________________
10.0
8.0
e
tak
m . in
5.0
c cu
ea
Accumulated intake - inches
4.0 g
era
x Av
3.0
x
2.0 x
No. 4
x
No. 2 x
1.0
x No. 1
0.8 No. 3
0.6
0.5
5 10 20 30 50 100 200 300 500 1,000 2,000
Elapsed time - minutes

Irrigation Guide
Figure 9–16 Cylinder infiltrometer test data

National Resources Conservation Service
Cylinder Infiltrometer Test Data NRCS-ENG-322

02-96
FARM COUNTY STATE LEGAL DESCRIPTION DATE

Joe Example NW 1/4 S27, T3N, R28E
SOIL MAPPING SYMBOL SOIL TYPE SOIL MOISTURE: 0' - 1' - % of available 40%
Glenberg Loam 1' - 2' - % of available 50%
CROP STAGE OF GROWTH
Alfalfa 1 week after cutting
GENERAL COMMENTS
Compacted layer between 10 & 14 inches
Cylinder No. 1 Cylinder No. 2 Cylinder No. 3 Cylinder No. 4 Cylinder No. 5
Elapsed time
Average accum.
Time Hook Accum. Time Hook Accum. Time Hook Accum. Time Hook Accum. Time Hook Accum.
intake
of gage intake of gage intake of gage intake of gage intake of gage intake
reading reading reading reading reading reading reading reading reading reading
Min. Inches Inches Inches Inches Inches
0 11:15 1.80 0 11:16 2.10 0 11:18 3.21 0 11.19 4.10 0 0

5 11:20 2.44 .64 11:22 2.80 .70 11:23 3.56 .35 11:24 5.30 1.20 .72
10 11:25 2.57 .77 11:26 3.05 .95 11:27 3.64 .43 11:28 5.75 1.65 .95
20 11:35 2.76 .96 11:37 3.45 1.35 11:38 3.72 .51 11:39 6.30 2.20 1.26
30 11:45 2.95 1.15 11:46 3.80 1.70 11:47 3.82 .61 11:48 6.85 2.75 1.55
45 12:00 3.25 1.45 12:01 4.35 2.25 12:03 3.97 .76 12:04 7.60 3.50 1.99
60 12:15 3.58 1.78 12:17 4.80 2.70 12:18 4.15 .94 12:19 8.20 4.10 2.38
90 12:45 4.05 2.25 12:46 5.50 3.40 12:47 4.51 1.30 12:47 9.20 5.10 3.01
10.10/
120 13:15 4.50 2.70 13:16 6.10 4.00 13.17 4.91 1.70 13.18 3.90 6.00 3.60
180 14:15 5.30 3.50 14:17 7.50 5.40 14:18 5.71 2.50 14:19 5.6 7.70 4.78
240 15:15 6.20 4.40 15:16 8.80 6.70 15:18 6.61 3.40 15:19 6.9 9.00 5.88

Irrigation Guide
4. Plot advance and recession curves (time versus distance) using figure 9–17. If runoff was not
measured, extend the advance and recession curves where the lines intersect (close the ends off). This
extended area represents an estimate of border runoff.
Figure 9–17 Advance and recession curves
Joe Example
Land user ____________________
Advance and recession curves Date ________________________
Field office ___________________
250
Curve extensions
200 urves
Rec ession c
)
(adjusted
150
ion curve
Irrigat
100
cu rves
50 d va nce )
A sted
(adju
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Irrigation Guide
5. Plot the adjusted cumulative intake curve:

• Determine and record opportunity time for each station, including extended curves on the worksheet.
At each station on the border, the opportunity time (time water was on the ground) is determined by
measuring the vertical interval (time) between the advance and recession curves.
• Determine and record the depth infiltrated for each station using the opportunity times from the
typical cumulative intake curve. Do this for all stations to the extended end of the plotted advance
and recession curves. Plotted points beyond the end of the field represent field runoff.
• Compute the average depth of water infiltrated for each station on the worksheet. The depth for a
partial station at the end should be proportional to the station length. Total these average depths.
• Determine average typical depth:
Sum of ave. depths (typical)
Ave. typical depth =
Length (hundreds of ft)1/
To check if the location of the typical curve is correct, the actual average depth of water applied is
computed:
Ave. depth of water applied =

(
(Average inflow, in ft 3 /s) × Duration, in hr )
(Extended border strip area, in acres)
(Use the wetted border width and extended border length to compute the area of the border)
• Correct curve, if needed. A correction is often needed because the infiltrometers check the infiltration
at only one spot in the border strip. However, the slope of that curve is probably typical of the average
curve for the strip. An adjusted curve, since it is based on the infiltrometer curve slope and actual
average depth infiltrated, closely represents the average cumulative intake curve for the border strip
and the field.
• Draw an adjusted cumulative intake curve parallel to the typical intake curve prepared from plotted
points. The adjusted curve is located as follows:
Using the average intake curve and the average depth infiltrated (3.48 inches), find the corre-
sponding average opportunity time (100 minutes). Then plot a point on 100 minutes and the
actual depth applied (3.8 inches). Now draw a line parallel to the average intake curve and
through the point at 100 minutes and 3.8 inches. This is the adjusted intake curve. This curve
can be plotted on the same worksheet as the field curves or on a separate worksheet. See
figure 9–18.
• As a check, the adjusted depths at each station are determined and recorded on page 5 of the
worksheet. The averages of these depths are computed and their total is used to compute the adjusted
average depth, which should compare closely to the computed actual depth for extended border
length:
Sum of average depths (adjusted)
Adjusted ave. depth =
(Length, hundreds of ft)1/
1/ Would be 50 feet, if 50-foot stations are used.

Irrigation Guide
Figure 9–18 Cylinder infiltrometer curve
Cylinder infiltrometer Curves Joe Example

Land user ____________________
Date _________________________
Field office ____________________
10.0
8.0
5.0
4.0
3.8/100 min.
3.0 3.48/100 min.
2.0
u rve
te dc
s
Adju
1.0
Average accum. intake
0.8
0.6
0.5
5 10 20 30 50 100 200 300 500 1,000 2,000

Irrigation Guide
6. Plot a depth infiltrated curve (fig. 9–19) as follows:

• Plot a cumulative depth infiltrated versus distance curve using depths read from the adjusted intake
curve recorded in the previous step.
• Draw a horizontal line at a depth equal to the soil water deficit (SWD).
• Draw a vertical line at the end of border.
• Determine location and length of the low quarter segment of the actual border length. In most cases,
this is located at the lower end of the border if blocked ends are not used. On steeply sloping borders,
it can occur at the upper end.
Actual border length, ft
Low 1/4 length =
4
• Compute average depth infiltrated for low quarter:

 1  1
 Depth infiltrated begin of low  +  depth infiltrated end of low 
 4  4
LQ depth =
2
• Using a planimeter (or by counting squares), determine the areas under the curve at each border
station (see fig. 9–19).
Plot the LQ distance on the infiltration curve. Measure the area below the curve between this distance
and to the left of the downstream end of the border. This is the low quarter infiltration.
Measure the runoff from the border. This is the area below the curve to the right of the end of the
border strip. If runoff was measured, this can be checked by computing total actual runoff volume.
Measure deep percolation. This is the area to the left of the end of the border and above the SWD line.

Irrigation Guide
Figure 9–19 Depth infiltrated curve
Joe Example
Land user ____________________
Depth infiltrated curve Date ________________________
Field office ___________________
End of border
2
Soil-water storage Runoff
Depth infiltrated - inches
Soil-water deficiency
4
Deep percolation Depth infiltrated curve

5
6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Irrigation Guide
7. Compute irrigation characteristics:
Actual border strip area, acres =

(actual border length, ft ) × (wetted width, ft )
43,560 ft 2 / acre
1
DU =
(
Low quarter infiltration area )
( )
Distribution uniformity low
4 whole curve area – runoff area
where:
DU= distribution uniformity of low quarter
• Total irrigation volume (in acre inches) from the inflow data tabulation:
RO =
(runoff area) × 100
whole curve area
where:
RO = runoff, %
RO depth =
(total irrigation volume, ac - in) × RO %
(actual border strip area, ac) × 100
DP =
(deep percolation area) × 100
(whole curve area)
where:
DP = deep percolation depth, %
DP depth, inches =
(total irrigation volume, ac - in) × DP %
(actual border strip area, ac) × 100
Fg depth, inches =
(total irrigation volume, ac - in)
(actual border strip area, ac)
where:
Fg = gross application depth, in

Irrigation Guide
• Application efficiency (Ea) is the ratio of average depth of water stored in the root zone to gross appli-
cation depth. In most cases for graded border irrigation, the entire root zone is filled to field capacity
by the irrigation. If this is the case, Ea is the ratio of soil water deficit to gross application. Otherwise, it
is the ratio of gross application, less runoff to gross application.
Ea =
(Ave. depth in root zone, in inches) × 100
(Gross application depth, in inches)
E q = ( DU) × E a
where:
Eq = application efficiency low quarter, %
8. Determine the opportunity time required to infiltrate the SWD. Use the adjusted cumulative
intake curve to make your determination.
9. Estimate the inflow time required to infiltrate the SWD using the evaluation inflow. Use an
analysis of advance and recession curves and the required irrigation curve to make your estimate.
Potential water conservation and pumping costs savings
1. Make a best estimate of the present average net application per irrigation. This is based on
information from the farmer about present irrigation scheduling and application practices and on data
generated during the evaluation.
2. Compute an estimate of the gross amount of irrigation water used per year. Use the estimated
average net application, average number of annual irrigations (from farmer), and application efficiency
determined by the evaluation to compute annual gross:
Annual gross water applied =

(Net applied per irrigation, in) × (number of irrigations) × 100
Ea
3. Determine annual net irrigation requirements for the crop to be managed. Use the information
in chapter 4 of this guide.
4. Determine potential application efficiency (Epa). Make your determination using information in this
guide or from table 4–12, Design efficiency for graded borders, National Engineering Handbook, section
15, chapter 4.

Irrigation Guide
5. Compute potential gross amount to be applied per year:
Fg =
(Annual net irrigation requirement) × 100
E pa
where:
Fg = gross application for year, in
Epa = potential application efficiency, %
6. Compute total annual water conserved (ac-in):
Total annual water conserved:

[(Potential gross applied, in) – (Present gross applied, in)] x (Area irrigated, ac)
7. If pumping cost is a factor, compute cost savings:

• Pumping cost savings: From a separate pumping plant evaluation, determine pumping plant efficiency,
kind of fuel, cost per unit of fuel, and fuel cost per acre-inch. Compute fuel cost savings:
Fuel Savings = (Fuel cost per acre inch) x (Acre-inches conserved per year)
• Water purchase cost savings: Obtain purchase cost data from farmer or water company. Compute as
follows:
Water cost savings =

(Cost per acre - foot ) × (Acre - inches saved per year)
12
• Compute total potential cost savings:
Total potential savings = Pumping cost savings + Water cost savings
Analysis of data and preparation of recommendations:
1. Compare soil water deficit (SWD) with management allowable depletion (MAD). This indicates
whether the irrigation was correctly timed, too early, or too late.
2. Analyze the advance and recession curves and identify management or system changes that
might be made.
• Use the required net application (Fn) from the adjusted cumulative intake curve to determine required
opportunity time (To).
• Using To, draw an ideal recession curve equal to To above the advance curve (see example).
• The shape and slope of the recession curve should not change significantly with changes in inflow or
duration of flow. By moving the recession curve up or down (changing the time water is applied onto
the border strip), required opportunity time can be met at least one point on the curve. To conserve
water, minimize runoff, and optimize irrigation efficiency, many irrigators select the point of intersec-
tion to be 80 percent of the border length. The lower 20 percent will be under irrigated. If runoff is not
a concern, this point of intersection, or management point, can be at the lower end of the border strip.

Irrigation Guide
• Changing inflow rate changes the slope of the advance curve. An estimate of the most efficient flow
rate and inflow time can be made as follows:
— Subtract the required opportunity time (To) from the recession time at 0+00. This provides an
estimate of the time by which to reduce (or increase) the recession time at the station with the
minimum opportunity time.
— Draw an estimated recession curve parallel to the actual recession curve, equal to the time differ-
ence found in the last step.
— At the downstream end of the border, mark a time, To, minutes below the estimated recession
curve.
— Draw an estimated advance curve between 0+00 and the mark made in the last step. This curve
should be in about the same shape as the actual advance curve.
— The actual inflow rate must be determined by trial and error in the field. The amount of change
between the actual advance curve and the estimated curve gives some idea of the magnitude of the
flow rate change required.
— To determine required inflow time (Tin), subtract the lag time (time between shut off and recession
at 0+00) from the required total opportunity time at station 0+00.
Recommendations:
Use field observations, data obtained by discussions with the irrigation decisionmaker, study of the advance
recession curves, and data obtained by computations to make practical recommendations. Remember that
the data are not exact because of the many variables in soils, crop resistance, slope, and other features. Most
effective changes result from a field trial and error procedure based on measured or calculated values. After
each new trial, the field should be probed to determine penetration uniformity. Observations can be made to
determine the amount of runoff and distribution uniformity. Enough instruction should be given to irrigation
decisionmakers so they can observe and take measurements to make necessary adjustments throughout the
irrigation season.
Making management changes is always the first increment of change. Recommending

irrigation system changes along with appropriate management changes is secondary.

Irrigation Guide
(2) Level borders and basins detailed (ii) Procedures—The field procedures needed to
evaluation evaluate this system are in two main categories: gen-
Improving water use efficiency of level border and eral and inventory and data collection.
basin irrigation has great potential for conserving
irrigation water and improving downstream water General
quality. A detailed evaluation provides information for
design or to help properly operate and manage a level Choose a typical basin in the field to be irrigated. The
border irrigation system. It can help the irrigation typical location should be representative of the type of
decisionmaker use proper level border (basin) inflows, soil for which the field is being managed, from an
lengths of run, and time of inflow for the specific field irrigation scheduling standpoint. Use standard soil
and crop conditions. Soil intake characteristic has the surveys, where available, to locate border evaluation
biggest influence on application uniformity. Intake sites. Then have a qualified person determine the
rate for a specific soil series and surface texture varies actual surface texture, restricted layers, depth, and
from farm to farm, field to field, and throughout the other soil characteristics that affect irrigation. Soil
growing season; typically because of the field prepara- surveys are generally inadequate for this level of
tion, cultivation, and harvest equipment. A detailed detail. Almost all mapping units contain inclusions of
irrigation system evaluation can tell us the soil intake other soil. Extension of results to other areas also has
characteristic for site conditions within a particular more reliability. Basin size and configuration should
field. It can also provide valuable data to support local be typical of those in the field. The evaluation should
irrigation guides for planning level border irrigation be run at a time when soil moisture conditions are as
systems on other farms on similar soils. they will be when irrigation would normally take
place.
(i) Equipment—The equipment for this evaluation
includes: The field evaluation procedure for basins and level
• Engineers level and level rod, 100-foot tape borders uses the whole basin as if it were one large
• Pocket tape marked in inches and tenths/hun- infiltrometer. Inflow volume and volume of water in
dredths of feet the basin are measured. Because a small difference in
• Stakes or flags, marker for stakes or flags water level in the basin can represent a rather large
• Flume, weir, or other measuring device to mea- volume of water, water level changes must be mea-
sure inflow sured accurately.
• Carpenters level for setting flume or weir
• Gauge for measuring depth of flow in flow mea- The field evaluation procedure yields a two-point
suring device average intake curve for the basin. The first point on
• Gallon can(s) or larger for basin stilling well (for the curve is plotted at the time water is turned off. The
windy conditions) second point is defined by plotting the gross applica-
• Soil auger, probe, push type sampler, shovel tion at the average opportunity time. If a more detailed
• Feel and Appearance Soil Moisture charts, curve is desired or if plot points are desired at earlier
Speedy Moisture Meter/Eley Volumeter, Madera times, a cylinder infiltrometer test can be run and
sampler with sample cans, or some other method plotted (see section 652.0904(g)(1) for procedure). The
of determining soil moisture condition plotted curve is then adjusted in accordance with the
• Level border evaluation worksheets, clipboard, methods described in the procedures for graded
and pencil border evaluations.
• Soils data for field
• Stop watch, camera This procedure will use a line of stakes in the direction
• Boots of water flow; for example, down the center of the
level border, to sample opportunity times. In most
cases this gives adequate detail for analysis. Water
flow in a square basin can be from corner to corner if
water enters at a corner.

Irrigation Guide
Typically, values of distribution uniformity and appli- • Make note of soil profile conditions, such as:
cation efficiency of the low quarter cannot be deter- — Depth to water table
mined exactly because small variations in soil infiltra- — Apparent root depth of existing or previous
tion rate in various parts of the basin and low spots crops (for determining effective plant root
cause appreciable differences in the depth infiltrated. zone)
This procedure uses one line of stakes down the basin, — Soil restrictions to root development; i.e.,
which gives an approximation of distribution unifor- tillage pans and other compaction layers
mity. A more refined method of determining distribu- — Mineral layers
tion uniformity is to stake a complete grid in the basin — Hard pans and bedrock
and determine advance and recession times (and thus — Soil textural changes
time of opportunity) at each grid point. The additional • Record information about type of delivery sys-
points give more measurements from which to work. tem, type and size of turnout(s), width and length
of level border or basin.
The procedure discussed should be sufficient to pro- • Make visual observations of the field including
vide data for making useful recommendations for crop uniformity, weeds, erosion problems, crop
modifications in management or the irrigation system. condition or color changes, and salinity prob-
The graded border procedure for evaluation should be lems. Are there areas receiving too much or not
used when advance time exceeds half of the opportu- enough water?
nity time required to fill the basin. You may be able to
roughly determine these times before the evaluation During the irrigation:
by talking to the irrigator or by observing other basins • Irrigate with the inflow rate normally used by the
that have similar soils and inflow. The graded border irrigator and record the start time.
procedure involves taking cylinder infiltrometer tests • Check and record the inflow rate several times
and plotting and analyzing advance and recession during irrigation. Record when irrigation ceases
curves. (turn-off time).
• Observe advance of the water front across the
Inventory and data collection basin. Record the time water reaches each sta-
tion. Record the time in 24-hour clock readings.
Before irrigation starts: Make this reading as accurately as possible. A
• Get basic information about existing irrigation small error can make a large difference in water
procedures, concerns, and problems from the volume. Record readings on the worksheet.
irrigation decisionmaker. • As soon as water into the basin is turned off, an
• Set stakes or flags at 50- or 100-foot stations accurate measurement of water surface elevation
down the border. Mark stations on each. in the basin must be determined. This should be
• Take rod readings on the average ground level at done with rod readings to the nearest 0.01 foot. If
each station. Readings should be taken to the there is wind or other disturbance in the basin, a
nearest 0.05 or 0.01 foot. Take readings at aver- stilling well(s) should be set up in the basin to
age elevations at each measurement point. observe water surface elevations. The well can
• Set several stilling wells within the level border be constructed from a gallon or larger bucket,
(basin) for windy conditions. with the bottom cut out and small holes punched
• Set the measuring device(s) to measure inflow. or drilled in the sides below water level. This will
• Check the soil water deficit (SWD) at several buffer wave action. Make sure the measurement
points in the basin. Use the feel and appearance location is far enough away from the turnout to
method, Eley Volumeter/Speedy Moisture Meter, not be affected by flow from the turnout. Also,
push tube/oven dry, or other acceptable method. water levels in large basins can vary 0.1 foot or
For the location chosen as the controlling typical more. Be sure an average water level is used.
soil, record the SWD data on the evaluation
worksheet.

Irrigation Guide
• Observe the recession of water in the basin. • If possible, check for adequacy and uniformity of
Record the time when water has receded at each irrigation at a time when the soil profile has
of the stations where advance was recorded. reached the field capacity moisture level. Sandy
Recession should be determined as that time soils can be checked 4 to 24 hours after irriga-
when no more than 10 percent of the water tion. Clayey soils should be checked about 48
around the station point is still visible on the hours after irrigation when most gravitational
surface. Some low spots will most likely be in the water has drained. Often a previously irrigated
basin if laser controlled equipment was not used. basin with similar conditions can be used.
Sketch the basin showing an outline of areas still • Field capacity must be established. Determine
containing surface water at the time that 10 the soil water content when checking for ad-
percent of the basin still has water on it. This will equacy and uniformity of irrigation.
indicate the leveling uniformity in the basin.
• Immediately after recession use a probe or auger Exhibit 9–3 shows a completed worksheet for a level
to check depth of water penetration at several border and basin system evaluation. Example 9–3
locations in the field. A check at this time will outlines the steps taken to complete this exhibit.
indicate whether water has already percolated
too deeply. Typically, the probe penetrates easily
where water lubricates the rod and stops
abruptly at the wetted front (dry soil). A 3/8-inch
diameter steel ball welded onto the point of a 1/4-
inch diameter steel rod makes an effective probe.

Irrigation Guide
Exhibit 9–3 Completed worksheet—Surface irrigation system, detailed evaluation of level border and basins


Level Border and Basins Worksheet
Joe Example
Land user _______________________________________ Field office ____________________________________
West 40
Field name/number _____________________________________________________________________________
Observer ____________________ Date ____________ Checked by ______________________ Date ___________

3rd border from west side
Border number ________________________________________________________________________________
Alfalfa
Crop _________________________ 5
Actual root zone depth 1/ ____________________ 50
ft MAD ____________% 2/
One week after harvest - 2nd cutting

Stage of crop _________________________________________________________________________________

Lohmiller silty clay
Soil name __________________________________________________________________________________
Sta. 2+00
Location of sample ___________________________________________________________________________
Feel & appearance
Moisture determination method _________________________________________________________________
Depth Texture AWC (in)3/ SWD (%)4/ SWD (in)

0-1'
____________ SiC
____________________ 1.6
______________ 60
____________ .96
______________
1-2'
____________ SiC
____________________ 1.6
______________ 50
____________ .80
______________
2-3'
____________ L
____________________ 2.0
______________ 40
_____________ .80
______________
3-4'
____________ CL
____________________ 1.6
______________ 40
____________ .64
______________
4-5'
____________ GS
____________________ 0.5
______________ 20
____________ .10
______________
7.3
Total ______________ 3.30
______________
50 x 7.3
MAD = (MAD, %) x (total AWC, in inches) = _______________________________________ 3.65 in
= ____________
100 100
Compost layer at 10 - 14 inches
Comments about soils: ________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
2.5
hours, Irrigation frequency ___________________ days
22
Annual net irrigation requirements ____________________ Alfalfa
inches, for ______________________________ crop
10
Typical number of irrigations per year ________________________________________________________
Earth ditch
Type of delivery system, describe (earth ditch, concrete ditch, pipeline) ______________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Type and size of turnouts (automated turnout, manual screw gate, alfalfa valve, etc.) ____________________
Short 24" dia. pipe w/slide gate
_______________________________________________________________________________________
250
Size of basin: Width _________________________ 800
ft, Length _____________________________________ ft
Field Observations:
Notes
Crop uniformity ________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Notes
Salinity problems _______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Notes
Other observations _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
1/ Measure depth of roots of existing or previous crop 2/ MAD = Management allowed depletion
3/ AWC = Available water capacity 4/ SWD Soil water deficit

Irrigation Guide
Exhibit 9–3 Completed worksheet—Surface irrigation system, detailed evaluation of level border and basins—Continued


1. Basin area (A):
250
A = Length x Width = __________________ 800
x _________________ 4.6
= ______________ acres
43,560 46,560
2. Gross application, Fg, in inches:
18.9
Fg = Total irrigation volume, in ac-in = _______________________________ 4.1 in
= _________
A, ac 4.6
3. Amount infiltrated during water inflow, Vi:
4.1 - 1.68
Vi = Gross application - Depth infiltrated after turnoff = ________________= 2.43
____________ in
4. Deep percolation, DP, in inches:
4.1 - 3.3
DP = Gross application - Soil water deficit, SWD = ___________________ 0.8
= ____________ in
0.81 x 100
DP, in % = (Soil water depletion, DP in inches) x 100 = __________________ 19.8 %
= ___________
Gross application, Fg 4.1
5. Application efficiency, Ea:
Average depth of water stored in root zone = Soil water deficit, SWD, if the entire root zone average
depth will be filled to field capacity by this irrigation.
3.3 x 100
Ea = (Average depth stored in root zone, Fn) x 100 = ___________________ 80.1
= ____________ %
6. Distribution uniformity, DU:
Depth infiltrated low 1/4 = (max intake - min intake) + min intake
8
4.5 - 3.75
= _____________________ 3.75 = ____________
+ __________ 3.84
8
3.84 x 100
DU = Depth infiltrated low 1/4 = ____________________________ 93.4
= __________________
7. Application efficiency, low 1/4, Eq:
93.4 x 80.1
Eq = DU x Ea = ______________________ 74.8
= ____________ %
100 100

Irrigation Guide


1. Present management
3.3
Estimated present average net application per irrigation = _________________________ inches
Present annual gross applied = (net applied per irrigation) x (number of irrigations) x 100
Application efficiency, low 1/4, Eq
3.3 x 10 x 100
= ________________________________ 44.1 in
x 100 = _________
74.8
2. Potential management
80 %
Recommended overall irrigation efficiency, Edes _________________________
Potential annual gross applied = Annual net irrigation requirements x 100

Edes
22.1 x 100
= ________________________________ 27.6 in
= _________
80
3. Total annual water conserved:
= (resent gross applied, in - potential gross applied, in) x area irrigated, acres
12
+ ____________________________________________ = ______________ ac-ft
4. Annual potential cost savings

From pumping plant evaluation: - NA
Pumping plant efficiency _____________________ Kind of fuel _______________________________
Cost per unit of fuel _________________________ Fuel cost per acre-foot $ ____________________
Cost savings = (fuel cost per acre foot) x (water conserved per year, in ac-ft)
= _________________________ x ________________________ = $ ________________
$12.00
Water purchase cost per acre-foot, per irrigation season __________________________
Water purchase cost savings = (Cost per acre-foot) x (water saved per year, in acre-feet)
12.00 x 83
= ________________________________________ 996
= $ ________________
0 + 996
Potential cost savings = pumping cost + water purchase cost = __________________ 996
= $ _____________

Irrigation Guide


Recommendations:
Notes
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________

Irrigation Guide

Example - Surface System

Detailed Evaluation Level Border and Basins Worksheet
Inflow Data
36" Trapezoidal sharp crested weir
Type of measuring device ______________________________________________________________________
Clock 1/ Elapsed ∆T Gage Flow Average Volume Cum.

time time H rate flow rate volume
(min) (min) (ft3/s) (ft3/s) (ft3/s) (ac-in)2/ (ac-in)
Turn on
(0705) .78 6.90
5 6.97 .5703 .5703
0710 5 .79 7.04
8 7.11 .9402 1.5105
0718 13 .80 7.18
18 7.46 2.2196 3.7301
0736 31 .84 7.73
29 7.80 3.7391 7.4692
0805 60 .85 7.87
30 7.80 3.8680 11.3372
0835 90 .84 7.73
31 7.66 3.9252 15.2624
0906 121 .83 7.59
29 7.59 3.6384 18.9008
150
Turn off
(0935) .83 7.59 18.901
Total volume (ac-in) _______________
Average flow:
18.901 x 60.5
Average flow = (Total irrigation volume, in ac-in) x 60.5 = ___________________________ 7.62
= _______________ ft3/s
Inflow time, in minutes 150
Unit:
7.62
qu= Average inflow rate, in ft3/s = ___________________ 0.03
= ____________________ ft3/s
Border spacing 250
1/ Use a 24-hour clock reading; i.e., 1:30 p.m. is recorded as 1330 hours.
To find volume using ft3/s: volume (ac-in) = .01653 x time (min) x flow (ft3/s)
To find volume using gpm: volume (ac-in) = .00003683 x time (min) x flow (gpm)

Irrigation Guide

Example - Surface System Detailed Evaluation

Advance - Recession Data
Station Elevation Advance Recession Opportunity Intake 2/ Minimum

(ft) (ft) time 1/ time 1/ time (in) maximum
(hr: min) (hr: min) To intake
(min) (in)
0+00 49.51 0705 1315 370 4.50 4.50 max.

1+00 49.44 0709 1311 362 4.40
2+00 49.46 0714 1307 353 4.30
3+00 49.45 0719 1304 345 4.25
4+00 49.43 0726 1300 324 4.12
5+00 49.38 0732 1255 323 4.10
6+00 49.42 0739 1252 313 3.95
7+00 49.39 0747 1249 302 3.90
8+00 49.38 0756 1245 289 3.75 3.75 min.
Total 444.86 2991
49.57
Water surface elevation at water turnoff _________________ ft 3/
444.86
Average field elevation = elevation total = ____________________ 49.43
= _______________ ft
no. of elevations 9
Depth infiltrated after water turnoff
= (water surface at turnoff - average field elev) x 12
49.57
= (__________________ 49.43
- _______________ 1.68
x 12 = _________________ in
2991
Average opportunity time = total opportunity time = ___________________ 332
= ______________ min
no. of sample locations 9
1/ Use 24-hour clock time. As a minimum, record times at upper end, mid point.
2/ Obtain intake from plotted intake curve.
3/ Water surface elevation should be read to nearest 0.01 ft.

Irrigation Guide
Example 9–3 Evaluation computation steps for level border and basin irrigation systems
1. Determine average field elevations to nearest 0.01 foot.
2. Compute average flow rate data. Use the Inflow Data part of the worksheet to compute the average
flow rate based on the flow rate charts for the particular measuring device.
3. Compute the volume in acre-inches for each measurement time interval. Use the equations at the
bottom of the inflow data sheets to calculate these values.
4. Determine the total irrigation volume in acre-inches.
5. Calculate the average inflow rate:

(Total irrigation volume, ac - in) × 60.5
Inflow time
6. Calculate unit flow rate (qu):

 Average flow rate, ft 3 / s 
 
qu =
(Border spacing, ft )
7. Compute time period between recorded advance and recession times, in minutes. This time is the
actual opportunity time (To) at each station. Record To on the worksheet.
8. Compute the depth infiltrated after water turn-off:
(Average water surface elevation at turn-off – Average field elevation) x 12
9. Find the average opportunity time for the basin. Average the To values for all stations.
10. Compute the area covered by the basin in acres.
11. Compute gross depth of water applied:

(Total irrigation volume, ac - in)
(Area of basin, acre)
12. Compute amount infiltrated during water inflow:
Gross depth of water applied, inches – Depth infiltration after turnoff, inches
13. Plot a cumulative intake curve on log-log paper (fig. 9–20). The first point is the intersection of
inflow time and the amount infiltrated during water inflow. The second point is the intersection of the
average opportunity time and the gross application. Draw a straight line through the two points to get the
average intake curve for the basin.

Irrigation Guide
Example 9–3 Evaluation computation steps for level border and basin irrigation systems—Continued
Figure 9–20 Soil-water intake curve
Joe Example
Land user _______________________
7/25/84
Date ___________________________
NW1/4,S15,R28E,T2N
Locaiton ________________________
Soil Water Intake Curves Billings, MT
Field office ______________________
4 5 6 7 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 1,000

10.0 10.0
8.0 8.0
6.0 e 6.0
k
5.0
In ta 5.0
4.11" Gross application
4.0 4.0
sin
3.0 Ba 3.0
Accumulated intake (in)
2.43" Infiltration during inflow

2.0 2.0
average opportunity
332 minutes
150 minutes
1.0 1.0
inflow time
.8 .8
time
.6 .6
.4 .4
.3 .3
.2 .2
4 5 6 7 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 1,000
Time in minutes

Irrigation Guide
14. Compute deep percolation (DP):
DP = (Average gross application depth, in inches) – (Soil water deficit, SWD, in inches)
DP, % =
(Deep percolation depth, inches) × 100
(Gross application, inches)
15. Compute application efficiency (Ea). Application efficiency is the ratio of average depth of water
stored in the root zone to the gross depth applied. If the entire soil water deficit (SWD) is replaced by the
irrigation, then average depth stored in the root zone is equal to the SWD, and the SWD can be used in the
calculations. This is often the case with level basin or border irrigation.
Ea ,% =
(Ave depth stored in root zone, inches) × 100
16. Determine the intake amounts, in inches. Using the values of opportunity time (To) computed on the
Advance-Recession part of the worksheet, determine intake amounts from the intake curve previously
plotted. Record these values on the worksheet. Record the maximum and minimum intake amount on
the worksheet.
17. Compute the net depth infiltrated (dn) in the low quarter:
(max intake, inches) − (min intake, inches) +
Net depth infiltrated, d n, , inches =
8
(min intake, inches)
Because of the limited number of sample points, this is a rather rough estimate of net depth infiltrated. A
more detailed analysis would involve setting a grid of measured points in the basin.
18. Compute distribution uniformity (DU):

 1 
 Depth infiltrated low , inches
 4 
DU =

Irrigation Guide
Potential water and cost savings:
1. Make a best estimate of the present average net application per irrigation. Base your estimate
on present irrigation scheduling information, application practices obtained from the irrigation decision-
maker, and data derived from the evaluation,
2. Compute an estimate of the gross amount of irrigation water used per year. Use the estimated
average net application, average number of annual irrigations (from irrigation decisionmaker), and appli-
cation efficiency found by this evaluation. Compute as follows:
(Net applied per irrigation, inches) × (number of irrigations) × 100

(Application efficiency, E a , %)
3. Using the irrigation guide, determine annual net irrigation requirements for the crop to be
managed.
4. Determine potential application efficiency (Epa). Use the information in this guide or the chart for
estimating efficiency, National Engineering Handbook, section 15, chapter 4 to make your determination.
5. Compute potential gross amount to be applied per year. Gross amount applied, in inches:
(Annual net irrigation requirement, inches) × 100

(Potential application efficiency, E pa , %)
6. Compute total annual water conserved. Acre-feet conserved:
(Present gross applied, inches − Potential gross applied, inches) × (Area irrigated, acres )
12
7. If cost is a factor, compute cost savings:
Pumping cost savings: From a separate pumping plant evaluation, determine pumping plant
efficiency, kind of fuel, cost per unit of fuel, and fuel cost per acre-inch.
Compute fuel cost savings:
(Fuel cost per acre foot) x (Acre feet conserved per year)
Water purchase cost savings: Obtain purchase cost data from irrigation decisionmaker or water
company. Compute as follows:
(Cost per acre foot) x (Acre feet saved per year)
Total potential cost savings: Pumping cost + water cost = Total potential savings.

Irrigation Guide
1. Compare soil water deficit (SWD) with Management allowed deficit (MAD). This indicates whether the
irrigation was correctly timed, too early, or too late, and if the correct amount of water was applied.
2. If the basin can be covered in about a fourth of the time needed to irrigate it fully, the adverse effect of
unequal opportunity time (To) values at various locations within the border will be minimum. If inflow
time to cover the basin exceeded a fourth of the opportunity time, determine if there are ways to de-
crease the inflow time, such as to increase flow rate or decrease basin size.
3. Consider changes that should be made in set time and irrigation scheduling.
4. Consider the need for releveling or changing the basin’s size or shape, or both. Experience has shown
laser controlled equipment to be superior, especially during final grading. Also with annual crops, annual
laser leveling touch up helps maintain the field in an as designed condition and costs no more than
releveling every 3 to 4 years.
Use field observations, data obtained by discussion with the irrigation decisionmaker, and data obtained
by computations to make some practical recommendations. Remember that the data are not exact. There
are many variables. Flow rate changes and other changes result from a trial-and-error procedure. After
each new trial the field should be probed to determine water penetration. Enough instruction should be
given to operators so they can make these observations and adjustments.


Irrigation Guide
(3) Graded furrow detailed evaluation • Is trash or debris in water supply causing plug-
Improving water use efficiency of furrow irrigation has ging of siphon tubes or gated pipe outlets, result-
great potential for conserving irrigation water and ing in uneven flow to furrows? Are gates opened
improving downstream water quality. An abbreviated excessively wide to allow trash to pass through,
method of evaluation was presented earlier in this resulting in excessive inflow to furrows?
section. A detailed evaluation can determine onsite • Is subsurface drainage system operating satisfac-
intake characteristics and provide information for torily? Is salinity management satisfactory?
design or to help operate and manage (fine tune) a • Are facilities to control surface runoff in place
graded furrow irrigation system. It can help the irriga- and working properly?
tion decisionmaker use proper furrow inflows, lengths
of run, and time of inflow for the specific field and (i) Equipment—The equipment needed for a
crop conditions. detailed graded furrow system evaluation includes:
• Engineers level and rod, 100 foot tape
Soil intake characteristics have the biggest influence • Pocket tape marked in inches and tenths/hun-
on application uniformity. Soil intake rate for a spe- dredths of feet
cific soil series and surface texture varies from farm to • Stakes, lath or wire flags for station identifica-
farm, field to field, within each field, and throughout tion
the irrigation season because of tillage, harvest, and • Flow measuring devices for measuring furrow
the equipment used. A detailed irrigation system inflow and outflow (When measuring furrow
evaluation can identify what the soil intake character- inflow where gated pipe or siphons are used,
istics are for the site conditions at a particular field. It pressure or head differential can be determined
can also provide valuable data to support local irriga- and flows calculated. A short piece of clear,
tion guides for planning graded furrow irrigation small diameter tubing can be used to measure
systems on other farms on similar soils. head on outlets in gated pipe. With siphons, tube
length and head differential between inlet and
See American Society of Agricultural Engineer Stan- outlet can be measured and standard discharge
dard ASAE EP419.1, Evaluation of Irrigation Furrows, tables used to determine discharge.)
for an overall volume balance approach to furrow • Carpenters level for setting flumes or weirs
evaluation. • Equipment for determining soil moisture con-
tent, such as feel and appearance charts, Speedy
Observations of the operating condition of delivery moisture meter and Eley Volumeter, or Madera
system and furrows should be made and recommenda- sampler and soil moisture sample cans)
tions provided for solving any problems. The observa- • Calibrated container for measuring flow if siphon
tion should include: tubes are used
• Is erosion occurring? head cutting at lower end • Soil auger or push tube probe and shovel
of furrow? at outlet of siphon or gated pipe? at • Clipboard, worksheets or evaluation forms,
grade changes? Can erosion problems be solved pencil
with conservation treatment measures, such as • Soils data for field
reduced tillage, no-till, mulching, vegetative • Watch
strips, crop rotation, or incorporating PAM in the • Rubber boots
water supply?
• Is sedimentation occurring as a result of furrow (ii) Procedure—The field procedures needed for an
erosion? If so, is it occurring in furrow or in evaluation of this type system include:
tailwater collection ditch?
• Is suspended sediment in irrigation water caus- Site location— Choose a site location in the field to be
ing reduced water infiltration as fine material irrigated. The typical location should be representative
settles out? of the kind of soil for which the entire field is man-
aged. The site should allow measurement of runoff.
The evaluation should be run at a time when soil
moisture conditions are similar to conditions when
irrigation would normally be accomplished.

Irrigation Guide
Furrows— Furrows to be evaluated should have a ponded water at the lower end of the field, locate the
uniform cross section and a uniform grade between lower measuring station upstream of the backwater.
the inflow and outflow measuring points. Inflow and
outflow points can be anywhere within the field where Step 4—Estimate soil water deficit using incremental
it is convenient to obtain flow measurements. At least depths throughout the root zone at several locations
three adjacent furrows or furrow groups should be along the furrow. Use the feel and appearance charts,
measured at each test site. Adjacent furrows on each Speedy Moisture Meter, or some other highly portable
side of the test area should be irrigated simultaneously method. Select one location as being typical of fur-
for a total of five furrows irrigated. Evaluate wheel rows irrigated and record data for that location on the
rows as well as nonwheel rows. This generally occurs worksheet.
where three adjacent rows are selected; however,
there may be two wheel rows and one nonwheel row Step 5—Note soil profile conditions as you are re-
or two nonwheel rows and one wheel row. cording soil water deficit data (step 4). Conditions to
consider include:
The entire furrow length should be evaluated; how- • Depth to water table (if within 5 feet of soil
ever, if time for a full length of run evaluation is not surface)
available, partial length rows can be evaluated. The • Actual plant root depth, root development pat-
minimum evaluation length for field evaluations tern of existing or previous crop, and restrictions
should be 200 to 300 feet for high intake soils and 500 to normal root development
to 600 feet for low intake soils. Because of soil vari- • Compacted layers and mineral layers
ability, shorter lengths, typically 100 to 200 feet, are • Mineral layers
used to derive values for preparing local irrigation • Hardpans or bedrock
guides. Lengths of 30 to 50 feet are used when using • Soil textures including textural change bound-
the flowing furrow infiltrometer method. aries (abrupt or gradual)
• Salinity levels and soil layers of salt accumula-
The steps to follow during the detailed evaluation are: tion
Step 1—Obtain information from the irrigation Field procedure for inventory and data collection:
decisionmaker about the field and how it is irrigated;
i.e., irrigation set time, how many rows set, typical Step 1—Start furrow inflow with the flow rate nor-
flow advance rate and total time, adjustments made to mally used by the irrigator and record start time. Time
furrow inflow during irrigation set time, number of permitting, three different flow levels (high, medium,
irrigations per season, tillage pattern, and equipment. and low inflow rates) should be used in different test
Field observations include identifying furrow erosion sections to determine effect of using higher or lower
and sediment deposition areas, crop color differences furrow inflows.
in different parts of the field, crop uniformity, salinity
and wet areas, and drainage system operation. Step 2—At 5- to 10- minute intervals, check the inflow
rate of the test section until it reaches a constant rate.
Step 2—Set flags or lath stakes at 100-foot stations Record the flow rate and time of measurement each
down the selected furrows (set flags only in the middle time the flow is checked, Periodically during the
furrow). Identify stations on each flag, lath, or stake. evaluation check the flow rate and record it. Frequent
Do not walk in the furrows to be evaluated. Determine checks should be made if the flow rate fluctuates
field elevations at each station, and plot furrow profile. considerably.
Record furrow spacing (center of ridge to center of
ridge) and furrow cross section. Measure the cross Step 3—Observe the furrow for erosion or overtop-
section with a straightedge and pocket tape or cross ping. Estimate the maximum usable stream size. For
section board. new furrows, loose soil often muddies the water at
first, but is not considered to be erosion. Also, some
Step 3—Set measuring flumes, orifice plates, or other erosion often occurs at each turnout, but the furrow
flow measuring devices at the upper and lower end of stream becomes stable after a short time. Looking
each furrow or reach to be evaluated. If there is closely at the bottom of the furrow when water is

Irrigation Guide
flowing will indicate if movement of soil particles is If it is desirable to establish or check soil moisture at
causing rilling to occur or is just reshaping of the field capacity condition, determine the soil water
furrow cross section. If erosion is occurring, is there content or collect samples when checking for ad-
an opportunity to use PAM? equacy of the irrigation.
Step 4—Record the time water reaches each station. (iii) Evaluation computations—The information
Record the time runoff starts at each outflow measur- gathered in the field procedures is used in the detailed
ing location. Periodically measure the flow rate and system evaluation computations. Example 9–4 outlines
record the rate and time of measurement until it the computations used to completed the Surface
ceases. Irrigation System Detailed Evaluation Graded Furrow
Worksheet (exhibit 9–4).
Step 5—Record the time when water is turned off at
the head end of the field. In many cases the water
disappears from the furrow relatively uniformly
throughout the length of the furrow. In these cases
only the time water is shut off and the time water
disappears at each furrow station need to be recorded.
Nonuniform soil infiltration causes recession timing to
be erratic, so use your best estimate.
Step 6—Before leaving the field, use a ball probe or

auger to check depth of water penetration at several
locations along the length of the furrows. Suggested
locations are 1/3 and 2/3 points and at 80 percent of
the total furrow length. A check at this time indicates
the depth that the water has already penetrated. An-
other check 24 to 36 hours later will indicate the final
depth of water movement. An estimate of final depth
can be made using a previous irrigation set on the
same soil. Check for adequacy and uniformity of
irrigation when the soil profile is at or near field capac-
ity moisture level. A visit the next day may be neces-
sary to observe wetted depth(s) in the soil profile
within the area evaluated. Time for free drainage of
most gravitational water should be allowed. Sandy
soils can be checked a few hours after irrigation.
Medium textured soils usually take about 24 hours
after irrigation, and clayey soils take about 48 hours.
Step 7—Check the wetted soil bulb for a recently

irrigated furrow and record the information. A trench
dug across the furrow (stem to stem) is recommended.
Also, it is very productive to have the irrigation
decisionmaker present when viewing the trench. This
is a good time to discuss what is happening in the soil
profile, especially if there are restrictive layers (which
there usually are).You need to observe the following:
• Location and shape of wetted bulb
• Actual root development pattern and location
• Restrictive layers to root development and water
movement penetration; i.e., tillage pans

Irrigation Guide
Exhibit 9–4 Completed worksheet—Surface irrigation system, detailed evaluation of graded furrow system


Graded Furrow Worksheet 1
Joe Example

Show location on evaluation furrows on sketch or photo of field.
Corn
Crop ________________________ 4
Actual root zone depth _______________ 50 % MAD _______
MAD 1/ _______ 3.9 in
24"
Stage of crop ________________________________ Planting date (or age of planting) _____________________
100
Field acres _____________
Soil-water data:
(Show location of sample on soil map or sketch of field)
Feel and appearance
Soil moisture determination method _____________________________________________________________
Haverson loam
Soil mapping unit ______________________________________________ Loam
Surface texture ________________
Depth Texture AWC (in)1/ SWD (%)1/ SWD (in)1/

0-8"
____________ L
____________________ 1.4
______________ 60
____________ .84
______________
8-48"
____________ FSL
____________________ 6.4
______________ 40
____________ 2.56
______________
____________ ____________________ ______________ _____________ ______________
____________ ____________________ ______________ ____________ ______________
____________ ____________________ ______________ ____________ ______________
7.8
Total ______________ 3.4
______________
Notes
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
11
hours, Irrigation frequency ___________________ days
8
Typical number of irrigations per year ____________________________________________________________
Notes
Crop rotation ________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
Notes
Field uniformity condition (smoothed, leveled, laser leveled, etc., and when) ________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
1/ MAD = Management allowable depletion AWC = Available water capacity SWD = Soil water deficit

Irrigation Guide
Exhibit 9–4 Completed worksheet—Surface irrigation system, detailed evaluation of graded furrow system—Continued


Cultivation no. Date Crop stage Irrigate?

1 6/25
_________ 12"
________________ No
_________
2 7/25
_________ 24"
________________ Yes
_________
3 _________ ________________ _________
4 _________ ________________ _________
5 _________ ________________ _________
10" diameter
Delivery system size (pipe diameters, gate spacing, siphon tube size, etc.) __________________________
gated pipe w/30" spacing on outlet
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Field observations
Notes
Evenness of advance across field ______________________________________________________________
Crop uniformity _____________________________________________________________________________
Soil condition _______________________________________________________________________________
Soil compaction (surface, layers, etc.) __________________________________________________________
Furrow condition _____________________________________________________________________________
Erosion and/or sedimentation: in furrows ________________________________________________________
head or end of field _________________________________________________
Other observations (OM, cloddiness, residue, plant row spacing, problems noted, etc.) _____________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
30
Furrow spacing __________ inches
1300 feet
Furrow length ___________
None
Irrigations since last cultivation ____________________________
Furrow profile (rod readings or elevations at each 100 foot. station):
5.4 6.9 7.9 8.9 9.2 9.7 10.4 11.4 12.0 12.6 13.1 14.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
15.6 16.6 17.0
12 13 14
Furrow cross section:
Station: ______ Station: ______

Irrigation Guide


Furrow data summary:
1300
Evaluation length ____________________ .005 to .016 ft/ft
Slope ____________________________ .0.0127
Average ____________
Section through plant root zone:
Evaluation computations
Furrow area, A = (furrow evaluation length, L, ft) x (furrow spacing, W, ft)
43,560 ft2/acre
1300 x 2.5
A = _____________________________________________________ .0746 acre
= ________
43,560
Present gross depth applied, Fg = Total inflow volume, gal. x .0000368 (Total inflow from worksheet 7)
Furrow area, A, in acres
13,762 x .0000368
Fg = ___________________________________________________ 6.8 inches
= _________
0.0746
474 min at station ___________
Minimum opportunity time, Tox = ________ 13+00 (from field worksheet 10)
3.4 inches (from worksheet 10)

Minimum depth infiltrated, Fmin = ________
3.8 (from calculations on worksheet 10)

Average depth infiltrated, F(0-1) = _________
Distribution uniformity, DU = Minimum depth infiltrated, inches x 100 = F min x 100

Average depth infiltrated, inches F ave
3.4 x 100
= ______________________________________ 89.5
= _________________%
3.8

Irrigation Guide


6,248 x 100
Runoff, RO% = Total outflow volume, gal x 100 = _____________________ 45.4 % (Total outflow, worksheet 8)
= __________
Total inflow volume, gal 13,762 (Total inflow, worksheet 7)
6,248 x 0.0000368 = ________

RO, in = Total outflow volume, gal x .0000368 = ______________ 3.1 in (Furrow area, worksheet 3)
Evaluation furrow area, A, in acres .0746
Deep percolation, DP, in = Average depth infiltrated - Soil moisture deficit, SMD (Ave. depth worksheet 10 and SMD worksheet 1)
3.8 - 3.4
DP = ________________________ 0.40 in
= ____________
0.4 x 100 = ________

Deep percolation, DP, % = Deep percolation, DP, in x 100 = ________________ 5.9 %
Gross depth applied, Fg, inches 6.8
Application efficiency, Ea
3.4 x 100
Ea = Ave depth stored in root zone* x 100 = _________________________ 50 %
= ________
Gross application, Fg, inches 6.8
*Average depth of water stored in root zone = SWD if entire root zone depth is filled to field capacity by
this irrigation. If irrigation efficiency is to be used in place of application efficiency, use average depth
of water beneficially used (i.e., all infiltrated depths less than or equal to SWD) plus any other beneficial
uses.

Irrigation Guide


Potential water and cost savings
Present management
6.8
Estimated present gross net application, Fg per irrigation = _______________ inches (Fg from worksheet 3)
Present gross applied per year = Gross applied per irrigation, Fg x number of irrigations
6.8 x 8
= ________________________________ 54.4
= ________________ inches
Potential management
20.6 inches, for ____________________
Annual net irrigation requirement _________ corn (silage) (crop)
70
Potential application efficiency, Epa = ______________%
Potential annual gross applied = Annual net irrigation req. x 100

Potential application efficiency, Epa
20.6 x 100
= ______________________________ 29.4 inches
= ____________
70
Total annual water conserved = (present gross applied - potential gross applied) x area irrigated, ac
12
208 acre feet

(54.4 - 29.4) x 100 = ___________
= ___________________________
12

Irrigation Guide

Surface Irrigation System

Detailed Evaluation Graded Furrow Worksheet 6
Annual cost savings

Water cost
= Cost per acre foot x acre feet saved per year = ______________________________
= $ ____________________________
Cost savings = Pumping cost + water cost = ________________________________ = $ _______________
Fuel cost savings = (fuel cost per ac-ft) x (ac-ft conserved per year) =_______________ = ______________
Further improvement can be gained by reducing length of run

Recommendations ______________________________________________________________________
by half. New inflow rate and time of irrigation would then need to be determined.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Consider automated surge valves.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________

Irrigation Guide


Furrow Worksheet 7
1
Data: Furrow number _________________ X
Inflow ________ Outflow _________
1" Parshall flume


time time H rate flow rate (gal) volume
(min) (min) (ft) (gpm) (gpm) (gal)
Turn on
0630 0 0 0
15 8.3 125 125
0645 15 .240 16.6
15 16.6 249 374
0700 30 .240 16.6
60 17.1 1,026 1,400
0800 90 .245 17.5
60 18.4 1,104 2,504
0900 150 .250 19.3
120 21.3 2,556 5,060
1100 270 .300 23.3
120 24.7 2,964 8,024
1300 390 .320 26.0
120 24.7 2,964 10,988
1500 510 .300 23.3
120 22.4 2,688 13,676
1700 630 .285 21.5
8 10.8 86 13,762
1708 638 0 0
Total volume 13,762 gallon
2/ Volume = ∆ T x average flow rate
13,762
Average flow rate = Total irrigation volume, gallon = _________________ 21.6 gpm
= ___________
Elapsed time, minute 638

Irrigation Guide


Furrow Worksheet 8
1
Data: Furrow number _________________ X
Inflow ________ Outflow _________
1" Parshall flume


0915 0 0 0
15 2.6 39 39
0930 15 .112 5.1
15 6.4 96 135
0945 30 .146 7.6
45 8.5 383 518
1030 75 .165 9.3
60 10.2 612 1,130
1130 135 .183 11.1
120 11.8 1,416 2,546
1330 255 .200 12.5
120 14.0 1,680 4,226
1530 375 .230 15.5
90 17.2 1,548 5,774
1700 465 .260 18.8
10 19.4 194 5,968
1710 475 .27 19.9
28 10.0 280 6,248
1718 503 0 0
Total volume 6,248 gallon
6,248
Average flow rate = Total irrigation volume, gallon = __________________ 12.4 gpm
= ___________
Elapsed time, minute 503

Irrigation Guide


Furrow Worksheet 9
Intake Curve Plotting Data

Opportunity time at time "T" Intake at time "T"
Clock time Inflow time Outflow time Opportunity Cumulative Cumulative Intake
time inflow Outflow F0-1 7/
T Start 2/ T1 3/ Start 2/ T2 4/ To 5/ volume 6/ volume 6/
Vin Vout
(hr-min)1/ (hr) (hr) (hr) (hr) (hr) (min) (gal) (gal) (in)
0915 9.25 6.5 2.75 9.25 0 83 2,824 0 2.0

0945 9.75 6.5 3.25 9.25 .5 113 3,463 135 2.5
1030 10.5 6.5 4.0 9.25 1.25 158 4,421 518 3.0
1130 11.5 6.5 5.0 9.25 2.25 218 5,801 1,130 3.7
1330 13.5 6.5 7.0 9.25 4.25 338 8,765 2,546 5.0
1530 15.5 6.5 9.0 9.25 6.25 458 11,660 4,226 6.1
1700 17.0 6.5 10.5 9.25 7.75 548 13,676 5,774 6.5
1/ Use a 24-hour clock reading for collection of field data; i.e., 1:30 p.m. is 1330 hours. Use decimal hours for inflow
and outflow times.
2/ Time at which inflow or outflow starts in decimal hours (worksheet 7-8)
3/ Inflow time: T1 = "T" - inflow start time (worksheet 7)
4/ Outflow time: T2 = "T" - outflow start time (worksheet 8)
5/ Opportunity time (minutes): To - 30 (T1 + T2)
6/ Cumulative inflow and outflow volumes (worksheet 7-8). If data were not recorded for time T, interpolate the inflow or outflow.
Surface storage and wetted perimeter for length of furrow with water in it.
L = length of furrow with water in it, ft (worksheet 3) 1300
= ________
S = average furrow slope, ft/ft (worksheet 3) .0127
= ________
n = Mannings "n" (usually 0.04 for furrows, 0.10 for corrugations .04
= ________
Qav = average inflow rate, gpm (worksheet 7) 21.6
= ________
  Q × n
.7567

Surface storage: Vs = L 0.09731 av .5  + 0.00574 583
= ________
  S  
 Q × n
.4247
Wetted perimeter: P = 0.2686 av .5  + 0.7462 1.38

= ________
 S 
7/ Intake plotting point: Vin = Cumulative inflow (gal) from worksheet 7

Vout = Cumulative outflow (gal) from worksheet 8
F0-1 = 1.604 (Vin - Vout - Vs) Vs = Surface storage (gal) in length of furrow with water in it
L x P

Irrigation Guide


Furrow Worksheet 10
Furrow advance/recession data
Station Clock ∆T Elapsed Clock ∆T Elapsed Total Opportunity Intake in Intake in
(ft) time 1/ (min) time Tt time 1/ (min) time Tr elapsed time (To) 2/ wetted furrow
(min) (min) time 3/ (min) perimeter width
(in) 4/ (in)
Turn off Inflow T
Lag
0+00 Turn on
(1705) 0 635 (635)
(3)
0+00 (0630) 0 1708 3 638 638 7.5 4.1
5 5
1+00 0635 5 1713 8 643 638 7.5 4.1
9 3
2+00 0644 14 1716 11 646 632 7.4 4.1
14 3
3+00 0658 28 1719 14 649 621 7.3 4.0
13 2
4+00 0711 41 1721 16 651 610 7.2 4.0
13 3
5+00 0724 54 1724 19 654 600 7.2 4.0
18 3
6+00 0742 72 1727 22 657 585 7.1 3.9
13 1
7+00 0755 85 1728 23 658 573 7.0 3.8
11 1
8+00 0806 96 1729 24 659 563 6.9 3.8
15 2
9+00 0821 111 1731 26 661 550 6.8 3.7
19 2
10+00 0840 130 1733 28 663 533 6.6 3.7
20 1
11+00 0900 150 1734 29 664 514 6.5 3.6
17 1
12+00 0917 167 1735 30 665 498 6.3 3.5
27 3
13+00 0944 194 1738 33 668 474 6.1 3.4
Totals 8029 97.4

Ti = 635 minutes
1/ Use a 24-hour clock reading; i.e., 1:30 p.m. is 1330 hours. 2/ To = Ti - Tt + Tr
3/ Time since water was turned on. 4/ Interpolated from graph, furrows volume curve
8029
Average opportunity time = total opportunity time = __________________ 574
= _________________ minutes
number of stations 14
Average depth infiltrated in wetted perimeter, Fwp:
97.4
Fwp = total intake in wetted perimeter = _____________________ 7.0
= ______________________ inches
number of stations 14
Average depth infiltrated in tested length of furrow, F0-1:

7.0 x 1.38
F0-1 = Fwp x P = _______________________ 3.8
= ______________________ inches
W 2.5

Irrigation Guide
Example 9–4 Evaluation computation steps for graded furrow irrigation systems
1. Plot the furrow profile on cross section paper (fig. 9–21).
Figure 9–21 Furrow profile


Furrow Worksheet 11
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
Fu
rro
9.0 w pro
file
Rod Readings (ft)
10.0
11.0
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.0
16.0
17.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Irrigation Guide
Example 9–4 Evaluation computation steps for graded furrow irrigation systems—Continued
2. Compute the soil water deficit (SWD) at each station (worksheet 1). This is the net depth of
water required to refill the plant root zone to field capacity. In arid areas, it typically is needed for the
evaluation irrigation. In humid areas, some soil water storage can be reserved for anticipated rainfall
events (i.e., 1 inch).
3. Complete the calculation of opportunity times at each station (worksheet 10). Use the Advance
Recession part of the evaluation worksheet 10. Plot (fig. 9–22).
Figure 9–22 Advance recession curve
Joe Example
Land user ____________________
7-10-86
Date ________________________
Advance and recession curves Billings, MT
Field office ___________________
800
700 Recession curve
600
Time - minutes
500
400
300
200
100
cur ve
Advance
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Irrigation Guide
4. Plot both advance and recession curves from worksheet 10 on the worksheet provided or on
cross section paper, figure 9-22. If recession times for the entire length of furrow were not recorded,
plot a straight horizontal line at the average elapsed time when water disappears from the furrow.
5. Complete the computations for the inflow and outflow data worksheets 7-8. Plot inflow and
outflow volume curves (fig. 9–23) using elapsed time and cumulative volume columns. Offset outflow
time by the time difference between start of inflow and outflow. Compute average flow rate for each
furrow for both inflow and outflow.
Figure 9–23 Flow volume curves
Land user ____________________

Date ________________________
Flow volume curves Field office ___________________
14,000
12,000
10,000
8000
Volume - Gallons
6000
low
Inf
4000
w
tflo
2000 Ou
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Real time (hours)

Irrigation Guide
6. Complete the Furrow Intake Characteristic Curve Input Data Worksheet 9. Use the data on the
advance-recession and the inflow-outflow data sheets. Get cumulative inflow and outflow values from
plot of flow volume curves (fig. 9-23) or interpolate from data on worksheets 7-8). Follow the instruc-
tions on the sheet for doing the calculations. Computation examples are given in NEH Section 15, Chap-
ter 5, Furrow Irrigation, for full furrow length and partial furrow length evaluations.
7. Plot intake curve data To and F0-1 from worksheet 9 on two cycle log-log paper (fig. 9–24).
Draw a best fit line through the plotted points. Compare this line to standard furrow intake characteris-
tic (family) curves (Chapter 2, Soils, fig. 2–4).
Figure 9–24 Soil water intake curves
Joe Example
Land user ____________________
7-10-86
Date ________________________
Soil water intake curves Billings, MT
Field office ___________________
4 5 6 7 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 1,000

10.0 10.0
8.0 8.0
6.0
0.7 6.0
5.0 If - 5.0
4.0 4.0
3.0 3.0
Intake inches F0-1
2.0 2.0
1.0 1.0
.8 .8
.6 .6
.4 .4
.3 .3
.2 .2
4 5 6 7 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 1,000
Time in minutes, To

Irrigation Guide
8. Determine water depth infiltrated at each station (worksheet 10). Use the opportunity time at
each station (computed on the advance-recession worksheet) and the cumulative intake curve to make
your determination. Record the depth infiltrated in the next to the last column of the worksheet. This is
the depth infiltrated within the wetted perimeter of the furrow.
9. Correct the wetted perimeter intake at each station(worksheet 10). The wetted perimeter intake
at each station must be corrected to account for furrow spacing and representative field area. Multiply
the wetted perimeter intake by the ratio of wetted perimeter (P) (worksheet 9) to furrow spacing (W)
(worksheet 2). Enter the result in the last column of the advance-recession worksheet 10.
10. Compute the average opportunity time, To (worksheet 10):

total opportunity
Ave. To =
number of stations
11. Compute the average depth of water infiltrated within the wetted perimeter, Fwp (worksheet
10):
total intake in wetted perimeter
Fwp =
number of stations
12. Compute the average intake for the area represented by the furrow spacing. (worksheet 10)
Fwp × P
Fave =
W
13. Compute the furrow area for the evaluation reach (acres) (worksheet 3):
A=
(evaluation furrow length, ft ) × (furrow spacing W, ft )
43,560 ft 2 / ac
14. Compute present gross application depth, Fg, in inches (worksheet 3):
(total inflow volume, gal) × (.0000368)
A ( furrow area, acres )
Present Fg =
15. Determine the location(s) along the furrow where the minimum opportunity time (Tox) oc-
curred (worksheet 3). Use the furrow advance and recession information (worksheet 10) to make the
determinations. Record the minimum time.
16. Determine minimum depth infiltrated, Fmin (worksheet 3). Use the minimum opportunity time from
worksheet 10.
17. Enter average depth infiltrated, Fave on worksheet 3 (from worksheet 10).
18. Compute furrow distribution uniformity, DU (worksheet 3):

Irrigation Guide
Absolute minimum is often used instead of low quarter, as in other methods of irrigation. Absolute
minimum is the ratio of minimum depth infiltrated to average depth infiltrated. However, to compare
the furrow surface irrigation system to other irrigation systems, low quarter distribution uniformity
should be used.
DU min , % =
(minimum depth infiltrated,F min , inches ) × 100
average depth infiltrated, Fave , inches
To compare irrigation methods:

1
low
infiltrated
DU % = 4
average depth infiltrated, inches
19. Compute runoff, RO (worksheet 4):

total outflow volume, gal
RO, % = × 100 (outflow from worksheet 8, inflow from worksheet 7)
total inflow volume, gal
total outflow volume, gal × 0.0000368

( )
RO, in =
A, furrow area, acres
20. Compute deep percolation, DP:
DP, inches = [(average depth infiltrated, inches) – (soil water deficit, inches)] (depth worksheet 10
& SMD worksheet 1)
deep percolation, inches
× 100
( )
DP % = (Fg from worksheet 3)
Fg , gross depth applied, inches
21. Compute application efficiency, Ea (%). Average depth of water stored in root zone is equal to the
soil water deficit if entire root zone depth will be filled to field capacity by this irrigation; otherwise, use
Fg minus RO, in inches.
ave depth stored in root zone, inches
× 100
( )
Ea =
Fg , gross depth applied, inches
If irrigation efficiency is to be used in place of application efficiency, use average depth of water
beneficially used (all water infiltrated depths less than or equal to SWD plus any other beneficial uses).

Irrigation Guide
Potential water conservation and pumping costs savings
1. Use the present gross application per irrigation (Fg, worksheet 3) and number of irrigation
and enter on worksheet 5. Base your estimation on information about present irrigation scheduling
and application practices obtained from the irrigation decisionmaker and on data derived from the
evaluation.
2. Determine the annual net crop and other irrigation requirement and potential application
efficiency. Use the irrigation guide for potential efficiency and crop need. Enter on worksheet 5.
3. Compute potential annual gross water applied on worksheet 5:
(annual net crop and other irrigation requirement, inches) × 100

E ( potential application efficiency, % )
Potential annual gross water applied, inches =
pa
4. Compute total annual water conserved (ac-ft):
Total annual water conserved =

( present gross applied, in − potential gross applied in) × A (area irrigated, ac)
12
5. If cost is a factor, compute cost savings on worksheet 6:
efficiency, kind of fuel, cost per unit of fuel, fuel cost per acre foot.
Compute fuel cost savings:
Fuel cost savings = (fuel cost per ac-ft) x (ac-ft conserved per year)
Water purchase cost savings: Obtain purchase cost data from farmer. Compute as follows:
Water cost savings = (water cost per ac-ft) x (water conserved per year, ac-ft)
Compute total cost savings.

Irrigation Guide
Example 9–4 Evaluation computation steps for graded furrow irrigation system—Continued
1. Compare soil water deficit with management allowable depletion (MAD). This indicates whether the
irrigation was correctly timed, too early, or too late.
2. Analyze the advance and recession curves and changes that might be made to improve irrigation
uniformity.
Recommendations:
Use field evaluation observations, data obtained by discussion with the irrigation decisionmaker, study of
advance-recession curves, and data obtained by computations to make practical recommendations. Remem-
ber that the measured and calculated data are not exact. This is mainly because soils vary and there are many
other uncontrollable variables. Changes should be made with a trial-and-error procedure. After each new trial
the field should be probed to determine water penetration. Observations should be made to determine furrow
runoff and distribution. Enough instruction and training should be given irrigation decisionmakers so they
can make observations and provide the necessary adjustments.

Irrigation Guide
(4) Contour ditch irrigation detailed • Hook gauge and engineering scale for
evaluation infiltrometer
Improving efficiency of contour ditch irrigation has a • Equipment for determining soil moisture
great potential for conserving water. Application amounts (feel and appearance charts, Speedy
efficiencies of 10 to 25 percent are common. Potential Moisture Meter and Eley volumeter or Madera
efficiencies with properly designed, maintained, and sampler, and soil moisture sample cans)
managed systems can be 30 to 50 percent. As an ex- • Buckets to supply infiltrometer with water
ample, improving application efficiency from 10 to 40 • Soil auger, push tube sampler, probe, shovel
percent where a net seasonal requirement of 17 inches • Evaluation worksheets, aerial photo of field, clip
is met, can conserve 10.6 acre-feet of water per irri- board, and pencil
gated acre. • Watch, camera, boots
• Soils data for field
Exact values for distribution uniformity and applica-
tion efficiencies are impractical to determine because (ii) Procedures—The field procedures needed for
of difficulties in measuring depth infiltrated at repre- evaluation of this type system are in two categories:
sentative locations in the field. The depth infiltrated general, and inventory and data collection.
varies widely throughout the irrigated area. The fol-
lowing procedure gives an approximation of those General
factors that are useful in making decisions about
changes that might be made to a system or its manage- Step 1—Before irrigation is started:
ment. • Get basic information about existing irrigation
procedures, concerns, and problems from the
Choose a typical portion of the field to be irrigated. irrigator.
The site should have a representative soil type and be • Select a turnout that irrigates an area representa-
managed from a scheduling standpoint. If possible, the tive of areas irrigated from turnouts in the field.
area irrigated should receive water from an individual If at all possible, select an area where runoff can
turnout without water intermingling from other turn- be measured.
outs. The size and shape of the area irrigated should • Stake a grid in the basin to be irrigated. Grid
be typical of the size and shape of areas irrigated in spacing should be such that it defines significant
the field. undulations on the irrigated surface. The entire
area irrigated from the turnout should be cov-
If water is intermingled from adjacent turnouts during ered.
preceding and succeeding sets, estimating or making • Sketch the location of ditches, turnouts, location
onsite determinations of the adjacent water opportu- of measuring devices, and the field grid on a grid
nity time is necessary at each grid point. Grid point sheet as illustrated in figure 9–25.
opportunity times are explained in the procedure. • Set measuring devices to measure inflow and
outflow.
The evaluation should be run at a time when soil • Set three to five cylinder infiltrometers in care-
moisture conditions are similar to those when irriga- fully chosen typical locations within the area to
tion would normally be initiated. be irrigated. A location near the supply ditch will
be the most convenient for providing water for
(i) Equipment—The equipment needed for a infiltrometer cylinders. See discussion in section
contour ditch irrigation system includes: 652.0905, Determining soil intake.
• Two 100-foot tapes (or one 100-foot tape and • Check the soil water deficit (SWD) at several
transit to lay out grid) grid points in the irrigated area. Use feel and
• Stakes or flags and marker for stakes or flags appearance, Eley volumeter/speedy moisture
• Flumes, weirs, or other measuring devices for meter, push tube/oven (Madera sampler), or
measuring inflow and outflow some other method. For the location chosen as
• Carpenters level for setting flumes or weirs the controlling typical soil, record the SWD data
• Cylinder infiltrometer set with hammer and on the evaluation worksheet.
hammer plate (minimum 4 rings)

Irrigation Guide
• At the same time, make note of soil profile condi- • If overlap between irrigation sets has occurred or
tions, such as: may occur, the combined opportunity time must
— Depth to water table be determined for the adjacent sets at those
— Apparent root depth and rooting pattern of points where overlap is experienced.
existing or previous crop • If possible, check for adequacy and uniformity of
— Soil or compaction layers restrictive to root irrigation at a time when the soil profile has
development and water movement reached field capacity. Sandy soils can be
— Mineral layers checked 4 to 24 hours after irrigation. Clayey
— Hardpans and bedrock soils should be checked about 48 hours after
— Soil textural changes irrigation when most gravitational water has
drained.
Step 2—Field observations. Make visual observations • If it is necessary to establish field capacity,
of the field including crop uniformity, weeds, erosion determine the soil water content when checking
problems, crop condition or color changes, and wet for adequacy and uniformity of irrigation.
areas.
(iii) Evaluation computations—The information
Inventory and data collection gathered in field procedures is used in detailed system
evaluation computations. Example 9–5 outlines the
During the irrigation: computations used to complete the Contour Ditch
• Irrigate with the flow rate normally used by the Irrigation System Detailed Evaluation Worksheet
irrigation decisionmaker and record the start (exhibit 9–5).
time.
• Check and record the flow rate several times
during inflow. Record the turnoff time.
• Observe advance of the water front across the
irrigated area. On the map of the area, sketch the
position of the water front at six or eight time
intervals. Using 24-hour clock readings, record
the time when the front reaches each station. An
uneven advancing front line indicates location of
high and low areas.
• Fill the infiltrometer cylinders when the leading
edge of water reaches them. (An alternative is to
build dams around the infiltrometers and pour
water in the dams at the same time water is
poured into the infiltrometers.) Record
infiltrometer readings at times shown on the
infiltrometer worksheets.
• Record when runoff starts and stops. Check and
record runoff several times during the runoff
period.
• Observe the recession of the water in the area.
On the map of the area, sketch the position at six
or eight time intervals. Record the time on each
line. These lines should be of contrasting color or
type to distinguish them from the advance line.
• Immediately after recession, use a probe or
auger to check depth of penetration at several
locations in the area. A check at this time indi-
cates the depth that water has already perco-
lated.

Irrigation Guide
Figure 9–25 Ditches, turnouts, measuring devices, and field grid for example site
Joe Example
Land user ____________________
Date ________________________
Advance - recession sketch Field office ___________________
B C D E F G
1 Ditc
h #1 On = 7:45
Off = 17:10
e
Slop
2%±
T.O.
2 17:25
7:5
8: 5
15 8:15
3
8:
40 9:00
17:30
8:40
4
17:4
0
9:0 0
:5
0 17
0
5
9:2
9:
20 17:5
Ditch #2 0
0
:0
18
Advance
7 Recession

Irrigation Guide
Exhibit 9–5 Completed worksheet—Surface irrigation system, detailed evaluation of contour ditch irrigation system

Example - Surface Irrigation System

Detailed Evaluation Contour Ditch Irrigation System Worksheet
Joe Example
#10

50
Field size __________________ acres
4
Crop _________________ Root zone depth ______________ 50
ft MAD 1/ ____________ 4.1
% MAD 1/ ____________ in
3 weeks other harvest – very dry
Stage of crop _________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Soil-water data:
(Show locacation of sample on grid map of irrigated area.)
Feel & apperance
Fort Collins loam
Soil series name ____________________________________________________________________________
Depth Texture AWC 2/ (in) SWD 3/ (%) SWD 3/ (in)

____________ ____________________ ______________ ____________ ______________
0-4"
____________ L
____________________ .72
______________ 100
____________ .72
______________
4-20"
____________ CL
____________________ 2.64
______________ 80
_____________ 2.11
______________
20-48"
____________ CL
____________________ 4.90
______________ 70
____________ 4.43
______________
____________ ____________________ ______________ ____________ ______________
8.26
Total ______________ 6.26
______________
Notes
___________________________________________________________________________________________
7
Typical irrigation duration __________________ 14-20
hr, irrigation frequency _________________ days
5 +/-
earth head ditch

Type of delivery system, (earth ditch, concrete ditch, pipeline) ______________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Method used to turn water out (shoveled opening, wood box turnout, siphon tubes, portable dams,
wood turnouts
concrete checks with check boards, etc.) ______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
1/ MAD = Management allowable depletion

2/ AWC = Available water capacity
3/ SWD = Soil water deficit

Irrigation Guide
—Continued

Example - Contour Ditch Irrigation System

Detailed Evaluation Worksheet
Field observations
Notes
Crop uniformity _______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Notes
Wet and/or dry area problems ____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Notes
Erosion problems ______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Notes
Other observations _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
20.0 in2) x (___________

Irrigated test area (from gird map) = (___________ .2296 in2/ac) = ________________ac
4.6
Actual total depth infiltrated, inches:
Depth, inches - (Irrigated volume, ac-in) - (Runoff volume, ac-in)

(Irrigated area, acres)
49.03 - 6.32
Depth, inches = ___________________________ 9.31
= ______________ in
4.6
Gross application, Fg, inches:
49.03
Fg = (Total inflow volume, ac-in) = __________________________ 10.68 in
= _____________
(Irrigated area, acres) 4.6
DU = (Average depth infiltrated (adjusted) low 1/4, inches)

(Average depth infiltrated (adjusted), inches)
9.02 x 100
DU = __________________________________________ 96
= _______________
9.4
Runoff, RO, inches:
6.32
RO, inches = (Runoff volume, ac-in) = ________________________________ 1.38
= ______________ in
(Irrigated area, ac) 4.6
1.38 x 100
RO, % = (Runoff depth, inches) x 100 = ___________________________ 12.9
= ______________ %
(Gross application, Fg, inches) 10.68

Irrigation Guide
—Continued


Deep percolation, DP, inches:
DP, inches = (Gross applic. Fg, inches) - (Runoff depth, RO, inches) - (Soil water deficit, SWD, inches)
10.68 – 1.38 – 6.26

DP, inches = __________________________________________________ 3.04 inches
= __________
3.04 x 100
DP, % = (Deep percolation, DP, inches) x 100 = ______________________ 28.5
= _________%
Application efficiency (Ea):
(Average depth replaced in root zone = Soil water deficit, SWD, inches)
6.26 x 100 = ________

Ea% = (Average depth replaced in root zone, inches) x 100 = _______________ 58.6 %
Present management:
5.0
Estimated present average net application per irrigation = __________________ inches
Present gross applied per year = (Net applied per irrigation, inches) x (no. of irrigations) x 100
(Application efficiency, Ea, percent)
5.0 x 5 x 100
Present gross applied per year = _____________________________ 43.0 inches
= __________
58.6
13.0
Annual net irrigation requirement: _________________ alfalfa
inches, for _______________ (crop)
60
Potential application efficiency, Epa: ____________ % (from irrigation guide or other source)
Potential annual gross applied = (annual net irrigation requirement, inches) x 100
(Potential application efficiency, Epa, percent)
13.0 x 100
Potential annual gross applied = ___________________________________ 21.7 inches
= ________
60
= (Present gross applied, inches) - (Potential gross applied, inches) x Area irrigated, ac)
12
43.0 - 21.7
= (_________________________) 4.59
x (___________________) 8.15
= ______________ acre-feet
12

Irrigation Guide
—Continued

Example - Contour Ditch Irrigation System Detailed

Evaluation Worksheet
Cost savings:
Pumping plant efficiency ______________ percent, Kind of energy __________________________
Cost per unit of fuel ______________________ Fuel cost per acre foot _______________________
Cost savings = (Fuel cost per acre foot) x (Acre inches conserved per year)
= ________________________________________________
Water purchase cost:
= (Cost per acre foot) x (Acre feet saved per year) =
= (_____________) x (_____________) = _____________________________________________
Cost savings = (Pumping cost) + (Water cost) = (_____________) + (_____________) = _________
Recommendations
Notes
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________

Irrigation Guide
—Continued


X
Inflow ________ Outflow _________
Clock 1/ Elapsed ∆T Gauge Flow Average Volume 2/ Cum.

(min) (min) (ft) (ft3/s) (ft3/s) (ac-in) (ac-in)
Turn on
0745 1.33 4.75
10 4.84 .80 .80
0755 10 1.36 4.92
15 4.98 1.23 2.03
0810 25 1.38 5.03
80 5.09 6.73 8.76
0930 105 1.40 5.14
60 5.20 5.16 13.92
1030 165 1.42 5.25
60 5.31 5.27 19.19
1130 225 1.44 5.37
60 5.28 5.24 24.43
1230 285 1.41 5.19
60 5.22 5.18 29.61
1330 345 1.42 5.25
60 5.28 5.24 34.85
1430 405 1.43 5.31
60 5.34 5.30 40.15
1530 465 1.44 5.37
100 5.37 8.88 49.03
1730 565 1.44 5.37
49.03
49.03
Average flow = Total irrigation volume in (ac-in) = ___________________________ 5.25
= _______________ ft3/s
Flow factor x elapsed time (min)
.01653 x 565
To find volume using ft3/s:
Volume (ac-in) = .01653 x time (min) x flow (ft3/s)
To find volume using gpm:

Volume (ac-in) = .00003683 x time (min) x flow (gpm)

Irrigation Guide
—Continued


X
Inflow ________ Outflow _________
3" Parshall flume


Turn on
0830 .20 .082
45 .11 .082 .082
0915 45 .28 .138
60 .209 .207 .289
1015 105 .44 .279
60 .229 .297 .586
1115 165 .48 .319
60 .329 .326 .912
1215 225 .50 .339
60 .350 .347 1.259
1315 285 .52 .361
60 .392 .369 1.628
1415 345 .54 .382
60 .388 .385 2.013
1515 405 .55 .393
60 .404 .401 2.414
1615 465 .57 .415
60 .427 .423 2.837
1715 525 .59 .438
35 .219 .127 2.964
1750 560 0 0
2.964
2.964
Average flow = Total irrigation volume in (ac-in) = ___________________________ 0.32
= _______________ ft3/s
Flow factor x elapsed time (min) .01653 x 565


Irrigation Guide
—Continued

Example - Surface System

Detailed Evaluation Contour Ditch Irrigation Systems Worksheet
Grid Data
Grid Advance Recession Opportunity Typical Adjusted Low 1/4

point time 1/ time 1/ time depth depth adjusted
(hr:min) (hr: min) " To" infil. 2/ infil. 2/ intake 4/
(min) (in) (in) (in)
D2 0752 1725 573 6.6 9.7

E2 0749 1715 566 6.5 9.7
F2 0755 1725 570 6.6 9.7
C3 0841 1735 521 6.2 9.2
D3 0814 1729 555 6.4 9.5
E3 0755 1728 573 6.6 9.7
F3 0813 1728 555 6.4 9.5
G3 0850 1732 522 6.2 9.2 9.2
C4 0853 1742 529 6.3 9.3
D4 0841 1730 537 6.3 9.4
E4 0815 1733 558 6.4 9.5
F4 0814 1733 559 6.4 9.6
G4 0902 1740 518 6.1 9.2 9.2
C5 0915 1751 516 6.1 9.1 9.1
D5 0855 1748 533 6.3 9.4
E5 0833 1743 550 6.4 9.5
F5 0815 1742 567 6.5 9.7
G5 0905 1750 525 6.2 9.2 9.2
E6 0857 1753 536 6.3 9.5
G6 0920 1800 460 5.6 8.4 8.4
Total 126.4 187.9 45.1
4/ Adjusted intake for lowest intake 1/4 of points (total number of points divided by 4).
Average depth infiltrated (typical):

= Total depth typical 126.4 6.32
= ____________________ = ____________ in
Number of grid points 20
Average depth infliltrated (adjusted):
(Should be close to actural depth infiltrated)
= Total depth adjusted 187.9 9.395

= ____________________ = ____________ in
Number of grid points 20
Average depth infiltrated (adjusted), low 1/4:
45.1 9.02
= Total depth adjusted, low 1/4 = ____________________ = ____________ in
Number grid points, low 1/4 20

Irrigation Guide
Example 9–5 Evaluation computation steps for contour ditch irrigation systems
1. On the grid sheet, determine the area, in acres, covered by the irrigation.
2. Compute the soil water deficit (SWD). This is the net depth of application (F n) needed for the
evaluation irrigation.
3. Plot cumulative intake curves for each infiltrometer. After all curves have been plotted on log-log
paper and deviations have been considered and allowed for, a typical straight line can be drawn for use
in evaluation (fig. 9–26). Its position should be checked later and adjusted to show the correct duration
of irrigation.
Figure 9–26 Cumulative intake curve (data from figure 9–27)
Joe Example
Land user ____________________
6-6-94
Date ________________________
Soil water intake curves Joliet
Field office ___________________
4 5 6 7 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 1,000

10.0 10.0
9.31
8.0 8.0
Adjusted
6.32
6.0 6.0
5.0 5.0
4.0 Typical 4.0
3.0 3.0
2.0 2.0
1
4
1.0 1.0
.8 .8
.6 .6
.4
5 .4
.3 .3
3
2
.2 .2
4 5 6 7 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 1,000
Time in minutes

9–114
Chapter 9
Figure 9–27 Example cylinder infiltrometer test data

Example - Cylinder Infiltrometer Test Data NRCS-ENG-322

02-96

Joe Example Carbon MT 6-6-94
SOIL MAPPING SYMBOL SOIL TYPE SOIL MOISTURE: 0' - 1' - % of available
Fort Collins loam 1' - 2' - % of available
Alfalfa grass
GENERAL COMMENTS

Elapsed time
Average accum.
intake
of gauge intake of gauge intake of gauge intake of gauge intake of gauge intake
0 12:01 8.5 0 12:02 7.0 0 12:03 7.2 0 12:04 6.6 0 12:05 8.0 0
5 12:06 7.2 1.3 12:07 6.8 0.2 12:08 6.9 0.3 12:09 6.3 0.3 12:10 7.9 0.1
10 12:11 7.1/ 6.7/ 6.8/ 6.2/ 7.6/
8.8 1.4 12:12 8.2 0.3 12:13 7.8 0.4 12:14 7.2 0.4 12:15 8.25 0.4
20 12:21 8.55 1.65 12:22 7.85 0.65 12:23 7.65 0.55 12:24 7.05 0.55 12:26 8.25 0.4
Irrigation Guide
Part 652
30 12:31 8.2 2.0 12:32 7.6 0.9 12:33 7.4 0.7 12:34 6.75 0.85 12:35 8.05 0.6
45 12:46 6.4/
8.1 2.1 12:47 7.5 1.0 12:48 7.2 0.9 12:49 7.6 1.2 12:50 7.85 10.8
60 13:01 7.7 2.5 13:02 7.3 1.2 13:03 7.05 1.05 13:04 7.4 1.4 13:05 7.7 0.95
90 13:31 7.35 2.85 13:32 6.9 1.6 13:33 6.65 1.45 13:34 6.9 1.9 13:35 7.35 1.3
120 14:01 6.85/ 3.35 14:02 6.55/ 1.95 14:03 6.45/ 1.65 14:04 6.4/ 2.4 14:05 7.0/ 1.65
9.05 9.05 9.2 9.2 9.2
180 15:01 8.3 4.1 15:02 8.3 2.7 15:03 8.5 2.35 15:04 8.1 3.5 15:05 8.5 2.35
240 16:01 7.55 4.85 16:02 7.7 3.3 16:03 7.95 2.9 16:04 7.35 4.25 16:04 7.9 2.95
Irrigation Guide
Example 9–5 Evaluation computation steps for contour ditch irrigation systems—Continued
4. Enter the advance and recession times at each grid point on the grid data worksheet (exhibit
9–5). This requires some interpolation of the times shown on the map. Compute difference in time
between advance and recession, in minutes. This time is the actual opportunity time (To) at each grid
point. Record To on the worksheet.
Find the average opportunity time for the area by averaging the To values for all grid points.
Using the computed opportunity times for each grid point, determine and record the typical intake
depth for each point from the typical cumulative intake curve. Compute the average depth infiltrated
(typical):
Total depth infiltrated, typical
Ave depth infiltrated, inches =
Number of grid points
To check correctness of the location at which the typical curve was drawn, the actual average depth
infiltrated is computed:
(Irrigation volume, ac - in) − (Runoff volume, ac - in)
(Irrigated area, acres )
A curve correction is needed because the infiltrometers check the infiltration at only one spot in the
irrigated area. The slope of that curve is probably typical of the average curve for the area. An adjusted
curve, since it is based on the infiltrometer curve slope and actual average depth infiltrated, will more
nearly represent the average intake curve for the irrigated area and the field.
Draw a line parallel to the typical line passing through a point that is at the actual average depth infil-
trated and at a time corresponding to the typical average depth infiltrated. This new line is the adjusted
cumulative intake curve. See figure 9–26.
Using the adjusted intake curve and the opportunity time for each grid point, determine the adjusted
intake depth for each grid point. Compute the average depth, adjusted:
Ave depth =
(Total depth infiltrated, adjusted)
Compute the average depth infiltrated low quarter, adjusted:

 1
 Total depth infiltrated, adjusted, low 
 4
 1
 Number of grid points, low 
 4

Irrigation Guide
Gross application (Fg):

(Total inflow volume, ac - in)
Fg , inches =
Distribution uniformity – low quarter (DU)

(Total low quarter depth infiltrated)
(Total depth infiltrated)
DU =
Runoff depth (RO):

(Runoff volume, ac - in)
RO, inches =
(Runoff depth, inches) × 100

RO, % =
Deep percolation (DP):
( ) ( ) (
DP, inches = Gross application, inches − Runoff depth, inches − Soil water deficit, inches )
(Deep percolation, inches) × 100
DP, % =
Application efficiency (Ea)—Application efficiency is the ratio of average depth of water stored in the
root zone to gross application depth. In most cases for this type of irrigation, the entire root zone is
filled to field capacity by the irrigation. If this is the case, application efficiency is the ratio of soil water
deficit to gross application. Otherwise, it is the ratio of gross application less runoff to gross application.
(Average depth stored in root zone, inches) × 100

Ea =
6. Compute potential water conservation and pumping cost savings:
• Based on information about present irrigation scheduling and application practices obtained from the
irrigation decisionmaker and on data derived from the evaluation, make a best estimate of the
present net application per irrigation.

Irrigation Guide
• Compute an estimate of the gross amount of irrigation water used per year. Use the estimated aver-
age net application, average number of annual irrigations (from the irrigation decisionmaker), and
application efficiency (Ea) found by this evaluation to compute annual gross:
(Net applied per irrigation, inches) × (Number of irrigations) × 100

(Application efficiency, E a )
• From the irrigation guide, determine annual net irrigation requirements for the crop to be managed.
• From the irrigation guide or other source, determine potential system efficiency (Epa).
• Compute annual gross applied:

(Potential application efficiency, E pa )
• Compute total annual water conserved (ac-ft):
(Present gross applied, inches) − (Potential gross applied, inches) × Area irrigated, acre
12
• If cost is a factor, compute cost savings:
efficiency, kind of fuel, cost per unit of fuel, and fuel cost per acre
foot. Compute fuel cost savings:
(Fuel cost per acre foot) x (acre feet conserved per year)
Water purchase cost savings: Obtain purchase cost data from irrigation decisionmaker. Compute
as follows:
(Cost per acre foot) x (Acre feet saved per year)
Compute total cost savings.

Irrigation Guide
1. Compare soil water deficit (SWD) with management allowed deficit (MAD). This indicates
whether the irrigation was correctly timed, too early, or too late.
2. Consider changes that may be made in set times and scheduling.
3. Consider changes that might be made in ditch location and turnout location.
4. Consider alternative types of turnouts. Turnouts with better flow control may improve the ability to
manage the system.
5. Consider whether land smoothing or construction of corrugations would help distribution

patterns.
Recommendations:
Use field observations, data obtained by discussion with the irrigation decisionmaker, and data obtained by
computations to make practical recommendations. Remember that the data are not exact because of the
many variables. Flow rate changes and other changes are the result of a trial and error procedure. After each
new trial, the field should be probed to determine penetration. Enough instruction should be given to opera-
tors so they can make these observations and adjustments.

irrigation system changes, along with appropriate management changes is secondary.

Irrigation Guide
(5) Periodic move sprinkler (sideroll wheel • Manufacturer's sprinkler head performance
lines, handmove, end tow) fixed (solid) charts
sets • Clipboard and pencil
The overall efficiency of sprinkler irrigation systems • Soil data for field
changes with time. Nozzles, sprinkler heads, and • Camera, boots, rain gear
pumps wear (lose efficiency), and pipes and joints • Special adapter for measuring discharge from
develop leaks. Some systems are used in ways they gear driven pop-up type sprinkler heads, if
were not designed. A sprinkler system evaluation is needed
designed to identify problems and develop solutions. • Worksheets
Before a detailed evaluation is made, obvious operat-
ing and equipment deficiencies should be corrected by (ii) Field procedures—The field procedures
the water user. However, observing and evaluating a needed to evaluate this system are in two categories:
poorly designed, installed, or operated system may be general and inventory and data collection
a good training exercise to improve employee compe-
tence. The following evaluation procedure works General
satisfactorily with either impact or gear driven type
sprinkler heads. Some modification to evaluation tools Obtain pertinent information about irrigation system
may be necessary to check pressure and sprinkler hardware from the irrigation decisionmaker and from
discharge. visual observation. Observe general system operating
condition, crop uniformity, salinity problems, wet
(i) Equipment needed—The equipment needed to areas, dry areas, and wind problems. Obtain informa-
evaluate a periodic move sprinkler system includes: tion about the field and how it is irrigated including.
• Catch containers and stakes—number of con- This information should include irrigation set time,
tainers equals: direction of move of sprinkler laterals, number of
lateral spacing × sprinkler spacing moves per day, sprinkler head spacing and move,
number of sets or irrigations per season, chemigations,
25
and crops grown in the rotation. If at all possible,
• Two 50-foot tapes perform the evaluation on a day with no or little wind.
• 500-mL (cc) graduated cylinder (use 250-mL With lateral sets involving one move per day (24-hour
graduated cylinder for light applications). set), it may be desirable to leave catch can containers
• Pocket tape (inches) overnight.
• Miscellaneous tools—pipe wrench and adjust-
able wrenches Inventory and data collection
• Pressure gauge with pitot tube, 0 to 100 psi
pressure range (recommend liquid filled) The following steps are needed to collect and inven-
• Soil auger, push tube sampler, probe, shovel tory data:
• Equipment for determining soil moisture
amounts—feel and appearance charts, Speedy Step 1—Estimate soil-water deficit at several locations
moisture meter and Eley volumeter, or auger and in the field. Use the feel and appearance, Eley volume-
oven drying cans ter/Speedy moisture meter, auger or push tube sam-
• Set of unused high speed twist drill bits, 1/16 to pler (Madera sampler), or some other method. Pick a
1/4 inch (by 64ths) for measuring inside diameter typical location, and record the data on the worksheet.
of nozzles on impact type sprinkler heads
• Stop watch or watch with second hand Step 2—While completing step 1, also make note of
• Wind velocity gauge, thermometer (for air tem- soil profile conditions including:
perature) • Depth to water table
• Calibrated bucket (2- to 5-gallon), 5-foot length • Apparent root development pattern and depth of
of 5/8 inch diameter or larger garden hose, need existing or previous crop (for determining effec-
two for measuring discharge from double nozzle tive plant root zone)
sprinkler heads

Irrigation Guide
• Root and water restrictions: gauge and pitot tube, hose, calibrated bucket, and stop
— Compacted layers (tillage pans) and prob- watch, check pressure and flow measurement at
able cause. sprinklers next to the test area. All sprinklers on the
— Mineral layers. lateral need to be operating.
— Hardpans or bedrock.
— Soil textures including textural change Note: Liquid filled pressure gauges are more durable
boundaries (abrupt or gradual). and provide dampening of the gauge needle, allowing
pressure readings more easily obtained. Gauges
Step 3—If a portable flow meter is available, insert it should be periodically checked against known pres-
at the beginning of the lateral before the irrigation is sures to determine potential errors. Purchasing a
started and leave it throughout the irrigation. The quality pressure gauge to start with is a wise invest-
irrigator could install and remove it when laterals or ment.
sets are changed. Clamp-on ultrasonic flowmeters can
also be used effectively. Step 6—Set out catch containers on a 10-foot by 10-
foot grid on both sides of the lateral between two or
Step 4—Choose a representative location along a more adjacent sprinkler heads. The grid pattern should
sprinkler lateral for the test where pressure is typical be continued perpendicular to the lateral for a dis-
for most of the lateral. With one size of lateral pipe, tance equal to the next lateral set location or just
about half the pressure loss resulting from pipeline beyond sprinkler throw radius, whichever is greater.
friction loss in a lateral occurs in the first 20 percent of The last rows of catch containers on each side of the
the length. Over 80 percent of pressure loss occurs in lateral will probably catch little water. See figure 9–28
the first half of the lateral length. On a flat field the for catch container layout and example catch data.
most representative pressure occurs about 30 to 40
percent of the distance from the lateral inlet to the Each container should be located at approximate plant
terminal end. canopy height within a foot of its correct grid position
and set carefully in an upright position with its top
Almost any container can be used. A sharp edge is parallel to the ground. Any surrounding vegetation
desirable. The 12- or 16-ounce clear plastic drinking that would interfere with a container should be re-
glass works well. For straight sided containers, the moved. To fasten containers to short stakes with
entry rim diameter is measured and the equivalent rubber bands may be necessary. Personal ingenuity
capacity in cc (mL) for 1-inch application depth is may be necessary as to shape, height, and setting of
computed. For stackable tapered sided containers, a catch cans when evaluating low angle sprinkler heads
500 cc (or 250 cc) graduated cylinder is used to volu- installed close to the ground surface. It is necessary
metrically measure catch in the cans. The cross sec- for water to enter the catch container nearly vertical
tional area of the top of the container is used to calcu- rather than horizontal.
late application depth, either in inches or millimeters.
Large sized rain gauges can be used as catch contain- During hot, dry weather when long catch times are
ers and can be read directly. To get mL conversion used, an evaporation container should be set upwind
using a circular container, measure the opening diam- and away from the sprinklers. The container should be
eter in inches and the conversion from mL to inches: filled with water at the start of the irrigation test, and
the amount of evaporation measured at the same time
πD2
mL = × 16.387 the rest of the containers are read. Depth of water in
4 the evaporation container should approximate half the
average catch. This measurement approximates the
Step 5—Place bags over sprinklers affecting the test amount of evaporation that occurred from the catch
area. An alternative to this is to insert a small stick or during the test period.
plant stem along the side or into the impact arm of
impact type sprinkler heads to jam it open and prevent Quickly remove the cloth bags or small sticks from the
rotation. Make sure water does not get in the contain- sprinkler heads to allow them to start rotating. Start
ers while they are being set out. Using a pressure timing the catch.

Irrigation Guide
Figure 9–28 Catch can data for lateral move system
Land user ____________________

Lateral move system Date ________________________
catch can data Field office ___________________
0 0 0 0
Sums of cans
370 350 365 375 both sides
10'
20 20 25 25
390 350 365 415

10'
110 120 110 90
(Low quarter can)

440 350 350 390
10'
260 210 210 230
410 360 360 330

10'
310 310 320 340
360 340 335 370

10'
350 340 360 350

5'
Lateral 350 340 360 350 flow

5' 10' 10' 10' 5'
5'
370 350 365 375

Sprinkler
10'
370 330 340 390

10'
300 230 240 300

10'
150 150 150 100

10'
50 30 15 30
10'
0 0 0 0

Irrigation Guide
Step 7—At several locations along the lateral, use the Step 12—Measure the depth of water caught in each
shank end of unused high speed twist drill bits to container by pouring water into a graduated cylinder.
determine nozzle diameters. Check for wear and An alternative to this is to use large commercial plastic
correct nozzle size. Nozzle size generally is indicated rain gauges as catch containers as well as the evapora-
on side of nozzle. Wear is considered excessive when tion container. The difference between the starting
the drill bit can be moved about in the nozzle over 5 to and ending depth in the evaporation container needs
10 degrees. Observe sprinkler heads for hang-ups, to be added to all catch container readings. Rain
weak springs, and leaks. Impact type heads should gauges can be read directly.
rotate at 1 to 2 revolutions per minute. Determining
the actual size of sprinkler nozzles being used with Step 13—Record the catch data on a grid sheet. Show
gear driven heads using noncircular orifices is diffi- location of sprinkler heads and lateral pipeline in
cult. The biggest cause of sprinkler irrigation applica- relation to catch containers. Show north direction,
tion nonuniformity is mixed nozzle sizes. direction of pipeline flow, and prevailing wind direc-
tion. Record nearby landmarks to locate the test area
Step 8—Measure and record pressure and flow rate of for discussion purposes with the water user.
sprinklers at several locations along the lateral line
and at both ends, preferably at the beginning and end (iii) Evaluation computations—The information
of the test period. Pressure is most accurately mea- gathered in the field procedures is used in the detailed
sured with tip of the pitot tube in the jet stream at the system evaluation computations. Example 9–6 outlines
orifice. Inserting the tip of the pitot tube inside the the computations used to complete the Sprinkler
orifice restricts flow; thus, line pressure is measured Irrigation System Detailed Evaluation Periodic Move
rather than orifice discharge pressure. Typically the and Fixed Set Sprinkler System Worksheet (exhibit
difference is 1 to 2 psi. For most evaluations line 9–6).
pressure is sufficient providing all measurements are
line pressure or nozzle pressure.
Step 9—Record how long it takes each sprinkler tested

to fill a calibrated bucket. A short length of garden
hose over the sprinkler nozzle is used to collect the
flow in the calibrated bucket. To avoid modifying
nozzle hydraulics, the hose should fit rather loosely.
Time the flow into the bucket with a stopwatch. To
improve accuracy, determine the sprinkler discharge
several times and compute the average. Use two hoses
for double nozzle sprinkler heads. It will take personal
ingenuity to develop a device to measure discharge
from gear driven sprinkler heads. The head should
rotate freely. A device similar to the that used when
evaluating micro-irrigation systems (minispray heads)
may be adopted using a larger two-piece catch con-
tainer.
Step 10—Record wind speed, air temperature, and

whether humidity is low, medium, or high.
Step 11—The test duration should be such that a

minimum of 0.5-inch (average) depth of water is
collected in catch containers. Terminate the test by
replacing bags over the sprinkler heads or blocking
head rotation. Record the time.

Irrigation Guide
Exhibit 9–6 Completed worksheet—Sprinkler irrigation system, detailed evaluation of periodic move and fixed set sprinkler
irrigation systems

Sprinkler Irrigation System

Detailed Evaluation Periodic Move and Fixed Set Sprinkler System
Joe Example
Land user _______________________________________ Prepared by ___________________________________
District ______________________________ County ______________________ Engineer job class______________
Irrigation system hardware inventory:

✓ Handmove ______ Lateral tow ______ Fixed set ________
Type of system (check one) : Side- roll ______
RB
Sprinkler head: make _________, 30
model _____________, 3/16 by _________
nozzle size(s) _________ 3/32 inches
40
Spacing of sprinkler heads on lateral, S1 _____________ feet
60
Lateral spacing along mainline, Sm ________________ 1
feet, total number of laterals ____________
Lateral lengths: max ____________ feet, minimum ______________ feet, average ______________ feet
1280 feet of ________
Lateral diameter: ____________ 5 inches, ___________ feet of __________ inches
8.6 gpm at ________
Manufacturer rated sprinkler discharge, ________ 45 psi giving ________
96 feet wetted diameter
33
Total number sprinkler heads per lateral ___________, 5
lateral diameter _________ inches
–5
Elevation difference between first and last sprinkler on lateral (=/-) _____________ feet
–
Sprinkler riser height ____________ 6" PVC
feet, mainline material ______________________________________________
✓ fine (>30psi), _________ coarse (<30psi)
Spray type: _______
Field observations:
Crop uniformity _________________________________________________________________________________
Water runoff ___________________________________________________________________________________
Erosion _______________________________________________________________________________________
System leaks ___________________________________________________________________________________
Fouled nozzles _________________________________________________________________________________
Other observations ______________________________________________________________________________
Field data inventory & Computations:

Alfalfa
Crop ___________________________, 5
root zone depth _______ 50 %, MAD 1/ ________
feet, MAD 1/ _______ 3.0 inches
Soil-water data (typical):
(Show locations of sample on soil map or sketch of field)
Feel & appearance
Moisture determination ____________________________________________________________________
Redfield loam
Soil series and surface texture ______________________________________________________________

0-1'
____________ L
____________________ 2.0
______________ 50
____________ 1.0
______________
1-2'
____________ LFS
____________________ 1.5
______________ 45
____________ 0.7
______________
2-35'
____________ VFLS
____________________ 2.25
______________ 45
_____________ 1.0
______________
3.5-5'
____________ GLS
____________________ 1.5
______________ 20
____________ 0.3
______________
____________ ____________________ ______________ ____________ ______________
7.25
Totals ______________ 3.0
______________
1/ MAD = Management allowable depletion, AWC = Available water capacity, SWD = Soil water deficit

Irrigation Guide
irrigation systems—Continued

Example - Sprinkler Irrigation System

Comments about soils (including restrictions to root development and water movement): _______________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Present irrigation practices:

12
Typical irrigation duration _____________ 14
hr, irrigation frequency ____________ days
8
Typical number irrigations per year __________________
60 ft, Alternate sets? _____________
Distance moved per set ___________ no
Measured nozzle diameters (using shank of high speed drill bit)
1 13 33
Sprinkler no. _____________________________________________________________
Diameter 3/16 x 3/32 same same
_____________________________________________________________
m m m
Size check _____________________________________________________________
(state whether t = tight, m = medium, l = loose)
Actual sprinkler pressure and discharge data:

Sprinkler number on test lateral
1st end
48 47 46
Initial pressure (psi) ________________________________________________
47 46 45
Final pressure (psi) ________________________________________________
Catch volume (gal) 5 5 5
________________________________________________
Catch time (sec) 33 34 34
________________________________________________
Discharge (gpm) 9.1 8.8 8.8
________________________________________________
Test:
Start _____________ 1521 duration ___________
0924 stop ____________ 5:57 = ___________
5.95 hours
Atmospheric data:
from N during ____________
Wind: Direction: Initial ____________ same same
final ______________
0-7
Speed (mph): initial ____________ 5-10
during ____________ 5-10
final ______________
65° final _______

Temperature: initial ________ 75° Humidity: _____ low _____
X med _____ high
—
Evaporation container: initial ___________ final ___________ loss __________ inch

Irrigation Guide


Lateral flow data:
–
Flow meter reading ______________________________________gpm
Average discharge of lateral based on sprinkler head discharge

= [1st gpm - .75 times (1st gpm - last gpm)] times (number of heads)
9.1 - .75 (9.1 - 8.8)
= __________________________ 8.8
= ______________ gpm (ave flow per head)
33 heads x _________
= ________ 8.8 gpm/head = ________________gpm
290
Calculations:
Gross application per test = (flow, gpm) x (time, hr) x 96.3

(lateral length) x (lateral spacing)
=( 2.16
290 gpm) x ( 12 hours) x 96.3 = _____________ inches
( 1280 feet) x ( 60 feet)
Gross application per irrigation = (gross application per test, in) x (set time, hour)
(time, hour)
=( 2.16 inches) x ( 12 4.36

hour) = _____________ inches
(5.95 hour)
Straight sided
Catch container type ______________________________________________
200
___________ 1.0
cc (mL) or in, measuring container = __________ inches in container
48
Total number of containers ___________
48 = _______
Composite number of containers = Total number of containers = ________ 24
2 2
8745
Total catch, all containers = _____________ 43.73
cc (mL)= _____________ inches
200 cc/in
Average total catch = Total catch 43.73 = __________

= ___________ 1.82 inches
composite no. containers 24
24 = ______
Number of composite containers in low 1/4 = composite no. containers = _______ 6
4 4
2045
Total catch in low 1/4 composite containers = _____________ 10.225
cc(mL) = ____________ inches
200 cc/in

Irrigation Guide


Average catch of low 1/4 composite containers = total catch in low 1/4
no. composite low 1/4 containers
10.225
= _____________________ 1.70
= ________________ inches
6
1.82 0.31
Average catch rate = Average total catch, inches = _____________________ = _______________inch/hour
Test time, hour 5.95 hour
NOTE: Average catch rate is application rate at plant canopy height.
1.70 x 100 inches x 100 = ___________%

DU = (Average catch low 1/4 composite containers) x 100 = ________________ 93.4
Average total catch 1.82 inches
Approximate Christiansen Uniformity (CU):
93.4
CU = 100 - [0.63 x (100 - DU)] = 100 [0.63 x (100 - ______________________)] 95.8
= __________________ %
Effective portion of applied water (Re):
Re = Average total catch, inch 1.82

= ____________________ 0.84
inches = ________________ inches
Gross applications/test, inches 2.16 inches
Application efficiency of low 1/4 (Eq):
93.4
Eq = DU x (Re) = _____________ .84
x _____________ 78.5
= _____________ %
NOTE: Use for medium to high value crops.
Approximate application efficiency low 1/2 (Eh):
95.8
Eh = CU x (Re) = _____________ .84
x _____________ 80.5
= ______________ %
NOTE: Use for lower value field and forage crops.

Irrigation Guide


Application efficiency, (Ea):
Fn = (gross application per irrigation) x Eq = ( 4.36 inches) x 80.5 3.51 inches

= ________
100 100
Ea = (water stored in root zone) x 100 = ( 68.8 %

3.0 inches) x 100 = _________
(gross application per irrigation) ( 4.36 inches)
Losses = (runoff, deep percolation) = gross application per irrigation minus SWD
4.36 – 3.0
= (_________________________________ 1.36 inches
= __________
Potential Water and Cost Savings:
Present management:
Gross applied per year = (gross applied per irrigation) x (number of irrigations) =
4.36
= (___________ 8
inches) x (____________) 34.9 inches/year
= __________
14.9
Annual net irrigation requirement __________________ alfalfa
inches/year, for _______________________ (crop)
75
Potential application efficiency (Eq or Eh) ____________ % (from NEH, Part 623, Ch 11)
Potential annual gross applied = (annual net irrigation requirement) x 100

Potential Eq or EH
14.87
= (____________________ 19.8
inches) x 100 = ___________________ inches
75
= (Present gross applied - potential gross applied) x (area irrig. (ac)) = _____________________ acre/feet
12
=( 36.7 inches) - ( 19.8 inches) x ( 40 56.2

acres) = ____________acre/feet
12

Irrigation Guide


Cost savings:
NA
Pumping plant efficiency ________________________________ Kind of fuel ___________________________
Cost per unit of fuel $ ___________________________________ Fuel cost per acre/foot $ ________________
Cost savings = (fuel cost per acre-foot) x (acre-feet conserved per year) = $ ______________
= (_______________) x (_______________) = $ ________________
= (Cost per acre-foot) x (acre-feet saved per year) = _______________ x _______________ = $ _____________
Cost Savings:
= Pumping cost + water cost = ____________ + ____________ = $ ______________
Recommendations: _________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________

Irrigation Guide
Example 9–6 Evaluation computation steps for periodic move and fixed set sprinkler irrigation systems
1. Simulate sprinkler lateral overlap. When only one lateral is operating or when operating laterals are
not adjacent, simulate sprinkler lateral overlap by transposing catch from one side of the lateral and
adding to catch on the other side. Note that the row of containers that would be next to the lateral
during the next set must be added to the row of cans next to the test lateral. By doing this we assume
that the transposed half is the same as the same side of the next set. If catch on one side has been be-
yond the lateral move distance, the row of cans next to the next lateral set should still be overlaid next
to the test lateral location, and the extended cans added to the other side.
Assume that the pattern for the next lateral set will have an overlap the same as the transposed half of
the evaluated set. This is not always true because the next set may have significantly different patterns
as a result of wind or pressure changes. If changes are significant, additional evaluations may be
needed.
The worksheet is set up for transposing catch data. Adjustments in computations are needed if data are
not transposed when adjacent laterals are operating. The following description is for transposed data.
2. Compute the gross application during the test and the gross application for the entire set
time.
3. Compute the composite number of containers, total containers divided by 2.
4. Compute the total catch in all containers.
5. Compute the average catch in all containers. Compute the average catch for all containers with the
measure evaporation container or loss added back in (gross application minus evaporation from dis-
charge to catch, wind drift, and system leaks).
6. Compute the low quarter number of composite containers: composite number of containers
divided by 4.
7. Add the lowest 25 percent composite catches to represent the low quarter.
8. Compute the average low one quarter catch:

1
Total catch in low containers
4
1
Number of low containers
4
• Compute distribution uniformity low 1/4 (DU)

1
Average catch in low containers
DU = 4
Average catch container depth

Irrigation Guide
Example 9–6 Evaluation computation steps for periodic move and fixed set sprinkler irrigation systems—Continued
• Compute approximate Christiansen uniformity coefficient (CU) percent from:

(
CU = 100 − 0.63 × 100 − DU )
• Compute effective portion of applied water (Re).
The effective portion of applied water compares the amount of water caught in containers to the
amount pumped. Any difference is a loss caused by evaporation, spray drift, or leaks. It does not
account for deep percolation and runoff. The effective portion of applied water can be estimated
using figure 6-8 in chapter 6 by entering the chart with observed data on wind velocity, temperature,
and humidity. With data from an analysis, the actual effective portion of applied water is computed as
follows:
Average total catch (in)
Re =
Gross application (in)
The effective portion of applied water is frequently confused with application efficiency. Application
efficiency is the amount of water stored in the plant root zone divided by the amount diverted or
pumped. Application efficiency accounts for all losses between the pump and the plant, including sys-
tem leaks, evaporation, spray drift, deep percolation, and runoff.
Application efficiency of low quarter (Eq) percentage:

E q = DU × R e ( )
Approximate application efficiency of low half (Eh) percentage. Note it is suggested to use Eq for most
conditions; however, Eh may be applicable where low value field crops are irrigated and deep medium
texture soils are available.
E h = CU × R e ( )
Application efficiency (Ea) indicates how much water has gone to deep percolation and runoff. First net
irrigation application (Fn) is calculated:
Fn =
(Gross application per irrigation) × E
q
100
Ea =
( Ave depth of water stored in root zone ) × 100 = Fn
Ave depth of water applied Ave depth of water applied
Estimated losses for deep percolation and runoff are:
Losses =
(1 − Gross application) × E
a
100

Irrigation Guide
Water and cost savings are computed as follows:
1. Make a best estimate of present net application per irrigation. Base the estimate on information
about present irrigation scheduling and application practices obtained from the water user, and on data
derived from the evaluation.
2. Calculate the gross amount of irrigation water (Fg) applied during a typical year. Using water
user supplied information about the number of irrigations per season and the application efficiency
derived as part of the evaluation, :
( ) (
Net applied per irrigation) × (Number of irrigations)
Annual water applied Fg =
Application efficiency low ( E q )
1
4
If Eq is not available:
Fg =
(Net applied per irrigation) × (Number of irrigations) × 100
Effective portion of applied water ( R e )
3. Determine potential system application efficiency for low quarter and low half. Use informa-
tion in this irrigation guide or other sources to help make the determination. Typical ranges of potential
Eq and Eh values are:
Eq Eh
60 to 75% 70 to 85%
These values are based on full canopy crops and the assumption that the system is well designed, main-
tained, and managed.
Eq values are typically used for high value crops and crops that have relatively shallow roots. E h values
are often used for relatively low value field and forage crops and deep rooted crops in medium to fine
texture soil.
4. Compute potential gross applied per year:

Potential E q or E h

Irrigation Guide
Potential water conservation and pumping costs savings:
1. Compute total annual water conserved (ac-ft):
(Present gross applied - Potential gross applied) × Area irrigated

12
Pumping cost savings: From a pumping plant evaluation, determine pumping plant efficiency, kind
of fuel, cost per unit of fuel, and fuel cost per acre-foot. Compute fuel cost
savings:
( ) (
Fuel cost savings = Fuel cost per acre foot × acre feet conserved per year )
3. Compute water purchase cost savings (obtain purchase cost data from farmer). Compute as follows:
( ) (
Water purchase cost savings = cost per acre foot × acre feet saved per year )
4. Compute total cost savings.
Analysis of data and preparation of recommendations
1. Compare soil-water deficit (SWD) with management allowable depletion (MAD). This indicates whether
the irrigation was correctly timed, too early, or too late.
2. Compare test data to manufacturer’s specifications for the make, model, and size of sprinkler head,
nozzle(s), or flow regulator. Recommend maintenance or replacement if required.
3. Check system design. Consider changes that might be practical to make in system hardware and
operation.
4. Consider changes that may be made in irrigation set times and scheduling (management).
5. Consider changes that may be made in soil, water, and plant cultural practices to improve water
infiltration and use.
Recommendations:

Irrigation Guide
Use field observations, data obtained by the water user, and data obtained by computations to make practical
recommendations. Remember observed or measured data are not exact mainly because of the many vari-
ables. Irrigation system and management changes result from a calculated field trial and error procedure. The
field should be probed after each new trial to determine application distribution uniformity and water pen-
etration. Observations should be made to determine if translocation or runoff is occurring and to estimate the
amount. Determine if erosion is occurring, and, if so, what may be causing the erosion. Recommend ways to
reduce the erosion. If water translocation, runoff, soil erosion, or a combination of these, are occurring,
adjustments in application rate set time or equipment replacement may be necessary. Changes in cultural
practices may easily solve the problem. Enough instruction should be given to irrigation decisionmakers so
they can make observations and adjustments themselves.


Irrigation Guide
(6) Center pivot lateral—linear (lateral) • Equipment for determining soil moisture (fee
move lateral and appearance soil moisture charts, Speedy
The efficiency of sprinkler systems changes with time. moisture meter and Eley volumeter, soil auger
Nozzles and sprinkler and spray heads wear (lose and oven drying soil sample containers)
efficiency), and pipes and joints develop leaks. Some • Stopwatch, thermometer, wind velocity gauge
systems are used in ways for which they were not • Ladder with hooks on top to fit over lateral
designed. Sprinkler system performance evaluations (system will be moving during evaluation)
are designed to identify problems and develop solu- • Raincoat, rubber boots
tions. Before a detailed evaluation is made, obvious • Manufacturer's pivot system design information
operating and equipment deficiencies should be cor- (printout)
rected by the water user. However, observing and • Clipboard and pencil
evaluating a poorly designed, installed, and operated • Soil data for field
system may be a good training exercise to improve • Camera
employee competence. • Worksheets
The following evaluation procedure works satisfacto- (ii) Procedures—The field procedures needed for
rily with most spray heads and all impact type sprin- this system are in two main categories: general and
kler heads. Modification and a bit of employee ingenu- inventory and data collection.
ity is necessary to use this procedure with self moving
systems using low pressure in-canopy (LPIC) or low General
energy precision application (LEPA) type discharge
devices. Specially designed catch containers are Obtain all pertinent system hardware information from
needed. Using rain gutters for application catch de- the irrigator and from visual observations. Observe
vices is one technique that can work with in-canopy general system operating condition, crop uniformity,
flat spray heads and bubblers. Care should be taken to salinity problems, wet areas, dry areas, translocation,
not disturb foliage that would otherwise affect applica- runoff, and other site characteristics. The following
tion uniformity. If at all possible, perform any evalua- steps should be used:
tion when there is little to no wind.
Step 1—Obtain information from the irrigation
(i) Equipment—The equipment needed for a decisionmaker about the field and how it is irrigated;
moving lateral system includes: i.e., speed setting (%), rotation speed (hours per rota-
• Catch containers and stakes: number of contain- tion), application depth per single pass or rotation, and
ers equals: passes or rotations per irrigation. Determine how
(lateral length + 10) many irrigations or rotations are needed per season.
30 ft 1/ Step 2—Estimate soil-water deficit at several locations

1/ (30-footspacing is maximum recommended. in front of and behind the lateral. Observe if the full
Refer to ASAE Standard S436 for recommenda- plant root zone was filled to field capacity. Use the feel
tions for more precise evaluations.) and appearance, Eley Volumeasure and Speedy Mois-
• 100-foot tape ture Meter, auger or push tube sampler (Madera sam-
• 500-milliliter (cc) graduated cylinder (250 mL pler), or some other acceptable method. Select a
cylinder is sufficient for light applications.) typical location and record the data on the worksheet.
• Pocket tape (inches)
• Pressure gauge with pitot tube, 0 to 100 pounds Step 3—At the same time, make note of such soil
per square inch pressure range profile conditions as:
• Flow measuring device (flow meter, velocity • Depth to water table
meter) • Apparent root development pattern and depth of
• Ohmmeter or electric ground check meter (tick existing or previous crop (to determine effective
meter) plant root zone)
• Soil auger, push tube sampler, probe, shovel

Irrigation Guide
• Root and water movement restrictions days. This is most noticeable with low pressure sys-
— Restrictive or compacted layers (tillage tems where spray patterns are narrow. A minimum of
pans) and probable cause two catch tests should be run before renozzling is
— Mineral layers recommended. Where differences are suspected, two
— Hardpans or bedrock rows of catch containers can be averaged to more
— Soil textural changes nearly represent actual conditions.
Step 4—An electrical safety check should be made on Step 2—Determine flow into system. If a portable
any electrically operated center pivot system before velocity meter (similar to Cox velocity meter) is avail-
climbing on or working around it. The combination able, insert the meter near the water source. Linear
of a wet condition and electrical shorts can be move laterals with water source in the center may
deadly. An ohmmeter or ground check meter (tick require two flow measurements to obtain flow going
meter) should be used to check for current leakage both directions. The pitot device for this type meter
between pivot system and ground. The safety check can be inserted through a standard small gate valve
should be made when the towers are moving to help (3/4 inch). Typically, outlet fittings available on the
ensure there are no electrical shorts in an individual lateral pipe within the first span are not used. A
tower drive motor. Each tower motor should have the threaded plug can be removed and replaced with a
opportunity to run during the check. Do not proceed standard 3/4-inch gate valve, or the valve can be in-
with the evaluation if electrical leakage is indi- stalled at the first sprinkler head before the lateral
cated. Too often electric operated systems have faulty operates. A pitot tube velocity meter can then be easily
electrical systems. If no electrical shorts are indicated installed and removed while the system is operating.
using an ohmmeter or ground check meter, briefly Clamp-on type ultrasonic flow meters can also be used.
touch metal components with the back of the hand.
Electrical current causes muscles to contract involun- Velocities in the lateral pipe should be measured far
tary, thus tightly closing the hand on the component. enough downstream from any elbow to avoid exces-
Only after following the above safety checks should sive turbulence occurring just downstream of the
the evaluation proceed. elbow. To obtain a reliable average velocity, take
several velocity readings across the diameter of the
Inventory and data collection pipe to position the pitot tube to read maximum ve-
locities. The change in velocity across the pipe diam-
Step 1—Select a location in the field to run test. Look eter is readily apparent. Measure and record flow data
at elevation change and undulations. Select a location at start and end of the catch test. Flow, velocity, and
representative of the field being irrigated. You may operating pressure can change when other self move
need to wait a few hours or schedule another day systems within the same pumping system are turned
when the lateral is in a desirable location. Sometimes on or off during the test. On center pivot systems, end
the extreme condition is the operating condition an guns and corner swing laterals turning on or off affect
evaluation is intended to display. Running more than flow rate and nozzle discharge along the lateral during
one evaluation at different locations in the field and at the test.
different times of day is desirable because of elevation
changes in the field, wind drift and evaporation losses Without regularly scheduled maintenance and calibra-
between day time and night time, start and stop location, flow data accuracy from onfarm system flow
tions during a test, flow or pressure variations, plus meters is questionable. Poor water quality (debris,
many other variables. sediment, salts, manure, aquatic creatures) causes
accelerated wear on impellers and bearings of flow
A difference in application from a lateral will be noted meters. Ultrasonic meters should only be used where
when a pivot system’s corner systems (guns or swing turbulence and excessive air movement inside the
laterals) are either operating or not operating. The conduit are minimal. To use only flow and velocity
effects of the start-stop operation characteristic (to meters that are regularly checked and calibrated is
maintain alignment) and spray head patterns of self advisable. Poorly maintained flow and velocity meters
move systems are sometimes apparent if two or more often provide readings that are 10 to 40 percent in
catch tests are run at the same location on different error from actual.

Irrigation Guide
Step 3—Determine operating pressure. As a minimum, tower wheels. On water drive systems, containers
operating pressure should be checked at the water located under driver discharge will collect abnormal
source point and near the far end. A pressure gauge amounts of water. These should be relocated or dis-
may be permanently installed, but do not rely on the counted during calculations. If crops are too tall to
reading it displays. Use a gauge that has been recently permit unobstructed catches with containers on the
calibrated or checked. If the evaluator does not want ground, use short stakes and rubber bands to locate
to get wet while checking operating pressures, gauges containers above foliage. Stakes holding catch con-
can be installed and removed from sprinkler or spray tainers should not extend above the containers.
head fittings when the system is not running. Installing
a short 1/4 inch pipe nipple and ball valve generally Step 6—Allow the lateral to pass completely over the
costs less than having personnel return to the site to containers. With center pivot laterals, it may be desir-
remove a pressure gauge. If sprinkler heads are the able to omit catch containers close to pivot point (first
impact type, a pitot tube attachment in the pressure one or two spans). The time it takes for the lateral to
gauge can be used to measure operating discharge completely pass over these containers may be longer
pressure at the nozzle. A warm day is definitely desir- than is desirable to complete an evaluation, unless
able when using a pitot tube to check operating pres- containers can be left for several hours or overnight.
sures. Check pressure at several locations along the Also, the percent of field irrigated by the first one or
lateral if possible. Record pressure and location on two spans, is small on large pivots.
worksheets.
Step 7—Read or measure the amount of water caught
Pressures can be more easily read when using a liquid in each catch container. After the lateral has passed
filled gauge. The liquid provides a dampening of the completely over all of the containers, measure and
gauge needle and improves gauge durability. record catch volume or water depth. Use a graduated
cylinder to measure volume of catch if tapered sided
Step 4—Determine wind speed and direction, lateral containers are used. Do not measure and record
line location, air temperature, and humidity level. volume of water or catch in containers that have
Record data on worksheets. tipped, partially spilled, or if it appears nearby foliage
affected catch. Using a graduated cylinder for straight
Step 5—Step catch containers. For center pivot later- sided containers generally improves accuracy and can
als, set catch containers on a radius along and in front be faster.
of the lateral so the sprinkler lateral passes perpen-
dicularly across the row(s) of containers. For linear If containers are left overnight or for long periods
move laterals, set the catch containers in a straight during hot and windy conditions, set out an evapora-
row in front of the lateral. Any catch container can be tion can upwind of the test area. Fill the container
used; however, it must be calibrated. The catch con- with a known volume of water (half of the irrigation
tainer should have a sharp edge. For straight sided application depth is recommended) at start of test and
containers, the entry rim area is measured and the then record volume (depth) when other containers are
equivalent capacity in cubic centimeters (milliliter) for measured and recorded. Evaporation adjustments
1-inch application depth computed. For stackable should be made on all readings. Use the same type of
tapered sided containers, a graduated cylinder is used container for both evaporation check and catch. A
to measure catch in the containers. The cross sec- small amount of mineral oil added to each container
tional area of the top of the container is used to calcu- protects against evaporation losses.
late application depth either in inches or millimeters.
Large rain gauges can be used as catch containers and Step 8—Catch data reduction. With center pivot lateral
can be read directly. evaluations, volume or depth caught in each container
must be weighted because the catch points represent
Set containers in a straight line at any uniform interval progressively larger areas as the distance from the
(usually 30 feet). Start at the pivot point and extend to pivot increases. To weight the catches according to
a point beyond the wetted area at the outer end of the their distance from the pivot point, each container
lateral. The lip of each catch container should be value must be multiplied by a factor related to the
reasonably level. Move individual containers to avoid distance from the pivot point. This weighting factor is

Irrigation Guide
simplified by using uniform spacing of catch contain- (iii) Evaluation computations—The information
ers and using the container position number as the gathered in the field procedures is used in the detailed
weighting factor. A worksheet is set up with predeter- system evaluation computations. Example 9–7 outlines
mined factor values. the computations used to complete the worksheet,
Sprinkler Irrigation System Detailed Evaluation for
When evaluating linear move laterals, radial adjust- Center Pivot Lateral Systems (exhibit 9–7).
ment of catch values is unnecessary as sprinklers
move in a straight path and each one irrigates the
same area regardless of their location along the lateral.
For the weighted low quarter average application

depths, the number of containers that represent the
low quarter of the irrigated area must be determined.
The low quarter is selected by picking progressively
larger (nonweighted) catches and keeping a running
total of the associated position number until the subto-
tal approximates a fourth of the sum of all catch
position numbers.
Step 9—Determine maximum application rate. By

careful observation along the lateral, an area repre-
senting maximum infiltration rate for the present site
conditions can generally be observed. No surface
ponding, translocation, or runoff should be occurring.
Typically with medium textured soil, this location is
about 75 to 85 percent of the distance from pivot on a
quarter mile lateral. This location varies with soil
texture, soil condition, surface storage, type of spray
pattern, and pressure of discharge device. Several
measurements should be taken throughout the field
(representing a specific soil series and surface tex-
ture) to represent a reliable value that can be used in
the local irrigation guide.
Temporary surface ponding is a reliable method to

extend infiltration opportunity time, especially on the
outer end of low pressure, in-canopy sprinkler heads
(including LEPA). No water translocation or runoff
should be occurring.

Irrigation Guide
Exhibit 9–7 Completed worksheet—Sprinkler irrigation system, detailed evaluation of continuous/self move center pivot
lateral


Detailed Evaluation Center Pivot Lateral Worksheet
Joe Example
Land user ________________________________________________ Field office __________________________________
Observer ____________________ Date ___________________ Checked by ______________________ Date ___________
Field name/number ____________________________________________________________________________________

5
Center pivot number _____________ South 1/4
pivot location in field _____________________________________________________
130
Acres irrigated ________________________
Hardware inventory:
Valley low pressure
Manufacturer: name and model __________________________________________________________________________
Yes
Is design available? ____________ 7
(attach copy) Number of towers ______________ 170'
Spacing of towers ________________
AL
Lateral: Material ________________________, 6
Inside diameter __________________ inches
Senniger
Nozzle: Manufacturer ___________________________________________________________________________________
Trailing
Position _____________________ 12 -1 5 ft
Height above ground ________________________________________________
8 ft
Spacing _______________________________________________________________________________________
Y
Is pressure regulated at each nozzle? _________ 25 - 30
operating pressure range ______________________
electric
Type of tower drive ___________________________________________________________________
800
System design capacity _________________ 32
gpm, system operating pressure ________________ psi
Nozzle data, design: Pivot end

5 25 90 150
Sprinkler position number __________________________________________________________________________
Manufacturer Senniger same same same
__________________________________________________________________________
Model __________________________________________________________________________
spray same same same
Type (spray, impact, etc.) __________________________________________________________________________
Nozzle or orifice size __________________________________________________________________________
Location __________________________________________________________________________
Wetted diameter (ft) 20' 20' 20' 20'
__________________________________________________________________________
Nozzle discharge (gpm) __________________________________________________________________________
Design pressure (psi) __________________________________________________________________________
Operating pressure __________________________________________________________________________
End gun make, model ____________________________________________________ (when continuously used in corners)

71
End gun capacity _______________ 18
gpm, Pressure __________________ 60
psi, boosted to ___________________ psi
End swing lateral capacity _________________________ gpm, pressure __________________________ psi
Field observations:
Crop uniformity ________________________________________________________________________________________
Runoff _______________________________________________________________________________________________
Erosion ______________________________________________________________________________________________
Tower rutting __________________________________________________________________________________________
System leaks _________________________________________________________________________________________
15 ft +/-
Elevation change between pivot and end tower _______________________________________________________________

Irrigation Guide
lateral—Continued


5 +/-
Wind: Speed _________________ SE
mph Direction (from) ________________________
East
Line direction: From center to outer tower ______________________ ccw
moving _______________________
1100
Time of day ______________ x med _______ high, Air temp ________________
, Humidity: ________ low ______
Evaporation: start depth __________ inches, end depth ___________ inches, Evaporation ___________ inches
alfalfa
Crop _________________________, 5 foot, MAD1/ ________
Root zone depth ________ 50 %, MAD ________
3.6 inches
Soil-water data (typical): (show location of sample site on soil map or sketch of field)
feel and appearance
Moisture determiniation method ______________________________________________________________
unknown
Soil series name, surface texture _____________________________________________________________
Depth Texture *AWC (in)1/ *SWD (%)1/ *SWD (in)1/

0-1'
____________ L
____________________ 2.0
______________ 50
____________ 1.0
______________
1-2'
____________ LFS
____________________ 1.5
______________ 45
____________ 0.7
______________
2-3.5'
____________ VFLS
____________________ 2.25
______________ 45
_____________ 1.0
______________
3.5-5'
____________ GLS
____________________ 1.5
______________ 20
____________ 0.3
______________
____________ ____________________ ______________ ____________ ______________
7.25
Totals ______________ 3.0
______________
Comments about soils:

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Typical system application:

Crop Stage Hours per 2/ Speed Net
of growth revolution setting application
percent (in)
alfalfa 16" 26 50%
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
24
Hours operated per day ___________________ hours
80
Approximate number of pivot revolutions per season ___________________
1/ MAD = Management allowed depletion, AWC = Available water capacity, SWD = Soil water deficit
2/ To calculate the hours per revolution around the field, first calculate the average speed the end tower moves
per cycle (start to start) = distance in feet divided by time in seconds.
Then: hours per revolution = 2 (distance to end tower in feet) x π

(end tower speed in ft/s) x 3,600 seconds per hour

Irrigation Guide
lateral—Continued


System data:
1205 ft, wetted edge ____________
Distance from pivot point to : end tower ____________ 1345 ft
50 ft
* End tower speed: Distance between stakes ________________
11:30:00
Time at first stake __________________, 11:40:50
Time at second stake ____________________
10.8
Time to travel between stakes __________________ min
* This method is satisfactory for a continuous moving system, but need to allow for moving in start-stop cycles.
Recommend using end tower move distance and from start to star. Typically, percent speed setting for
end tower represents, 60% = 36 seconds of each minute, 72 seconds of each 2 minutes, etc.
850
Measured system flow rate ______________ flow meter
gpm, method ___________________
Calculations: ________________________________________________________
Evaluation computations:
Circumference of end tower:
(6.2832)
1205
Distance to end tower x 2π = ________________ 7571
x 6.2832 = _______________ ft
End tower speed:
50
Distance traveled (ft) x 60 = ______________ 278
x 60 = _____________ ft/hr
Time in minutes 10.8
Hours per revolution:
7571
Circumference at end tower (ft) = ___________________ 27.2 hr
= __________
End tower speed (ft/hr) 278
Area irrigated:
(3.1416)
13452
(Distance to wetted edge)2 x π = ______________ 130.5 ac
x 3.1416 = _______________
43,560 square feet/acre 43,560
Gross application per irrigation:
27.2 x 850 = ______________

Hours per revolution x gpm = _________________ 0.39 in
435 x acres irrigated 453 x 130.5 ac
Weighted system average application:
Sum of: catch x factors 64155

= _______________ 66.2 cc (ml)
= _________
(Sum of: factors) x number of containers 969

Irrigation Guide
lateral—Continued


Convert cc (ml) in measuring cylinder to inches depth in catch container:
200
_____________ cc (ml) = 1 inch in catch container
11840
Average application = Average catch (cc) = _________________ 48.9
= _____________ in
cc/inch 242
Weighted low 1/4 average application:
Sum of low 1/4 catch x factors = _____________ 48.9 cc (ml)

11840 = ____________
(Sum of low 1/4 factors) x number of low 1/4 containers 242
48.9
Low 1/4 average application = Average low 1/4 (cc) = _______________ 0.24 in
= _________
cc/inch 200
Distribution uniformity low 1/4 a (DU):
DU = Weighted low 1/4 average applic. 0.24

= _________________ 72.7 %
= __________
Weighted system average application 0.33
Approximate Christiansen uniformity (CU):
72.7
CU = 100 - [0.63 x (100 - DU)] = 100 - [0.63 x (100 - _____________)] 82.8
= __________%
Effective portion of water applied (Re):
0.33
Re = Weighted system average application (in) = _____________ 0.846
= _____________
Gross applicaiton (in) 0.39
72.7 x 0.846
Eq = DU x Re = ____________________________ 70
= _____________ %
(Use for medium to high value crops)
82.8 x 0.846
Eh = DU x Re = ____________________________ 70
= _____________ %
(Use for low value field and forage crops)

Irrigation Guide
lateral—Continued


Application:
Gross application x hours operated per day x (Eq or Eh)

Hours per revolution x 100
0.39 x 24 x 61.5
= ____________________________________________ 0.21
= ________________ in/day
27.2 x 100
Maximum average application rate:
Maximum catch inches x 60 0.18 x 60 = __________

= _____________ 2.16 in/hr
Time containers are uncovered in minutes 5
Pivot revolutions required t replace typical annual moisture deficit:
(Based on existing management procedures)
14.9
Annual net irrig. requirement ______________ alfalfa
in, for _________________________ (crop)
Pivot revolutions required:
14.9 x 100
Annual net irrig. requirement x 100 = _______________________ 55
= ______________
(Eq or Eh) x gross applic. per irrig. 70 x .39
Present management::
Gross applied per year = gross applied per irrig x number of irrig
0.39 x 55
= _____________________________ 21.5
= _______________ in/yr
80
Potential application efficiency (Epq or Eph) _____________ percent (from
irrigation guide, NEH Sec 15, Ch 11, or other source)
Potential annual gross applied = Annual net irrig. requirement x 100

Potential Epq or Eph
14.9 x 100
= ______________________________ 18.6
= _____________ inches
80

Irrigation Guide
lateral—Continued


= (Present gross applied - potential gross applied) x area irrig. (acre)

12
(21.5 - 18.6) x 130

= ____________________________________ 31.4
= ________________ acre feet
12
Sheet 1 of 7
Cost savings:
Pumping plant efficiency ____________ kind of fuel ___________________

Cost per unit of fuel ______________ fuel cost per acre foot $ ________________
Cost savings = fuel cost per acre foot x acre foot conserved per year
= _____________________________ = $ ____________________
= Cost per acre foot x acre feet saved per year = ______________________
= $ ___________________
Cost savings = pumping cost + water cost = _________________ = $ ________________
Recommendations:
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________

Irrigation Guide
lateral—Continued

30
Container spacing _____________________ feet
Container Catch Catch (cc) Catch Container Catch Catch (cc) Catch
No. Factor (cc) x Factor (in) No. Factor (cc) x Factor (in)
1 1 out 48 48
2 2 out 49 49
3 3 out 50 50
4 4 60 240 .30 51 51
5 5 75 375 .38 52 52
6 6 75 450 .38 53 53
7 7 60 420 .30 54 54
8 8 70 560 .35 55 55
9 9 75 675 .38 56 56
10 10 70 700 .35 57 57
11 11 80 880 .40 58 58
12 12 75 900 .38 59 59
13 13 85 1,105 .43 60 60
14 14 70 980 .35 61 61
15 15 Tipped over – 62 62
16 16 70 1,120 .35 63 63
17 17 70 1,190 .35 64 64
18 18 85 1,530 .43 65 65
19 19 100 1,900 .50 66 66
20 20 80 1,600 .40 67 67
21 21 65 1,365 .33 68 68
22 22 65 1,430 .33 69 69
23 23 75 1,725 .38 70 70
24 24 60 1,440 .30 969
Sum ________ 64,155
__________
25 25 65 1,625 .33
26 26 80 2,080 .40 .25 x sum of factors 969 = 242
27 27 Low 1/4 summation:
75 2,025 .38
28 28 55 1,548 .28 44 44 35 1,540
29 29 85 2,465 .43 43 43 40 1,720
30 30 70 2,100 .35 42 42 55 2,310
31 31 75 2,325 .38 38 38 55 2,090
32 32 70 2,240 .35 36 36 55 1,980
33 33 65 2,145 .33 28 28 55 1,540
34 34 65 2,210 .33 7 7 60 420
35 35 85 2,975 .43 4 4 60 240
36 36 55 1,980 .28
37 37 65 2,405 .33
38 38 55 2,090 .28
39 39 70 2,730 .35
40 40 60 2,400 .30 242
Sum ________ 11,840 (low
__________ 1/4)
41 41 65 2,665 .33 Max application rate data (5 minute catch)
42 42 55 2,310 .28 1 15
43 43 40 1,720 .20 2 25
44 44 35 1,540 .18 3 35 18
45 45
4 25
46 46
5 20
47 47
2.16
Max. rate = max. catch (in) x 60 = __________ inches/hour
5 minutes

Irrigation Guide
lateral—Continued
Center pivot lateral evaluation, distribution profile of catch

Joe Example
Land user ____________________
61.5 %
Eh = _____________ Date ________________________
70.0 %
Eq = _____________ Field office ___________________
0.5
Gross 0.39"
Container catch (inches)
0.4
0.3
0.2 Low 1/4 0.24"
0.1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Container number

Irrigation Guide
Example 9–7 Evaluation computation steps for continuous move center pivot and linear move laterals
1. Compute maximum application rate:

(maximum catch volume, cc) × (60 min/hr)
(conversion factor, cc/inch) × (time containers are uncovered, min)
Application rate, in/hr =
2. Determine tower speed:
For center pivot laterals, set a stake next to and in front of the end tower. Start timing when a specific
part of the end tower moves past the stake. After the lateral has been in operation for at least 20 minutes,
set a second stake in line with the same part of the end tower in its new position. Record time required
for travel between stakes or marks, and measure the distance. Use sufficient time and distance to mini-
mize effects of stop and start sequences during the speed check. Generally, the same procedure is used
for linear move laterals except any tower can be used. Speed is determined as follows:
(distance traveled, ft ) × (60 min/hr)

(time, min)
Speed, ft/hr =
3. Determine hours per irrigation (revolution for center pivot laterals):
liner move lateral::

(feet traveled by lateral)
(lateral speed, ft/hr )
hours/pass =
center pivot lateral::

(circumference of end tower, ft )
(end tower speed, ft/hr)
hours/rev =
where:
circumference of end tower = (distance from pivot to end tower, ft) x 2π
π = 3.1416
2π = 6.2832
4. Determine area irrigated by system:
linear move lateral:

( ) (
area, acres = lateral length, ft × feet traveled by lateral )
center pivot lateral:
area, acres =
(distance from pivot to outer wetted area, ft )
2
×π
43, 560 ft 2 / acre

Irrigation Guide
Example 9–7 Evaluation computation steps for continuous move, center pivot linear move and lateral systems—Continued
5. Determine system capacity using flow data or pipe flow velocity data from meters:
From flow meter, read direct in gallons per minute or convert as necessary. System capacity flow is
determined using velocity meter data with equation:
Q=AxV
where:
Q = flow in system, ft3/s
A = cross sectional area of lateral pipe, ft2
V = average velocity in lateral pipe, ft/s
conversion units: 1 ft3/s = 450 gpm (approximate)
6. Determine gross application per irrigation per revolution:

(hours per revolution) × (system capacity in gpm)
453 × (irrigated area, acre)
gross application, acre - inches =

(hours per pass or set) × (system capacity in gpm)
453 × (irrigated area, acre)
gross application, acre - inches =
7. Determine weighted system average application:

sum of catch, cc
average application volume, cc =
number of containers
average volume, cc =
(
sum of catch × factors )
sum of factors
average volume, cc
average application, inches =
conversion, cc/in
(The conversion, cc/in, is dependent on the catch container opening during the test.)

Irrigation Guide
Example 9–7 Evaluation computation steps for continuous move center pivot and linear move laterals—Continued
8. Determine low quarter average application:

1
sum of catch containers
1 4
low ave. application =
4 number of containers

 1 
sum of  low catch × factors
1  4 
weighted low ave. application =
4 1
sum of low factors
4
Note: With center pivot laterals, each sprinkler irrigates a different size area. Thus a weighted low
quarter average application must be used.
9. Determine distribution uniformity low quarter (DU):

low average application
DU =
average application
center pivot laterals:

weighted low average application
DU =
weighted system average application
10. Determine approximate Christiansen's uniformity (CU):
CU = 100 - [0.63 x (100 - DU)]
11. Determine effective portion of applied water, Re:
Effective portion of applied water is frequently confused with and called application efficiency. Applica-
tion efficiency is water stored in the plant root zone divided by gross application. Application efficiency
accounts for all losses between the pump and the plant, including leaks, evaporation, spray drift, water
drive use, deep percolation, and runoff. With pivot irrigation systems, the application amount per revolu-
tion generally is less than the soil-water deficit. It usually takes more than one revolution to apply the
total soil-water deficit for a mature plant.

Irrigation Guide
Effective portion of applied water compares the amount of water pumped to the amount caught in catch
containers. Any difference is a loss that results from evaporation, spray drift, leaks, or drive losses on
water drive systems. It does not account for deep percolation and runoff. The effective portion of applied
water can be estimated from figure ______, chapter ______, or figure 11–17 in chapter 11 of the National
Engineering Handbook, section 15, by entering the chart with observed data on wind velocity, humidity,
temperature, coarseness of spray, and potential crop ET rate. When data are available from a field evalua-
tion, the actual effective portion of applied water is computed as follows:

system average application, inches
Re =
gross application, inches

weighted system average application, inches
Re =
gross application, inches
12. Determine application efficiency of low quarter:
( )
E q = DU × R e
13. Determine net application per day:

(gross application, in) × (hours operated per day) × E q
(hours per irrigation) × 100
net application, inches =
Note: The hours per irrigation are per revolution for center pivot laterals.
14. Determine maximum application rate:

(maximum catch, inches) × (60 min/hr)
(time containers are uncovered, min)
maximum rate, in/hr =
15. Estimate number of irrigations (or pivot revolutions) required to replace seasonal moisture or
net irrigation requirement (NIR). Obtain NIR from local irrigation guide for crop and climatic area.

NIR × 100
Irrigations required =
E q × gross application per irrigation, inches

NIR × 100
Revolutions required =
E q × gross application per revolution, inches

Irrigation Guide
16. Prepare a plot of catch can data.
Plot the depth of water caught in containers (inches) against the location of the container with respect to
the water supply (pivot) pivot point. Plot straight lines across the graph for gross application, average
(weighted) application, and low quarter application. This graph can be one of the best tools for explaining
the results of the evaluation to the irrigation decisionmaker.
1. Make a best estimate of the present gross application applied for the season. This is based on
information about present irrigation scheduling and application practices obtained from the irrigator and
on data derived from the evaluation.
2. Determine potential system application efficiency. Use information in the local irrigation guide or
other sources. Approximate range of potential Eq values is 75 to 85 percent. Range is based on full canopy
crops and assumption that the system is well designed, maintained, and managed.
3. Determine potential gross seasonal application:

NIR × 100
gross seasonal application, inches =
potential E q
where:
NIR = seasonal net irrigation requirement
4. Determined total potential average annual water conserved in acre-feet:

( present gross application, inches) − (area irrigated, acres )
12
Pumping cost savings: From cost data received from irrigator or by a separate pumping plant
evaluation, determine pumping plant operating costs per acre foot of water
pumped.
Pumping cost savings = (energy cost per acre foot) x (acre feet conserved per year)
Water purchase cost savings: Obtain water purchase cost per year from irrigator. In water short areas,
many irrigation organizations use a sliding scale for water use billings; i.e.,
a billing rate for a minimum volume, with increasing rates for increasing
use over and above the minimum. Some organizations bill for a fixed vol-
ume of water whether used or not.
Water purchase cost savings = (water cost per acre foot) x (water saved per year in acre feet)
Determine total cost savings.

Irrigation Guide
1. Compare soil-water deficit (SWD) with management allowed depletion (MAD). This indicates whether
the existing method of irrigation scheduling is adequate and whether the right amount of water was being
applied. Suggest improving irrigation scheduling techniques if needed. Determine what level of intensity
of irrigation scheduling the irrigation decisionmaker can reasonably use.
2. Compare evaluation results to manufacturer's design.
3. Consider existing and potential water translocation, field runoff, and erosion problems as to irrigation
system operation, including soil, water, and plant management practices. All sprinkler irrigation systems,
especially low pressure in-canopy center pivot laterals, require some degree of soil, water, and plant
management to prevent water translocation. Suggest those changes necessary in irrigation water manage-
ment, operation speed, pressure adjustment, cultural practices, and surface storage needs. Make recom-
mendations that are practical and can reasonably be implemented by the irrigation decisionmaker.

irrigation system changes, along with appropriate management changes, is secondary.

Irrigation Guide
(7) Continuous move, large sprinkler gun • Equipment for determining soil moisture
type (travelers) amounts (feel and appearance soil moisture
The efficiency of sprinkler irrigation systems changes charts, Speedy moisture meter and Eley
with time. Nozzles, guns, and pumps wear (lose effi- volumeter, or auger and oven drying soil sample
ciency), and pipes and joints develop leaks. Some containers)
systems are used in ways they were not designed. • Stopwatch
Sprinkler system evaluations are designed to identify • Wind velocity gauge, thermometer (for air
problems and develop solutions. Before a detailed temperature)
evaluation is made, obvious operating and equipment • Manufacturer's sprinkler head performance
deficiencies should be corrected by the water user. charts
However, observing and evaluating a poorly designed, • Clipboard and pencil
installed, or operated system may be a good training • Soil data for field
exercise to improve competence. Some ingenuity is • Camera, boots, rain gear
necessary to check operating pressure of the sprinkler
near the nozzle. The high sprinkler gun discharge rate The worksheet, Sprinkler Irrigation System Detailed
and the continuous moving system make field check- Evaluation: Large Gun Type, is also needed. A copy of
ing of nozzle discharge unfeasible. Safety during this worksheet is in chapter 15.
sprinkler gun return rotation also is a factor. It is
recommended a calibrated pressure gauge be installed (ii) Procedure—The procedures needed for this
and the nozzle measured when the system is not system are in two main categories: general and inven-
operating. tory and data collection.
Typically, large traveling sprinkler guns are used on General

irregular shaped fields. With a flexible drag hose to
convey water and either a cable and power winch or Obtain all pertinent information about system hard-
slow-moving, self-contained, tractor-powered hose ware form the water user and from visual observa-
reel unit, the sprinkler gun operates as it moves along tions. What are the irrigation decisionmaker’s con-
a lane. Typical operating pressure is 75 to 100 pounds cerns? Observe general system operating condition,
per square inch, and discharge from the sprinkler gun crop uniformity, salinity problems, wet areas, dry
is 200 to 650 gallons per minute. Application rates near areas, translocation, runoff, and other site characteris-
the sprinkler gun are relatively high and decrease tics. The procedure is described in the following steps:
toward the outer edge of the circle. For effectiveness,
traveling large sprinkler guns should apply water in a Step 1—Obtain information from the water user about
half circle rearward of the application device. This crops, soils and how the field(s) is irrigated; i.e., travel
keeps water and agricultural liquid wastes from spray- speed, lane spacing, lane length, pattern overlap,
ing the application device, and the device is traveling application depth per irrigation. Determine the irriga-
on relatively dry soil. tions or application trips per season.
(i) Equipment—The equipment needed for a Determine sprinkler gun design specifications; i.e.,
continuous move, large sprinkler gun type system operating pressure, nozzle type (taper bore or ring
includes: nozzle) and inside diameter, system speed. Actual
• Catch containers and stakes inside diameter can be measured with inside diameter
• 50-foot tape measurement calipers when system is not operating.
• 500-milliliter (cc) graduated cylinder Depending on size and height of sprinkler gun, to
• Pressure gauge, 0 to 140 pounds per square inch install a pressure gauge may also be desirable when
pressure range the system is not operating. While the system is in
• Inside diameter measurement calipers operation, the height of the gun, configuration of the
• Soil auger, push tube sampler, probe, shovel nozzle, and gun return rotations are hazards when
checking pressure at the nozzle. Using a pitot tube is
not recommended.

Irrigation Guide
Step 2—Estimate soil-water deficit at several locations sediment, salts, manure, aquatic creatures) causes
in front of and behind the traveler. Observe if the full accelerated wear on impellers and bearings of flow
plant root zone was filled to field capacity. Use the feel meters. Ultrasonic type meters should only be used
and appearance, Eley Volumeasure and Speedy Mois- where turbulence inside the conduit is minimal. Use
ture Meter, auger or push tube sampler (Madera sam- only flow and velocity meters that are regularly
pler), or some other acceptable method. Select a checked and calibrated. Poorly maintained flow and
typical location and record the data on the worksheet. velocity meters often provide readings that are 10 to
40 percent in error from actual.
Step 3—At the same time, make note of such soil
profile conditions as: Step 3—Determine operating pressure. Operating
• Depth to water table pressure should be checked at the sprinkler head in
• Apparent root development pattern and depth of the riser or near the nozzle. A pressure gauge may be
existing or previous crop (for determining effec- permanently installed, but do not rely on the reading it
tive plant root zone) displays. Use a recently calibrated or checked gauge. If
• Root and water movement restrictions: the evaluator does not want to get wet while checking
— Compacted layers operating pressures, gauges can be installed and
— Mineral layers removed from sprinkler head fittings when the system
— Hardpans or bedrock is not running. A pitot tube attachment on a pressure
— Soil textures including textural change gauge can be used to measure operating discharge
boundaries (abrupt or gradual) pressure at the nozzle, a process that is difficult and
hazardous. A warm day is the most desirable time to
Inventory and data collection field check operating pressures using a pitot tube.
Secure the rotating arm mechanism of a large gun type
Step 1—Select a representative location in the field to sprinkler before approaching the system. This helps to
conduct the evaluation. Look at elevation change and prevent unexpected rotation and possible injury.
undulations. Pick a representative location ahead of Record pressure and location on worksheet.
sprinkler. You may need to wait a few hours or sched-
ule another day when the sprinkler is in a desirable Pressures can be more easily read when using a liquid
location. Sometimes the extreme condition is the filled gauge. The liquid provides a dampening of the
operating condition an evaluation is intended to dis- gauge needle and increased durability. Also, an adjust-
play. More than one evaluation may be needed at ment for elevation must be made (2.31 ft = 1 psi) when
different locations in the field and at different times of pressure is obtained below the nozzle.
the day because of the elevation changes in the field,
wind drift and evaporation losses between daytime Step 4—Determine wind speed and direction, lateral
and nighttime, flow or pressure variations, plus many line location, temperature, and humidity level. Record
other variables. on worksheet.
Step 2—Determine system flow rate. If a portable flow Step 5—Set out equally spaced catch containers in a
meter is available, insert the meter in the flexible feed row in front of the sprinkler and slightly off the direct
hose at or near a main line valve. Clamp-on ultrasonic line of travel where the containers won’t be knocked
flow meters can also be used if a straight section of over by the traveler or trailing hose.
aluminum pipe can be inserted between the riser and
flexible hose. Measure and record flow data at start Set containers in a straight line perpendicular to the
and end of the evaluation period. Flow, velocity, and sprinkler line of travel, at any uniform interval (usually
operating pressure can change when other sprinklers 30 to 50 feet). Start at the center of the sprinkler gun
within the same pumping system are turned on or off lane line and set out catch containers evenly spaced to
during the test. the outer end of wetted area. The lip of the container
should be reasonably level and at approximate crop
Without regularly scheduled maintenance and calibra- canopy height. Use short stakes and heavy rubber
tion, accurate flow data from onfarm system flow bands to locate containers above foliage. The stakes
meters is questionable. Poor water quality (debris, should not extend above the containers.

Irrigation Guide
Any container can be used, however they must be is not 100 percent. Overlap distance can be determined
calibrated. Use containers with a relatively sharp edge. in the field by measuring wetted diameter and lane
For straight sided containers, the entry rim area is spacing distances. The wetted distance in the outer
measured and the equivalent capacity in cubic centi- part of the wetted circle past the midway point be-
meters (milliliters) for 1-inch application depth com- tween lanes is the overlap area.
puted. For stackable tapered sided containers, a 500
cubic centimeter graduated cylinder is used to mea- Step 8—Determine the sprinkler travel speed. Set a
sure catch in the containers. The cross sectional area stake next to the sprinkler. Start timing when a spe-
of the top of the container is used to calculate applica- cific part of the sprinkler gun moves past the stake.
tion depth, either in inches or millimeters. Large rain After at least 20 minutes with the sprinkler gun in
gauges can be used as catch containers and can be operation, set a second stake in line with the same
read directly. part of the sprinkler gun in its new position. Record
time required for travel between stakes or marks and
Start timing when the sprinkler wetted edges begins to measure the distance. Some stationary time at the end
pass over containers. Time ceases when containers are of each lane will provide adequate irrigation at edge of
no longer receiving water. The time it takes for the field. Speed is determined as follows:
sprinkler to completely pass may be longer than is distance traveled, ft
desirable to complete an evaluation, unless containers Speed, ft/min =
time, min
can be left for several hours or overnight.
Step 6—Read or measure amount of water caught in Note: The travel speed of some hose reel sprinklers
catch containers. After the wetted pattern has passed varies because of a constant hose reel velocity irre-
completely over all of the containers, measure and spective of the effective reel diameter the hose is
record catch volume or water depth. Use a graduated being wound (or unwound).
cylinder to measure volume of catch if tapered sided
containers are used. Do not measure and record (iii) Evaluation calculations—The information
volume of water or catch in any containers that have gathered in the field procedures is used in the detailed
tipped or partially spilled or if it appears nearby foli- system evaluation computation. Example 9–8 outlines
age affected the catch. the computations used to complete the example
worksheet (exhibit 9–8).
If containers are left overnight or for a long time
during hot and windy conditions, an evaporation
container should be set out upwind of the test area.
Fill the container with a known volume (depth) of
water approximating half the application depth.
Record volume (depth) at beginning and end of test.
Evaporation adjustments should be made on all read-
ings. Use the same type container for both evaporation
check and catch. A slight film (drop) of mineral oil can
provide some evaporative protection.
Step 7—Catch data reduction. Because catch con-

tainer locations for one pass do not reflect overlap
from adjacent lane sprinkler gun trips, catch from one
side of the wetted pattern that is in the overlap area
must be added to other side. Remember, wind causes
pattern distortion and influences overlap. Typically,
with traveling large gun type sprinkler heads, overlap

Irrigation Guide
Exhibit 9–8 Completed worksheet—Sprinkler irrigation system, detailed evaluation of continuous move, large sprinkler gun
type


Detailed Evaluation Continuous Move, Large Sprinkler Gun Type
Land user ______________________________ Date _________________ Prepared by _____________________________

District ____________________ County ___________________________Eng job class _______________________

Nelson
Sprinkler gun make ______________________, 201
model __________________, ring
nozzle type ___________________________
Nozzle: 1.5
size________________ –
inches, ________________ mm
500
Manufacturer rated discharge, ______________ 100
gpm at _______________ 510
psi giving _____________ ft wetted diameter
Hose: 660
length, _____________________ 4
ft, diameter ________________ inches
Towpath: 330
spacing ____________________ ft
0
Elevation difference between first and last location on towpath (+/-) ________________ ft or _________________ % slope
Gun: 6.5
height _____________________ ft
Mainline: PVC
material _________________________________________ 6
diameter _________________________ inches
Field observations:
Good
Crop uniformity _______________________________________________________________________________________
None
Water runoff __________________________________________________________________________________________
None
Erosion ______________________________________________________________________________________________
None
System leaks _________________________________________________________________________________________
No serious wind drift
Wind drift ____________________________________________________________________________________________
Crop was short midway between paths
Other observations ____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Field data inventory and computations:

Corn
Crop _______________________, 4.0 ft, MAD 1/ _________%,
root zone depth ________ 50 MAD 1/ ______________ inches
Feel
Moisture determination method _______________________________________________________________________
Deschutes fine sand loam
Soil series and surface texture ________________________________________________________________________
Depth Texture AWC (in) 1/ SWD (%) 1/ SWD (in) 1/
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Totals ______________ _____________
Comments about soils and soil condition: _________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
1/ MAD = Management Allowable depletion, AWC = Available water capacity, SWD = Soil water deficit

Irrigation Guide
type—Continued


10
Typical irrigation duration _____________ hr, irrigation frequency _______________ days
15
Typical number of irrigations per year __________________
Test:
Start ______________, Stop ______________, Duration _______________ = __________ hour
Atmospheric data;
Wind: Direction: Initial ______________, during _______________, final ______________
5-10
Speed (mph): Initial _______________, during _______________, final ______________
75
Temperature: initial __________ final _________, humidity: _________ low _____ med _____ high
Evaporation container: initial _____________, final _____________, loss ____________ inches
Pressure: 110
____________________ psi, at start of test
110
____________________ psi, at end of test
520
Measured flow into the system _______________________gpm
Sprinkler travel speed:

at beginning 9.5 ft ________
________ 10 min = _________
0.95 ft/min
at test site 10.0 ft ________
________ 10 min = _________
1.0 ft/min
at terminal end 10.2 ft ________
________ 10 min = _________
1.02 ft/min
average 1.0 ft/min
_________
Calculations:
Gross average depth of water applied = (gun discharge, gpm) x (1.605)
(tow path spacing, ft) x (travel speed, ft/min)
= ( 520 gpm) x (1.605) 2.53

= ___________________ in
( 330 ft) x ( 1.0 ft/min)
Average overlapped catches

System = (sum all catch totals 74.87 2.27 in
in) = ____________
33
(number of totals _____________)
Low 1/4 = (sum of low 1/4 catch totals 12.91 1.61

in) = ___________ in
8
(number of low 1/4 catches _________)
Average application rate = (Flow, gpm) x (13,624)

(tow path spacing, ft) x (wet sector, deg.)
0.38 in/hr
= ( 520 gpm) x (13,624) = ___________
( 2552 ft) x ( 290 deg)
Maximum application rate = (average application rate, in/hr) x (1.5)

Irrigation Guide
type—Continued


Container test data

200
Catch can type ___________, ___________ cc (mL)/in Left Right
35° 35°
Note part circle operation Towpath
and the dry wedge size in degrees and travel
direction
4, 3, 2, 1 Container catch row 1, 2, 3, 4
Container catch volume Right plus left

Path Left side of path Right side of path side catch totals
spacing
(ft) Catch no. Catch (mL) Catch no. Catch (mL) mL inches
330 1 560 33 560 2.80
320 2 540 32 540 2.70
310 3 510 31 510 2.55
300 4 490 30 490 2.45
290 5 505 29 505 2.53
280 6 475 28 475 2.38
270 7 480 27 480 2.40
260 8 460 26 460 2.30
250 9 430 25 430 2.15
240 10 410 24 410 2.05
230 11 370 23 370 1.85
220 12 325 22 325 1.63
210 13 305 21 305 1.53
200 14 345 20 345 1.73
190 15 335 19 335 1.68
180 16 310 18 310 1.55
170 17 305 17 305 1.53
160 18 290 16 35 325 1.62
150 19 250 15 75 325 1.62
140 20 230 14 120 350 1.75
130 21 215 13 215 430 2.15
120 22 165 12 365 530 2.65
110 23 95 11 410 505 2.52
100 24 65 10 515 580 2.90
90 25 25 9 540 565 2.82
80 26 — 8 525 525 2.62
70 27 7 500 500 2.50
60 28 6 490 490 2.45
50 29 5 470 470 2.35
40 30 4 490 490 2.45
30 31 3 540 540 2.70
20 32 2 605 605 3.02
10 33 1 625 625 3.12
74.87
Sum of all catch totals ___________________
12.91
Sum of low 1/4 catch totals _______________

Irrigation Guide
type—Continued


Present management:
2.53
Gross applied per year = (Gross applied per irrigation) x (number of irrigation) = ____________ in/yr
2.53 in) x ( ___________
+ ( __________ 15 38.0
) = _______________ in/yr
18.0
Annual net irrigation requirement ______________________ Corn
in/yr, for ________________________ (crop)
60
Potential application efficiency (Eq or Eh) ____________ % (estimated at 55 - 65%)
Potential annual gross applied = (annual net irrigation requirement) x 100 = _____________ in
Potential Eq or Eh
=( 18 30.0
in) x 100 = _________________ inches
60
= (Present gross applied, inches - potential gross applied, inches) x (area irrigated, ac) = _________ ac/ft
12
=( 38.0 in) - ( 30.0 in) x ( 80 53.3
ac) = _________________ ac-ft
12
Cost savings:
—
Pumping plant efficiency ____________________ Electric
kind of energy ___________________
—
Cost per unit of energy $ ____________________ 10.00
energy cost per ac-ft $ _____________
Cost savings = (energy cost per ac-ft) x (ac-ft conserved per year) = $ __________
10.00
= ( ____________ 53.3
) x ( ____________ 533
) = $ ____________

12.50
= (Cost per ac-ft) x (ac-ft saved per year) = $ ______________ 53.3
x ____________ 666
= $ _____________
Cost savings:
533 + __________
= Pumping cost + water cost = __________ 666 = $ ____________
1199

Irrigation Guide
type—Continued


Recommendations:
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Notes
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Irrigation Guide
Example 9–8 Evaluation computation steps for continuous move, large gun type sprinklers
1. Determine gross depth of water applied:
The speed checked in the field should nearly match design speed. Speed is based on depth of water
applied, gun discharge, and spacing between lanes. Depth of water applied is based on the equation:
Gross Ave. depth of water applied =

(
1,605 × sprinkler discharge, gpm )
(lane spacing, ft ) × (travel speed, ft/min)
For ease of use, table 6–10 in chapter 6, section 652.0602(e) of this guide displays this equation in table
format. Depending on site conditions (soil, slope, vegetative cover) and application rate, catch containers
may not reflect water actually infiltrated because of the water translocation and runoff that occurred.
Water translocation and runoff are often greater with large sprinkler gun travelers because of the large
water droplet size and velocity upon impact with the ground surface. To obtain net depth of application,
assume an application efficiency or determine soil moisture replacement in the plant root zone. Applica-
tion efficiency of the low quarter, Eq, ranges from 55 to 67 percent where there is little to no wind and
with no water translocation or field runoff.
2. Determine system capacity using flow data from a flow meter. Read direct in gallons per minute or
convert as necessary. System capacity flow container can also be determined using velocity meter data
from the equation:
Q=AV
where:
Q = flow in system, ft3/s
A = cross sectional area of pipe, ft2
V = average velocity in pipe, ft/s
Conversion units: 1.0 ft3/s = 450 gpm (approximate)
3. Prepare a plot of catch container data. Plot the adjusted depth of water (include adjustment in over-
lap area) caught in containers (inches) against the location of the container with respect to the sprinkler
gun travel path centerline. Average catch is calculated using total catch and dividing by number of con-
tainers. Plot this line on the graph. This cross section graph can be one of the best tools for explaining the
results of the evaluation to the irrigation decisionmaker.
4. Determine maximum application rate. An approximation of maximum application rate is determined

by using data from catch container(s) with maximum depth of water caught. The maximum average
application rate (over entire time water was applied at the specific catch container site) is computed as
catch in inches divided by time in hours of test. Since water application pattern approximates a parabola
shape (from an adequately operating sprinkler head), maximum rate is about 1.5 times the maximum
average rate.
Maximum application rate, in/hr = (average application rate, in/hr) x 1.5
See section 652.0905(f), Continuous/self move sprinkler, field procedure step 9, for a method to measure
maximum application rate.

Irrigation Guide
Example 9–8 Evaluation computation steps for continuous move, large gun type sprinklers—Continued
1. Make a best estimate of the present gross water application applied for the season. This esti-
mate is based on information about present irrigation scheduling and application practices obtained from
the irrigator and on data derived from the evaluation.
2. Determine potential system application efficiency of the low quarter from information in the
local irrigation guide or other sources. Approximate range of potential E q values is:
Eq = 55 – 65 %
This is based on full canopy crops and assumption that the system is well designed, maintained, and
managed, with little to no wind and no translocation.
3. Determine potential gross seasonal application:

NIR × 100
gross seasonal application =
potential E q
where:
NIR = seasonal net irrigation requirement
4. Determined total potential average annual water conserved in acre-feet:

( present gross application, inches − potential gross application, inches) × (area irrigated, acres )
12
Pumping cost savings: From cost data received from irrigator or by a separate pumping plant
evaluation, determine pumping plant operating costs per acre foot of
water pumped. Pumping cost savings equals:
(energy cost per acre foot) x (acre feet conserved per year)
Water purchase cost savings: Obtain from irrigator the water purchase cost per year. In water short
areas, many irrigation organizations use a sliding scale for water use
billings; i.e., a billing rate for a minimum volume, with increased rates for
increasing use over and above the minimum. Others bill for a fixed
amount whether used or not. Water purchase cost savings equals:
(water cost per acre foot) x (water saved per year, acre feet)
Determine total cost savings.

Irrigation Guide
Example 9–8 Evaluation computation steps for continuous move, large gun type sprinklers—Continued
1. Compare soil-water deficit (SWD) with management allowed depletion (MAD). This indicates whether
the existing method of irrigation scheduling is adequate and whether the right amount of water is being
applied. Suggest improving irrigation scheduling techniques if needed. Determine what level of intensity
of irrigation scheduling the irrigation decisionmaker can reasonably use.
2. Compare evaluation results to manufacturer’s/dealer’s design.
3. Consider existing and potential runoff and erosion problems as to operation, cultural, and management
practices. Suggest those changes necessary in irrigation water management, such as operation speed,
pressure adjustment, cultural practices, and surface storage needs. Cultural practice changes include soil,
water, and plant management. Make recommendations that are practical and can reasonably be done by
the irrigation decisionmaker.

irrigation system changes, along with appropriate management changes, is secondary.

Irrigation Guide
(8) Micro irrigation systems Micro irrigation only wets a portion of the soil volume
Micro irrigation systems, sometimes referred to as allocated to each plant or row of plants. Where the
trickle or drip systems, are described as the frequent, volume of soil irrigated is small, root growth can be or
slow application of water to soil through mechanical is restricted. The percentage of the wetted area com-
devices called drippers, emitters, spray heads, or pared to the total area for each plant depends on the
bubblers. The objective of micro irrigation is to main- emitter discharge area, discharge rate, spacing of
tain a high soil moisture content in the plant root zone emitters, and soil type. The preferred measure is based
at all times during the irrigation season. This can be on the volume of soil irrigated compared to the total
accomplished by starting the season with high soil volume available to each plant. Where more than one
moisture content and replacing the amount depleted emitter is used per plant, the wetted volume created
by the plant (and some to evaporation) on a 1- to 4-day by each emitter should overlap in the upper part of the
basis. This is done by delivering the amount of water plant root zone as shown in figure 9–30. Where salts
needed directly to the root zone of each plant through are a problem, the overlap should be at the ground
a controlled delivery system. surface so salts are not concentrated within the root
zone.
To accomplish this objective the system must be
adequately designed and constructed. A monitoring One of the objectives in evaluating a micro irrigation
method to determine the amount of water needed on a system is to determine the average volume of soil
daily basis and a method to verify the validity of both wetted per plant. Minimum soil wetted volume ap-
the delivery system performance and the amount of pears to be about a third for vines and orchards, and
water delivered as being adequate are also required. higher for close spaced row crops, such as potatoes,
cotton, and tomatoes.
(i) Components—The various components of a
micro irrigation system are shown in a typical layout The total plant area does not need irrigating, but
as in figure 9–29. An adequate filter system is neces- overlap should occur in the upper half of the plant
sary to ensure performance of the controlled delivery root zone and be continuous along the plant row.
(emitters, spray heads, bubblers) at each plant without
clogging. Clogged application devices cause poor The successful operation of a micro irrigation system
distribution along the laterals. requires the frequency of irrigation and volume of
water applied be carefully scheduled to meet plant
Figure 9–29 Typical split flow layouts for micro irrigation Figure 9–30 Typical wetted area under a plant with two
system emitters
Total plant area

Laterals
Submain with
Submain
emitters
Manifold
Block I Block III
Laterals
with Main line Control
emitters Water supply valves Emitter Emitter
and control Wetted area
head
Block II Block IV
D
2
Rooting depth
D of plant
D
2

Irrigation Guide
evapotranspiration (ET). Under-irrigation is easier to • Graduated cylinder (250 to 500 mL capacity)

detect than overirrigation. Overirrigation is lost to • Funnel thave has a 3- to 6-inch diameter
deep percolation and may not be apparent unless the • Shovel, soil auger, or push tube sampler, probe
water applied is compared to the plant ET. Properly • Manufacturer’s emitter performance charts
designed, installed, and operated micro irrigation showing the relationships between discharge and
systems have the capability to place over 90 percent of pressure plus recommended operating pressures
applied water available for plant use. In reality 65 and filter requirements
percent is more common because of inadequate irriga- • Shop built emitter and spray head catch contain-
tion scheduling resulting in the application of too ers
much water. • Sheet metal or plastic troughs 3 feet long for
measuring the discharge from several outlets in a
The soil salinity level should be checked at various perforated lateral simultaneously or the dis-
locations from the plant and for various depths to charge from a 3-foot length of porous tubing (a
determine if salt buildup is becoming a problem. piece of 1 1/2 or 2 inch diameter PVC pipe cut in
Where checked periodically, the change in salinity half lengthwise works well)
over time is noted. • Micro Irrigation System Detailed Evaluation
Worksheet (see chapter 15)
Field emission uniformity, EU, must be known to
properly manage the amount of water applied. Be- (iv) Procedure—The following field procedure is
cause EU can change throughout the irrigation season, suitable for evaluating systems with individually
periodic evaluations are needed to determine mainte- manufactured emitters and systems that use perfo-
nance needs and irrigation scheduling changes. rated or porous laterals. Record data on evaluation
worksheets while collecting the field information.
(ii) Evaluation process—Use of much of the
information is similar to field data and analysis for Step 1—Collect or determine soil and crop character-
orchard sprinkler irrigation system. The data needed istics throughout the field.
for evaluating a micro irrigation system can be ob-
tained by determining: Step 2—Determine from the irrigation decisionmaker
• Duration, frequency, and sequence of operation the duration and frequency of irrigation and the con-
of a normal irrigation cycle cept of applicable MAD.
• Soil-moisture deficit and management allowable
depletion Step 3—Check and note the pressure at the inlet and
• Rate of discharge and pressure near several outlet of the filter(s) and, if practical, inspect the
emission points spaced throughout the system screens for breaks and other possibilities for contami-
• Changes in rate of discharge from emitters after nants to bypass the screen(s).
cleaning or other repair
• Percent of soil volume wetted Step 4—Collect emitter and lateral information.
• Spacing and size of trees, vines, or other plants
being irrigated Step 5—Locate four emitter laterals along an operating
• Location of emission points relative to trees, manifold; one should be near the inlet, two near the
vines, or other plants, and uniformity of spacing third points, and the fourth near the outer end. Sketch
of emission points. the system layout and note the general topography,
• Pressure drop at the filter(s) manifold in operation and manifold where the dis-
• General topography charge test is conducted.
(iii) Equipment—The equipment needed for a micro Step 6—Record system discharge rate and the number
irrigation system includes: of manifolds and blocks (or stations). The number of
• Pressure gauge (0 to 50 psi range) with adapters blocks is the total number of manifolds divided by the
for temporary installation at either end of lateral number of manifolds in operation at anyone time.
lines
• Stopwatch

Irrigation Guide
Step 7—For laterals having individual emitters, spray Step 10—If an interval of several days between irriga-
heads, or bubblers, measure the discharge at two tions is being used, check the SMD in the wetted
adjacent emission points at each of four different tree volume near a few representative plants in the next
or plant locations on each of the four selected test block to be irrigated. This is difficult and requires
laterals. Collect the discharge for a number of full averaging samples taken from several positions
minutes (1, 2, 3, 4, etc.) to obtain a volume between around each plant.
100 and 200 milliliters for each emission point tested.
Convert each reading to milliliters per minute before Step 11—Determine the minimum lateral inlet pres-
entering the data on the worksheet. To convert millili- sure (MLIP) along each operating manifold. For level
ters per minute to gallons per hour, divide milliliters or uphill manifolds, the MLIP is at the far end of the
per minute by 63. manifold. For downhill manifolds it is often about two-
thirds the distance down the manifold. With manifolds
These steps produce 8 pressure readings and 32 dis- on undulating terrain, MLIP generally is located on a
charge volumes at 16 different plant locations for knoll or high point.
individual emission points used in wide-spaced crops
with two or more emission points per plant. For perfo- Step 12—Determine the discharge correction factor
rated tubing, bi-wall, or porous tubing, use a 3- to 5- (DCF) to adjust the average emission point discharges
foot trough and collect a discharge volume at each of for the tested manifold. This adjustment is needed if
the 16 locations described. These are already averages the test manifold happened to be operating with a
from two or more outlets, so only one reading is higher or lower MLIP than the system average MLIP. If
needed at each location. Care should be taken to avoid the emitter discharge exponent, x, is known, use the
raising an emitter or hose more than a few inches second formula presented.
because any raise in elevation reduces discharge
pressure and volume. Step 13—Determine the average and adjusted average
emission point discharges.
For relatively wide-spaced crops, such as grapes,
where a single outlet emitter or bubbler may serve one (v) Evaluation computations—In micro irrigation
or more plants, collect a discharge reading at each of all of the system flow is delivered to individual trees,
the 16 locations described. Since the plants are only vines, shrubs, plants, rows of plants, or blocks of turf.
served by a single emission point, only one reading Essentially, the only opportunity for loss of water is at
should be made at each location. the tree or plant locations. Therefore, uniformity of
emission is of primary concern, assuming the crop is
Step 8—Measure and record water pressures at the uniform. Locations of individual emission points, or
inlet and downstream ends of each lateral tested, the tree locations where several emitters are closely
preferably under normal operations. On the inlet end, spaced, can be thought of in much the same manner as
this requires disconnecting the lateral hose, installing container positions in tests of periodic move sprinkler
the pressure gauge, and reconnecting the lateral be- performance.
fore reading the pressure. On the downstream end, the
pressure can be read after connecting the pressure In exhibit 9–8, there are four single emission points
gauge the simplest way possible. Be sure to flush the (emitters) per tree in the citrus grove where data were
line of sediment and debris before installing the pres- obtained. Therefore, discharge from the two emitters
sure gauge. at each tree can be averaged. The minimum rate of
discharge (or low quarter) is then the adjusted average
Step 9—Check the percentage of soil wetted at one of discharge of the lowest four (average) discharges per
the plant locations on each test lateral. It is best to tree, 2.30 gallons per hour for the example evaluation.
select a plant at a different relative location on each The adjusted average rate of discharge per tree for the
lateral. Use a push probe, soil auger, or shovel for entire system was 2.65 gallons per hour. Example 9–9
estimating the actual extent of the wetted zone below shows the computations used for a micro irrigation
the surface around each plant. Determine the percent- system evaluation.
age wetted by dividing the wetted area by the total
surface area between four plants.

Irrigation Guide
Exhibit 9–9 Completed worksheet—Micro irrigation system detailed evaluation

Example - Micro Irrigation System
Joe Example
Land user ________________________________ Date __________________ Prepared by ______________________________
District ___________________________________ County ________________________________________________________
Citrus
Crop: __________________________ 7
age _____________ 22' x 22'
plant and row spacing ______________________________________
Soil: Redcliff L
mapping unit _________________________________ Loam
surface texture _________________________________________
4 ft
actual depth _________________________________________AWC 2.0
_______________________ inches/feet
Irrigation: 6 hr
duration ____________ 1 da
frequency ____________ 10
MAD ___________% 0.8 inches/feet
____________
Irrigation system hardware:

60
Filter: pressure at: inlet ___________ 55
psi, outlet _____________ 5
psi, loss _____________ psi
SP
Emitter: manufacturer _______________ flushing
type _________________ 5 ft
spacing _________________
3.0
Rated discharge per emitter (emission point): _______________________gph 30
at _____________________ psi
4
Emission points per plant ______________ 72
giving __________________ gallons per plant per day
0.58"
Later: diameter: ___________________ PE
material ________________ 150'
length _______________ 22'
spacing _____________
Sketch of micro irrigation system layout:
0 +15'
A B C D Block I operating
I
E F G Test manifold and laterals
Open control valve

II
Closed control valve
Well Field is fairly flat
elevation shown around
corners + up
III - down
well 6.0 elevation
IV
-5' +5'

Irrigation Guide
Exhibit 9–9 Completed worksheet—Micro irrigation system detailed evaluation—Continued


–
System discharge: _____________ 32
gpm, number of manifolds ___________ 4
and blocks ___________
45
Average test manifold emission point discharges at _____________________ psi
Manifold = (sum of all averages 41.94 2.62

gph) = _________________ gph
(number of averages 16 )
Low 1/4 = (sum of low 1/4 averages 9.07 2.27

gph) = __________________ gph
(number of low 1/4 averages 4 )
46.1
Adjusted average emission point discharges at ____________________ psi
1.012
System = (DCF _______________) 2.62
x (manifold average ____________) 2.65
= ____________ gph
1.012
Low 1/4 = (DCF ______________) 2.27
x (manifold low 1/4 _____________) 2.30
= _____________ gph
1.0
Discharge test volume collected in _____________ minutes (1.0 gph = 63 ML/min)
Lateral location on the manifold

Outlet
location inlet end 1/3 down 2/3 down far end
on lateral mL gph mL gph mL gph mL gph
inlet A 132 2.10 160 2.54 192 3.04 195 3.10

end B 160 2.54 188 2.99 140 2.23 205 3.26
ave 2.32 2.77 2.64 3.18
1/3 A 160 2.54 295 3.10 175 2.78 169 2.69
down B 168 2.66 158 2.50 170 2.70 180 2.86
ave 2.60 2.80 2.74 2.78
2/3 A 187 2.97 146 2.31 125 1.99 144 2.29
down B 175 2.78 155 2.46 155 2.46 175 2.78
ave
2.88 2.38 2.23 2.54
far A 170 2.70 190 3.02 210 3.34 151 2.39
end B 125 1.99 135 2.15 166 2.62 130 2.07
ave 2.34 2.58 2.98 2.18

Irrigation Guide
Exhibit 9–9 Completed worksheet—Micro irrigation system detailed evaluation—Continued


Lateral: inlet pressure ______ 45 psi ______

47 psi ______ 45 psi ______
45 psi
far end pressure 46 psi ______
______ 43 psi ______
45 psi ______
44 psi
Wetted area per plant 150 ft2 ______
______ 125 ft2 ______
140 ft2 ______
145 ft2
31 % ______
______ 26 % 29 % ______
______ 30 %
–
Estimated average SMD in wetted soil volume ______________________________________
Minimum lateral inlet pressures, MLIP, on all operating, manifolds:
Manifold ID: Test A

_______ B
_______ C
_______ D
_______ E
_______ F
_______ G
_______ _______ Ave.
45
pressure, psi _______ 49
_______ 47
_______ 43
_______ 42
_______ 50
_______ 48
_______ 48
_______ _______ 46.1
_______
Discharge correction factor, DCF, for the system is:
DCF = 2.5 x (average MLIP 46.1 psi) 1.015 psi

= ___________
46.1 45
(average MLIP ___________ psi + (1.5 x test MLIP ___________ psi)
0.5
or if the emitter discharge exponent, x = ___________ is known,
DCF = (average MLIP 46.1 0.5 = ____________

psi) x ------- 1.012 psi
(test MLIP 45 psi)
Comments: __________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________

Irrigation Guide
Example 9–9 Evaluation computation steps for micro irrigation systems
Average application depth, Daw:

The average depth applied per irrigation to the wetted area, Daw, is useful for estimating management allowed
depletion (MAD). The Daw in inches is computed from the average gallons per hour (gph) at each emission
point, the number of emission points per tree, N, the number of hours of operation per irrigation, and the
wetted area per tree in square feet:
1, 605 × N × gph × hours
Daw =
ft 2
For the example evaluation:

1, 605 × 4 × 2.65 × 6
Daw = = 0.21 inches
22 × 22
Volume per day per tree:

The average number of gallons per day per tree or plant is computed from the average gph at each emission
point, the number N of emission points per tree, the number of hours of operation per irrigation, and the
irrigation interval in days:
N × gph × hours
Average daily gallons per tree =
days
For the example evaluation:

4 × 2.65 × 6
Average daily gallons per tree = = 63.6 gpd
1
Emission uniformity, EU:

To determine whether system application devices are operating at an acceptable efficiency, evaluate the
emission uniformity, EU:
minimum rate of discharge per plant
EU = × 100
average rate of discharge per plant
in which the average of the lowest quarter is used as the minimum for each of the four emitters per plant. In
the example:
4 × 2.30
EU = × 100 = 87%
4 × 2.65
General criteria for EU values for systems that have been in operation for at least one season are:
EU (%) Efficiency
> 90 % excellent
80 – 90 % good
70 – 80 % fair
< 70 % poor

Irrigation Guide
Example 9–9 Evaluation computation steps for micro irrigation systems—Continued
Potential application efficiency low quarter, PELQ:

The concept of PELQ used in other evaluation procedures must be modified when evaluating micro irrigation
systems. Because micro irrigation wets only a portion of the total soil volume, the SMD must be replaced
frequently. SMD is always difficult to estimate because parts of the wetted root zone often remain near field
capacity even when the interval between irrigations is several days.
For the example evaluation where irrigations are applied everyday, SMD is practically impossible to estimate.
For this reason, SMD must be estimated from weather data or information derived from evaporation devices
even though such estimates are subject to error. Because checking for slight under-irrigation is not practical,
some margin for safety should be allowed. As a rule, about 10 percent more water than the estimated SMD or
evapotranspiration should be applied to the least watered areas. Thus the PELQ under full micro irrigation
can be estimated by:
PELQ = 0.9 x EU
For the example test data:

PELQ = 0.9 x 87 % = 78%
In a micro irrigation system, all field boundary effects or pressure variations along the manifold tested are
taken into account in the field estimate of EU. Therefore, the estimated PELQ is an overall value for the
manifold in the subunit tested except for possible minor water losses resulting from leaks, draining of lines,
and flushing (unless leaks are excessive).
Some micro irrigation systems are fitted with pressure compensating emitters or have pressure (or flow)
regulation at the inlet to each lateral. However, most systems are only provided with a means for pressure
control or regulation at the inlets to the manifolds as was the case with the example system evaluated. If
manifold inlet pressures are not properly set, the overall system PELQ is lower than the PELQ of the test
manifold. An estimate of this efficiency reduction factor, ERF, can be computed from the minimum lateral
inlet pressure, MLIP, along each manifold by:
ERF =
(
average MLIP + 1.5 × minimum MLIP )
2.5 × average MLIP
The ratio between the average emission point discharges in the manifold with the minimum pressure and the
system is approximately equal to ERF. Therefore, the system PELQ can be approximated by:
System PELQ = ERF x example PELQ
Using the data from the example evaluation and PELQ = 78%, find ERF:
ERF =
(
46.1 + 1.5 × 42 ) = 0.95
2.5 × 46.1
and,
System PELQ = 0.95 x 78 % = 74 %

Irrigation Guide
A more precise method for estimating the ERF can be made if the emitter discharge exponent, x, is known by
ERF =
(minimum MLIP)
(average MLIP)
For the example system with orifice type emitters, where x = 0.5, this alternative calculation of ERF gives:
420.5
ERF = = 0.14
46.1
In this case the two methods for computing ERF give essentially equal results; however, for larger pressure
variations or x values higher or lower than 0.5, differences could be significant.
Application efficiency, low quarter (AELQ)

Like PELQ, the concept of AELQ must also be modified for micro irrigation. Effectiveness of a micro system
can be estimated by how much of the applied water is stored in the root zone and is available for consumptive
use by the plants. Because there are essentially no opportunities for losses by evaporation and wind drift or
for inadequate irrigation in which the least watered areas are under-irrigated:
System AELQ = ERF x EU
However, if excess water is applied in the least watered areas:

SMD in wetted area × 100
System AELQ =
average depth applied to wetted area
For an ideal irrigation in which the SMD plus 10 percent extra water is applied to the least watered areas:
AELQ = PELQ
For the example evaluation where daily irrigations were being applied, it was impossible to estimate SMD in
the wetted areas around each tree. Furthermore, the average depth applied to the total area, Da, was only 0.21
inch per day, which is hardly sufficient to meet the expected consumptive use requirements for mature citrus
trees at the example evaluation location. Therefore, it is highly probable that the trees were being under-
irrigated, in which case for the example EU of 87 percent:
System AELQ = 0.95 x 87 % = 83 %
Overall minimum depth applied:

The overall average depth applied to the total area, Da, multiplied by system PELQ (or AELQ) is useful for
managing an irrigation schedule because water requirements are expressed in similar units.
Multiply Da by the system PELQ except when there is under-irrigation and AELQ is greater than PELQ. For
the example evaluation the overall minimum depth applied to the total area, Dn, is:
System PELQ (or AELQ)
Dn = Da ×
100

Irrigation Guide
For the example evaluation, which is under-irrigated and has a system AELQ value of 83 percent:
Dn = 0.21 x 83/100 = 0.17 inch
Analysis and recommendations

Several observations and recommendations can be based on the data collected and the calculation of EU,
PELQ, and AELQ.
Pressure differences throughout the operating manifold studied were small. Pressure variations of 20 percent
for orifice-type emitters and 10 percent for long tube type result in flow differences of about 10 percent.
Obviously each control valve must be adjusted accurately to ensure uniform pressures throughout the field;
however, this was not the case as noted by the minimum lateral inlet pressure variations between manifolds
as data collected shows.
Uniformity of application throughout the operating manifold, expressed by the EU of 87 percent, was good.
Because pressures were nearly constant, most of the lack of application uniformity resulted from variations
in operation of the individual emitters. Discharges of emitters A and B at the same location, which would
have almost identical pressures, often differed considerably.
Differences in elevation throughout the system were not extreme, so the other manifolds should have pro-
duced similar uniformities.
The percentage of wetted area ranged between 26 and 31 percent. This is less than the recommended mini-
mum discussed in the introduction for arid areas.
For the fertilizer application program, urea was injected into the irrigation water to meet nitrogen needs.
Other fertilizers were being applied directly to the soil surface and incorporated by cultivation in the fall
before the rainy season. This fertilizer program should prove satisfactory and cause no problem with the
irrigation equipment.
Emitters—The emitters used in the recorded test were automatic flushing type. The variations in discharge
probably resulted from differences in manufacturing tolerances. These emitters, operating at pressures near
45 pounds per square inch, averaged a discharge of 2.62 gallons per hour, which is considerably less than the
rated 3 gallons per hour at 30 pounds per square inch. This indicates that the orifices may be closing slowly or
clogging after about one season’s operation.
Variable clogging can cause large differences in flow from nonflushing emitters even though manufacturing
tolerance may be close. Some emitters can be flushed manually. Systems having manually flushed emitters
should be flushed monthly, and the change in flow before and after flushing determined. Some outlet emitters
are pressure compensating; thus, discharge is constant over a range in pressure variations. Bubbler systems
typically use 1/4 to 3/8 inch diameter tubing for outlets where clogging from suspended sediment is not a
problem. Insects that build nests in small cavities can be a problem.

Irrigation Guide
Filters—In the example the filter system near the pumping plant seemed to be performing reasonably well.
Pressure across it was only 5 pounds per square inch. Small safety screen filters were installed at the inlet to
each lateral. This precaution is recommended. Several of these screens were checked at random. All were
found reasonably clean; however, several screens had intercepted a considerable amount of coarse material
that would have clogged emitters had it passed through the laterals. The operator said that each screen was
routinely cleaned after every 1,000 hours of operation.
Changing to a 12-hour irrigation on alternate days instead of continuing the present 6 hours per day could
improve the percentage of wetted area because longer applications wet more soil volume. No problems of
infiltration were apparent, and the average depth applied to the wet area, Da, of 0.73 inch could be doubled
without exceeding the SMD at a MAD of 30 percent. For example, a total of 8 inches of moisture would be
available. The depletion of 2 x 0.73 = 1.46 inches gives a MAD of less than 20 percent in the wetted area.
Manifold inlet valves should be adjusted to give the same minimum lateral inlet pressure on each manifold.
This increases the system PELQ and AELQ to the PELQ and AELQ of the tested manifold, which is a 5 per-
cent improvement.
It appears emission from laterals has been gradually decreasing, and the system was designed to yield greater
flow than was observed. Thus, adding emitters could restore the systems capacity to the original 12 gallons
per hour per tree at an average operating pressure of 30 pounds per square inch, while increasing the percent
wetted area to almost 40 percent.
The only sure way to improve EU would be to replace the emitters. This is costly and may not be warranted at
this time. Chemical treatment may clean some of the mineral deposits and partly restore discharge rate and
uniformity.
Overall minimum depth applied to the total area, Da, (only 0.17 inch per cycle) seems to be marginal for a
mature citrus grove during the peak water demand period. Although emitters were rated at 3 gallons per hour
when operated at 30 pounds per square inch, the test results in the field indicated an average rate of flow of
2.62 gallons per hour at 45 pounds per square inch. To meet peak demands of water, the flow rate per tree
must be restored to the original design of 12 gallons per hour (four emitters at 3 gph) by cleaning or otherwise
repairing the emitters, or by adding another emitter to the system at each tree.
Summary
The EU of 87 percent and estimated PELQ of 78 percent of the tested manifold are good. Main system prob-
lems are associated with a marginal amount of soil wetted (only about 30%), poor manifold control valve
adjustment, and low rates of flow in the system. The irrigation decisionmaker was advised to try scheduling
the irrigation to apply water for 12-hour periods on alternate days instead of continuing the current 6 hours
per day cycle. He was also urged to:
• Adjust the manifold control valves to obtain equal minimum lateral inlet pressure on all manifolds (it is
suggested fittings be installed to allow the use of pressure gauges).
• Clean or repair the emitters, or add an extra emitter at each tree to restore flow rates to the designed
volume and to increase the percent of wetted area.

Irrigation Guide
(9) Irrigation pumps — Portable diesel or gasoline tank, hose, and

The efficiency of a pump changes with time and de- fittings, and scale for weighing tank.
pends a great deal on proper maintenance and impel- — Method of measuring diesel or gasoline fuel
ler diameter. Wear ring and impeller wear, corrosion, (if weighing scales are not used).
and metal erosion (cavitation) can affect the efficiency • Watch with stopwatch mode, or stopwatch.
of a pump. Intake screen plugging and pipeline leaks • Pump manufacturer’s performance curves for
also affect efficiency. Leaks on suction piping are pump(s) being analyzed.
often caused by pinholes in welded joints and loose Pumping plant detailed evaluation worksheet.
couplers. Pumps are often used under conditions other • Clipboard and pencil.
than those for which they were designed. Changes in
the irrigation system after pump installation often Hardware inventory: Obtain the data needed to fill
occur. Some pumps are purchased second hand and out the data sheet by interviewing the operator and by
used in non-optimum situations. Another frequent observing equipment name and data plates. (Use name
problem is poor intake and outlet piping configura- plate data with caution as component modification(s)
tions. Such problems can dramatically lower pump may render data obsolete.)
efficiency. The purpose of a pump evaluation is to
identify these problems, determine annual cost attrib- Sketch the pipeline intake assembly and discharge
uted to the problems, and make recommendations for assembly. Show dimensions of component parts. Take
modifications to improve operating efficiency and pictures of these assemblies.
reduce energy use. A pump analysis should be consid-
ered part of a complete irrigation system analysis. Safety: Use extreme caution when working around
running pumps especially where live drive shafts and
National Engineering Handbook, Section 15, Chapter belts are exposed. Tie down or remove loose clothing.
8, Irrigation Pumping Plants, should be reviewed Use a tick meter to check for stray electrical currents.
before doing a pump test. Another useful reference is In the absence of a meter, briefly touch equipment
University of Nebraska's Revised Irrigation Pumping with back of hand. If electrical equipment does not
Plant Test Procedure Manual (1985). appear to be properly installed or maintained, do not
proceed with the evaluation. For personnel safety,
(i) Equipment—The equipment needed to test observe no smoking when performing pump tests
irrigation pumps includes: where internal combustion engines are used.
• Pressure gauges: one 0 to 100 pounds per square
inch and one 0 to 200 pounds per square inch. The land user or a mechanic should make electrical
Liquid filled or waterproof type is recommended. connections, measure fuel, and make fuel line connec-
• Flow meter or other method to determine flow tions.
rate.
• Collection of miscellaneous fittings used to (ii) Data inventory and computations—The
install pressure gauges, including pipe thread following steps (example 9–10) are needed to com-
compound or tape. plete testing of irrigation pumps. The information is
• Vacuum gauge: 0 inch to 30 inches Hg (optional, used in completing the Pumping Plant Detailed Evalu-
use to find suction head on suction side of ation Worksheet (exhibit 9–10).
pump).
• Electric meter: volts, amps, power factor
(for electric motors).
• Hand level and survey rod.
• Pocket tape (inches and tenths of inches).
• Two pipe wrenches, two adjustable wrenches.
• For internal combustion engines:
— Portable propane tank, hose, and fittings,
and scale for weighing tank (if propane
engine is analyzed).

Irrigation Guide
Exhibit 9–10 Completed worksheet—Irrigation pumping plant detailed evaluation

Example - Pumping Plant Detailed Evaluation Worksheet

Joe Example
Land user __________________________________________ Field office ___________________________________
Observer ________________________ Date _______________ Checked by _______________ Date _____________
Field name or number __________________________________________ Acres irrigated ______________________
Hardware Inventory:
Power plant:
Electric motor(s): Main pump Booster (if used)

Make GE
_____________________________ ________________________________
Model GEPU 25
_____________________________ ________________________________
Rated rpm 3450
_____________________________ ________________________________
Rated hp 25
_____________________________ ________________________________
Internal combustion engine:

Make _________________________________________________________________________________________
Model ________________________________________________________________________________________
Continuous rated hp at output shaft ________________________ hp at _______________________ rpm
Comments about condition of power plant ____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Gear or belt drive mechanism:

Type: (check one) direct drive ___________ gear drive _____________ belt drive ______________
_______________________ rpm at driver ____________________________________ rpm at pump
Pumps
Type: (centrifugal,
turbine, submers.) Centrifugal
_____________________________ ________________________________
Make Berkeley
_____________________________ ________________________________
Model 2 1/2 ZPBL
_____________________________ ________________________________
Impeller diameter 8 inches
_____________________________ ________________________________
Number of impellers 1
_____________________________ ________________________________
Rated flow rate (gpm) 350
_____________________________ ________________________________
at head of (ft) 175
_____________________________ ________________________________
at rpm 3450
_____________________________ ________________________________
Yes
Pump curves: Attached ______________________ (yes or no)
Comments about conditon of equipment ________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________

Irrigation Guide
Exhibit 9–10 Completed worksheet—Irrigation pumping plant detailed evaluation—Continued


Existing suction or turbine column set-up (sketch showing dimensions)
Existing discharge set-up (sketch showing dimensions)
Data and computations:

Total Dynamic Head (TDH):
6
Elevation difference - water surface to pump outlet ________________ feet
85
Pressure reading at pump outlet ___________________ psi
—
Pressure at pump inlet (where supply is pressurized) __________________ psi
2
Estimated friction loss in suction pipe or pump column _______________ feet
5
Miscellaneous friction loss _________________ feet
TDH = (elevation difference between water source and pump discharge) + (discharge pressure - pressure at
inlet) times 2.31 + (estimated suction pipe friction loss) + miscellaneous =
6 + (85 x 2.31) + 2 + 5
________________________________________________________ 209.4
= ________________ feet
Flow rate:
Flow meter:
Flow rate = ______________________ gpm
Velocity meter:
Pipe ID __________________ inches
Velocity __________________ feet/second
Flow rate, Q, in gpm = (Velocity, in feet/second) x (2.45) x (pipe ID2) =
= ____________________________________ = _________________ gpm

Irrigation Guide


Water horsepower:
295 x 209.4
whp = (flow rate, in gpm) x (TDH, in feet) = ______________________________ 15.6
= ______________ hp
3960 3960
Energy input
Electric:
10
Disk revolutions _____________________
53.5
Time: min ___________ sec ____________ 53.5
= _____________ sec
28.8
Meter constant (Kh) __________________________________
1
PTR (power transformer ratio - usually 1.0)1/ _____________________
1
CTR (current transformer ratio - usually 1.0)1/ ___________________
3.6 x 10 x 28.8 x 1
KW = (3.6) x (disk rev) x (Kh) x (PTR) x (CTR) = _______________________________ 19.38
= _________(kwh/h)
(time, in seconds) 53.5
Diesel or gasoline:
Evaluation time: hours ____________ minutes____________ = ______________ hours
Fuel use _____________ gallons (a small quantity of fuel may also be weighed, at 7.05 lb/gal for diesel and 6.0 lb/gallon
for gasoline)
(fuel use, in gallons) = ____________________________________ = _______________ gallons/hour

(time, in hours)
Propane:
Evaluation time: hours ________ minutes ______________ = _______________ hours
Fuel use ________________ lb (weigh fuel used from small portable tank)
(fuel use, in lb) = ___________________________________ = ___________ gallon/hours

(4.25 lb/gal) x (time, in hr)
Natural gas:
Meter reading: End __________________ minus Start _____________________ = __________________ mcf
(fuel used, in mcf) = _______________________________ = ___________________ mcf/hr

(time, in hr)
1/ Some power companies use a type of meter that requires a PTR or CTR correction factor. Check with local
power company.

Irrigation Guide

Land user __________________________________________ Field office _______________________________
In the next step, the efficiency of the power plant and pump, as a unit, is compared to the Nebraska Standards for
irrigation pumping plants. The Nebraska standard for a good condition, properly operated plant. If the comparison
comes out less than 100%, there is room for improvement.
Nebraska performance rating:
Nebraska pumping plant performance criteria ______________________________________________________
Pump and Power Plant

Energy source Whp-h/unit of energy Energy unit
Diesel 12.5 gallon
Propane 6.89 gallon
Natural gas 61.7 mcf
Electricity 0.885 kW=kwh/hr
Gasoline 8.66 gallon
The Nebraska standards assume 75% pump and 88% electric motor efficiency.
Percent of Nebraska performance rating
= (whp) x (100) =
(energy input) x (Nebraska criteria, in whp-h/unit)
15.6 x 100
= _______________________________________ 90.9
= _______________ %
19.38 x .885
Horsepower input:
Electric:
(input kW) 19.38

= _______________________ 26.0 bhp
= ___________
(0.746 kW/bhp) 0.746
Diesel:
(16.66) x (energy input, in gal/hr) = _________________________ = ____________ bhp
Propane:
(9.20) x (energy input, in gal/hr) = __________________________ = ____________ bhp
Natural gas:
(82.20) x (energy input, in mcf/hr) = _________________________ = ____________ bhp

Irrigation Guide

Pumping Plant Detailed Evaluation Worksheet
Pumping plant efficiency:
15.6 x 100
Epp = (water horsepower output, whp) x (100) = ________________________________ 60.0 %
= ___________
(brake horsepower input, bhp) 26.0
Energy cost per acre-foot:
0.54
Fuel cost per unit __________________ $/kW-hr, or $/gal, or $/mcf
Cost, in $/ac-ft = (5431) x (fuel cost, in $/unit) x (energy input, in kW, gal/hr, or mcf/hr)
(flow rate, in gpm)
5431 x 0.054 x 19.38

= ___________________________________________________ 19.26
= $ _____________/acre-foot
295
Recommendations:
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

Irrigation Guide
Pump performance curve example

Case: Material C.I. Patt. No. H-689 Mach. No. H-689 3600 NOMINAL R.P.M. 60 Cycles
T.D.B.L. for fresh water at
Impeller: Material BRZ Patt. No. M-3380 Mach. No. M-3380 Dia. 9" FULL sea level 80° F max.
MAXIMUM WORKING PRESSURE 215 PSI M-1 M-2
30
20
N.P.S.H. IN FEET
NPSH
10
0
TOTAL DYNAMIC HEAD IN FEET
HEAD
350 60%
9" Full dia. (50 HP) 65%
70%
300 8-3/4" Dia. (40 HP) 75% Efficiency
250 8" Dia. (30 HP)

7-1/2" Dia. (25 HP)
200 82%
6-15/16" Dia. (20 HP)
80% 75% 50 BMP
150
70% 40 BMP
15 BMP
20 BMP
100
30 BMP
25 BMP
50
20' 15' 10' TDSL
TDSL
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
CAPACITY IN U.S. GALLONS PER MINUTE
C-5006 Based on T-3184 Superaades C-5006 Dated 10-30-64 Date 5-19-71 MODEL B3ZPL

Irrigation Guide
Example 9–10 Evaluation computation steps for irrigation pumping plants
1. Determine total dynamic head (TDH). This is the sum of:

• static head (elevation difference) between the supply water surface and the pump outlet at the point
where pressure is read,
• friction loss in the suction or riser pipe, and
• discharge pressure next to the pump. (If the pressure is positive at the pump inlet, as is the case for a
booster pump or gravity flow inlet, inlet pressure is subtracted from the discharge pressure.)
Consideration should be given to operating conditions at times other than the time when the evaluation is
done. Fluctuations in the supply water surface or pressure and changes in location and elevation of the
irrigation outlet during the course of the irrigation should be considered. Worst cases (lowest and highest
estimated TDH) should be compared to the evaluation TDH and pump performance curves.
2. Measure flow rate using the best available method. If a propeller flow meter is used, the most
accurate flow rate is achieved by recording total flow at the beginning and end of a time period, such as a
half hour, and dividing by time. This compensates for fluctuations in flow rate during that period. Flow
meters or velocity meters must be installed far enough downstream of elbows, tees, valves, reducers, and
enlargers to have pipeline velocity flow lines parallel to the pipeline centerline. A distance of at least five
times the pipe diameter is recommended. Vanes installed in the pipeline can be used to help reduce
turbulence.
3. Compute water horsepower (whp):
whp =
(Flow rate, in gpm ) × (TDH, in ft )
3960
4. Determine energy input:
Electrical powered units—The easiest method of determining electric energy use is to count the revo-
lutions of the electric meter disk over a period and calculate kilowatt hours.
kWh =
(3.6) × (disk revolutions) × (Kh) × (PTR) × (CTR)
(time, in sec)
where:
kWh = kwh/hr = the kilowatt-hours used in 1 hour
Kh = a meter constant shown on the meter
PTR = power transformer ratio, usually equal to 1 (may need to get from power company)
CTR = current transformer ratio, usually equal to 1 (may need to get from power company)
Another way to determine electrical energy use is to measure voltage, amperage, and power factor (if
power factor meter is available). All legs of 3-phase power must be measured. This takes proper equip-
ment and should only be done by someone with adequate training. See Nebraska Irrigation Pumping Plant
Test Procedure Manual for the procedure.

Irrigation Guide
Example 9–10 Evaluation computation steps for pumping plants—Continued
Diesel or gasoline powered units—Diesel fuel use is determined by running the pump for a period
and measuring the amount of fuel used. One way is to fill the fuel tank to a known point, then run the
engine for several hours and then refill the tank to the known point with a measured amount of fuel.
Another way is to prepare a 5-gallon fuel can with a fitting and hose just above the bottom. Connect the
fuel hose to the engine and run it for a short time. Start timing when the pump pressure has come up to
operating pressure. Weigh the fuel container at the beginning and end of the timing period. Number 2
diesel weighs 7.65 pounds per gallon, and gasoline weighs 6.05 pounds per gallon. (Specific weight of
diesel and gasoline varies with temperature and type.) Measure or compute gallons per hour used. This is
a dangerous operation and should be done by the operator or someone with experience in working with
diesel engines. If air is allowed in the fuel system, diesel fuel injectors can malfunction, requiring a diesel
specialty mechanic for repair and adjustments.
Propane—The volume of fuel used is determined by running the engine for a short period and weighing
the fuel used from a portable tank of propane. The tank should be of the type used on recreational ve-
hicles. Several feet of hose and appropriate connectors are required. This hookup should be done by the
operator or someone with experience in working with propane engines. Be sure to exhaust air from the
hose before making carburetor connections. Measure or compute the amount of propane used per hour
based on 4.25 pounds of fuel per gallon.
Natural gas—The most practical procedure for determining natural gas use is to run the pump at oper-
ating load for several hours. Read the gas meter at the beginning and end of the test to determine the
number of thousand cubic feet used. Measure the evaluation time in hours and hundredths of hours.
5. Compare the pumping plant energy usage to energy use by a well designed and operated pump-
ing plant to measure whether improvements in the plant are warranted. For this purpose we use
a set of standards developed at the University of Nebraska. Nebraska Pump Standards are shown on the
worksheet. If the comparison comes out close to or more than 100 percent, then the pumping plant (the
combined power unit and pump) is considered satisfactory. If the comparison comes out significantly
below 100 percent, then consideration should be given to identifying and making pumping plant changes
to improve operation.
Performance of the pumping plant, including power unit and pump, can be determined as follows:
% of pumping plant performance criteria =

(whp) × (100)
(energy input) × ( power plant criteria in whp - h/unit )
where energy input is in terms of kW for electricity; gallons per hour for diesel, gasoline, and propane;
and meters per cubit foot per hour for natural gas.
This criterion is based on 75 percent pump and 88 percent electric motor efficiency as a standard. See
chapter 12 of this guide for more information on pumping plant operation.

Irrigation Guide
Example 9–10 Evaluation computation steps for pumping plants—Continued
6. Compute brake horsepower input (bhp) based on fuel used.
Electric: bhp = input kW / 0.746
Diesel or gasoline: bhp = (16.66) x (energy input, in gal/hr)
Propane: bhp = (9.20) x (energy input, in gal/hr)
Natural gas: bhp = (82.20) x (energy input, in mcf/hr)
7. Compute overall pumping plant efficiency (Epp):
% Efficiency =
(water horsepower output, in whp) × (100)
(brake horsepower input, in bhp)
8. Compute energy cost per acre foot of water delivered:
Cost, in $/ac - ft =
(5, 431) × (fuel cost, $/unit ) × (energy input, in kW, gal/hr, or mcf/hr)
(flow rate, in gpm )

Irrigation Guide
(iii) Analysis of data—These steps are needed to A practical maximum suction lift for most pumps is
analyze the data collected. about 15 feet at sea level. This is because of high
velocities in the suction pipeline and fittings and at the
Step 1—Analyze the pump intake and discharge pump impeller entrance. Depending on pump eleva-
plumbing to determine if unnecessary pipeline and tion above sea level and hydraulic entrance conditions
fitting friction loss or turbulence is present. The pump at the pump, cavitation can start to occur at about 8
discharge pipeline should expand to full diameter feet of suction lift. Cavitation sounds like small gravel
upstream of valves and fittings. Consult pump moving with the water through the pump. It is actually
manufacturer’s data for proper installation proce- air bubbles in the water collapsing as a result of nega-
dures. tive pressure. Excessive negative pressure accelerates
metal erosion in the eye of the impeller and on the
Step 2—If sizes of pump inlet and discharge piping or backside of impeller blades. Air leaks, primarily from
fittings appear small, calculate friction loss and make fittings and welds, in the suction pipeline also cause a
a judgment as to whether changes should be recom- form of cavitation. Cavitation reduces pumping equip-
mended. An eccentric reducer with the flat side up ment efficiency and useful life.
should be used (where needed) to reduce the suction
pipeline diameter to the inlet diameter at the pump. An overheated motor or engine is an indication of
The inlet fitting at the pump should be the high point excess load. An electric motor should be warm, but
on the suction piping. Pump inlet and outlet diameters not hot to the touch. Check pump performance (dis-
are based on pump design, not pipeline design. Gener- charge head-capacity) curves for rated power require-
ally, velocities in suction piping and discharge piping ments. Centrifugal pump impellers can be trimmed to
should be less than 5 feet per second. reduce discharge pressure without significantly reduc-
ing discharge flow. Reducing impeller rotations per
Step 3—Compare the results with the design. minute (rpm) reduces pressure and discharge flow.
Closing a valve on the pump discharge to reduce
(iv) Recommendations pressure does little to reduce energy required at the
Discuss evaluation conclusions with the operator. pump.
Make recommendations based on observations, fac-
tual measurements, and experience. The data assist (vi) Changing pump performance characteris-
the operator in determining if changes are economi- tics—If the current pump performance characteristics
cally desirable. Use the data in completing cost saving are known, the effects of a change in diameter of
computations in a complete irrigation system analysis. impeller or pump rpm on performance characteristics
Leave sufficient written documentation for operators can be estimated using a set of equations known as
to review, study, and make a decision, and to provide affinity laws.
to a pump dealer if desired.
With constant rpm impeller and varying impeller
(v) General pumping problems diameter:
Lack of maintenance is by far the greatest pumping • Capacity varies directly with the impeller
problem. Pumps, valves, fittings, and other parts wear diameter.
with use. When pumping efficiency drops more than 5 • Head varies as the square of the impeller
percent, maintenance needs to be performed and worn diameter.
parts replaced. Excess wear in the wear ring around • Horsepower varies as the cube of the impeller
the eye of the impeller is a major cause of reduced diameter.
pump efficiency. Removing a few bolts and using a
micrometer can determine when replacement or With constant impeller diameter and varying pump
rebuilding is needed. Air leaks in the suction piping is rpm:
another major cause of pumping problems. • Pump capacity varies directly with rpm.
• Head varies as the square of the rpm.
• Horsepower input varies as the cube of the rpm.

Irrigation Guide
Changing rpm on AC electric motors is typically not an

option. However, under certain conditions and with 652.0905 Soil intake deter-
higher bhp motors, use of a variable frequency drive
(VFD) may be an economical option. Cost of installing mination procedures
a VFD versus reduced energy use must be analyzed.
VFD’s allow the rpm of the AC electric motor to be
reduced by varying the frequency of the power into the (a) General
motor, which in turn reduces the horsepower demand.
Some knowledge of soil intake characteristics must be
The drives consist of a converter that changes AC
available and used to design irrigation systems. Water
power to DC power and an inverter that changes the
intake rate of soil is the most important item to be
DC power into adjustable frequency AC power. As the
considered in the design of a surface irrigation system,
frequency of the power is decreased, the power to the
and it is the most variable. Soil intake rate is also
motor and the motor rpm are both reduced. This
important for other irrigation methods. The two pur-
decrease in motor rpm can substantially reduce the
poses for making soil intake or maximum application
pump horsepower demand, since the pump horse-
rate evaluations are to:
power demand is proportional to the pump rpm. The
result is that a small change in rpm causes a significant • Aid in placing a named kind of soil or group of
change in pump horsepower demand. Review of such soils in an intake characteristic (family or group)
references as Irrigation Pumping Plants by University for future designs.
of California (1994) can be helpful in understanding • Determine the intake characteristics for a spe-
effect of VFD’s. cific condition on an individual field.
Table 2–6, Chapter 2, Soils, displays estimates of soil

intake characteristics (for basin, border, and furrow
surface irrigation) and maximum average application
rate (for sprinkle irrigation). These estimates are made
by interpretation of data taken from either actual field
tests or estimating intake characteristics using surface
soil texture by soil series. Intake characteristic
curves (intake family curves) are unitless. It is
improper to use any unit, such as inches per
hour. The 1.0 intake family curve does not express an
infiltration process averaging 1 inch per hour.
In the past, surface irrigation was the predominant

irrigation method used to apply water to the land. Soil
intake families were an attempt to group soils with
similar intake characteristics for easier data manipula-
tion and fewer digits to handle on a slide rule. Later
research and field experience indicated soils were
more variable and the infiltration process more com-
plex than originally anticipated. In addition to soil
surface texture, soil structure, density, organic matter
content, subsurface texture, macro pores, and general
soil condition are known to affect the infiltration
process.
At least 30 percent of irrigated soils do not follow what

was thought to be Standard Intake Curves. Especially
with well graded, low organic matter soils, intake
curves tend to concave downward instead of upward.

Irrigation Guide
Infiltration reduces to almost zero with time. Although affects intake (suspended sediment, electrical conduc-
not technically correct, in practice a specific gross tivity [EC], sodium absorption ratio [SAR], and tem-
application depth and elapsed time are selected and perature). See Chapter 13, Quality of Water Supply, for
the standard intake family curve nearest that point is additional information.
used. If a different gross depth of application is se-
lected, a new standard intake curve must be selected Furthermore, intake characteristics of a given soil
to represent that condition. Field measurements and a series vary with location, field, irrigation event, and
plotting of a revised accumulated intake versus time season. Intake characteristics for furrow irrigation
curve would work better. change as the crop growing season progresses. These
changes are a result of compaction by cultivation
Each irrigation method and system provides its own equipment, heavy equipment compaction in furrows,
unique water infiltration process (fig. 9–31). Therefore, worm activity, sediment in irrigation water, soil con-
determining soil intake characteristics or application solidation, erosion, sedimentation, and water tempera-
rate also must be unique. ture. Intake characteristics for border irrigation sys-
tems with perennial crops can decrease as a result of
Basin and border irrigation have a near uniform depth the operation of harvest equipment on moist soils.
of free water on the soil surface, which creates a small Under sprinkler systems having medium to large
hydraulic head (pressure) to force water into the soil. droplet sizes, intake rates can decrease because of
Water movement through the soil is primarily down- puddling and compaction of bare soil surface and
ward, first by gravity, then as depth increases by surface sealing from displaced fine soil particles. After
capillary action. With furrows (or corrugations) free the designer selects an intake rate or maximum sprin-
water is located in open channels and typically does kler application rate from the irrigation guide, onsite
not cover plant beds. Flow from the furrow is down- investigations (followup) should be made to check
ward (gravitational forces) laterally and even upward actual field condition soil characteristics that affect
into plant rows (capillary forces). Thus, border intake design parameters selected.
characteristic (family) curves and furrow intake char-
acteristic (family) curves are different.
(b) Surface irrigation systems
With sprinkle irrigation (and precipitation), water intake
movement into and through the soil is primarily down-
ward (gravitational and capillary forces). Like border When providing an analysis of an existing surface
irrigation, the entire soil surface is wetted. However, irrigation system operation using actual field data
unlike border irrigation, the small hydraulic head (inflow, advance), computer software programs, such
(pressure) on the soil surface does not exist with as Agricultural Research Service’s SRFR program, can
sprinkle irrigation. If it does, water translocation and provide realistic results. This model uses the kine-
runoff typically occur. Average maximum application matic wave and zero-inertia theory, which more nearly
rate is used for sprinkle irrigation. simulates actual field flow conditions. The soil infiltra-
tion conditions significantly influence the achievable
Large volume short duration applications made with distribution uniformity. The relationship between
most low pressure in-canopy application systems cumulative infiltrated depth and infiltration opportu-
require small basins or reservoirs, in-row ripping, nity time can be described by a number of empirical
residue, or other soil management techniques to limit expressions. The most common expressions are
water translocation and runoff. variations of the power function shown in equation
form. This equation is used in computer programs for
Many field tests must be made to determine reliable simulating surface irrigation.
averages for each soil series. Many factors affect water Z = k ta + B t+ C
infiltration. Among them are soil texture, soil condi- where:
tion and recent cultivations, macro pore presence, Z = cumulative infiltration
organic matter content in the surface layer, tillage t = infiltration opportunity time
equipment compaction layers, soil-water content at a = empirical exponent
time of irrigation, and quality of irrigation water as it k, B, & C = empirical constants

Irrigation Guide
Figure 9–31 Water infiltration characteristics for sprinkler, border, and furrow irrigation systems
Raindrop action
Sprinkler

,,,,

,,,, ,,,,
Water movement vertically downward
Border
Completely flooded
,,,,
,,,,
,,,,,, ,,,,
,,,,
,,,,,
,,,,
,,,,,,
,,,, ,,,,
,,,,,
,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,
,,,,,, ,,,,
,,,,,

,,

,

,

,

,,,,
,,,,,,
,,,,
,,,,,, ,,,,
,,,,,
,,,,
,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,
,,,,,, ,,,,
,,,,,

,,

,

,
,,

Water movement vertically downward

Furrow

,,, ,,, Water movement both downward and outward from furrow
,,
Irrigation Guide
For design of border irrigation systems or to validate (2) Furrow irrigation systems
an intake family using known field advance and oppor- When an irrigation takes place for either level or
tunity times for a border system, the concept of intake graded furrow systems, water within the furrow infil-
family is described in NEH, section 15, chapter 4, by trates vertically downward, laterally, and diagonally
the equation (NRCS modified Kostiakov equation), as upward into the furrow bed because of soil water
follows: tension differential. See figure 9–31. Methods devel-
Z = k ta + C oped to determine soil intake characteristics for
furrows need to simulate the actual irrigation process.
where:
Z = cumulative infiltration Typical furrow conditions needed for determining
t = infiltration opportunity time intake characteristics would include:
a = empirical exponent • Water flowing in the furrow at a rate and depth
k&C= empirical constants similar to a normal irrigation,
• Water flowing at the soil water content when an
(1) Border and basin irrigation systems irrigation is needed, and
When an irrigation takes place for either level or • Water flowing in a wheel and nonwheel row or
graded border systems, water is ponded on the surface recently cultivated or noncultivated furrow.
of the soil with water infiltrating vertically downward
into the soil. See figure 9–31. The process to determine The three methods developed to determine infiltration
soil intake characteristics for borders or basins must characteristics for furrow irrigation are the furrow
be similar. A process using a series of cylinders (short inflow-outflow, flowing furrow infiltrometer, and the
lengths of steel pipe driven into the ground) has been furrow stream-rate of advance methods. Only the
developed. They are referred to as cylinder infiltro- flowing furrow infiltrometer and the furrow stream-
meters. rate of advance methods will be described fully in this
chapter.
Cylinder infiltrometers are installed with buffer rings
(or diked earth) around each cylinder to help maintain (i) Furrow inflow-outflow method—This method
near vertical water movement. For the intake test, is described in NEH, Part 623, Chapter 5, Furrow
water is ponded in the cylinders and buffer rings to a Irrigation. When the furrow inflow-outflow method is
depth slightly greater than the normal depth of irriga- used, furrow flow rate measuring flumes, weirs, or
tion water flow. Depth of water should be maintained orifice plates are placed at the head end and lower end
within 20 percent of the normal flow depth. The rate of of the furrow. The actual irrigation is used for a water
water level drop is measured in the inside of the supply. Infiltration characteristics of enough furrows
cylinder(s) and recorded. With basin irrigation, the (typically four or more) should be measured to be
entire irrigation set can be used as an infiltrometer. representative of the field. Buffer furrows on each side
of test furrow should be used.
Data are plotted to display cumulative infiltration in
inches versus time. The plotted curve is then com- (ii) Flowing furrow infiltrometer method—This
pared to a standard set of border intake-family curves method was designed by the ARS Water Conservation
to determine the average border intake family for the Lab in Phoenix, Arizona. With the flowing furrow
specific soil at that specific site. See figure 2–3, Chap- infiltrometer, an auxiliary water supply in a vertical
ter 2, Soils, and NEH, Part 623, Chapter 4, Border sided container and a return flow pump are needed.
Irrigation. After a furrow section (typically 10 meters or 33 feet)
is selected, a float controlled water sump with pump is
placed at the lower end of the furrow. A flow measur-
ing flume with return hose (from the downstream
sump pump) and valve is installed at the upper end of
the furrow section.

Irrigation Guide
To begin the furrow intake characteristic test, water (c) Sprinkle irrigation systems
from the auxiliary supply reservoir is discharged into
the downstream pump sump via the float controlled Rotating impact type sprinkler heads apply water to
valve. The return flow pump then transfers the water the soil surface intermittently as the jet from the
to the upstream sump and flume via the return hose, nozzle rotates around a riser. Spray type heads apply
where the flow rate is both controlled and measured. water to the soil surface continually. Water infiltrates
A constant flow rate is maintained in the furrow, with vertically downward. See figure 9–31. Continuous
water lost by infiltration coming from the auxiliary (self) moving systems use either rotating impact type
reservoir via the float control valve in the downstream heads, rotating spray heads, or continuous spray
pump sump. Water surface elevation in the auxiliary heads. A continuous moving lateral provides an in-
reservoir versus time is recorded as soon as the fur- creasing and decreasing application rate pattern
row flow rate stabilizes, generally within 5 minutes. (assumed elliptical pattern) on a specific spot; as the
Furrow flow rate and soil infiltration volume deter- lateral approaches, centers over, and moves past a
mine the necessary capacity of the flowing furrow specific spot on the soil surface. Short duration appli-
infiltrometer. cation rates on quarter mile center pivot laterals that
have low pressure spray heads can be very high (up to
(iii) Furrow stream-rate of advance method— 12 inches per hour). Low Energy Precision Application
When this method is used, the furrow inflow stream is (LEPA) and Low Pressure In-Canopy (LPIC) systems
held constant and the rate of advance measured. The use very narrow spray pattern discharge devices, thus
gross application calculated at the time water reaches providing extremely high, short duration application
each station (based on an area equal to the furrow rates (up to 30 inches per hour). All require different
spacing times length of advance) is plotted on log-log processes to determine soil intake characteristics even
paper versus time of advance. An average cumulative though a maximum sprinkler application rate is the net
intake curve results. This procedure assumes all water result.
has been infiltrated into the soil. Thus, the test section
must be long enough where surface storage is a small Regardless of the sprinkler application process, deter-
percentage of water infiltrated. Initial points plot as a mining the maximum allowable application rate is a
curve on log-log paper. As the volume of water in visual observation process. When application rate
surface storage becomes a smaller percentage of total exceeds soil intake rate, ponding or runoff occurs. The
water applied, the curve straightens. The straight line spot or area of soil along the lateral where ponding is
portion represents the accumulative intake curve. beginning to occur and runoff or translocation is just
starting represents the area receiving the maximum
Each method has its own unique field equipment and allowable soil application rate. Ponding is generally
data collection process even though they provide a not a good indicator by itself, since surface storage
similar intake characteristic curve. Data are plotted to can contain an excessive application until sufficient
display cumulative infiltration in inches versus time. time has elapsed to allow the ponded water to infil-
The plotted curve can be matched to a standard set of trate. However with most sprinkler systems, some soil
furrow intake-family curves to determine furrow surface storage must be available. A small amount of
intake family for that particular soil type. See figure wind can distort application patterns. Typically wind
2–4, Chapter 2, Soils, and NEH, Section 15, Chapter 5, speed is not uniform; therefore, the test should be
Furrow Irrigation. done during a no-wind condition.
The best judgment of maximum soil infiltration rate

can be made by watching the sheen of reflected light
on the soil surface as water is applied. With rotating
impact sprinklers, the sheen should have just disap-
peared before the next sprinkler rotation. With spray
heads, watch for micro runoff and ponding. Typically
many tests are needed on any one soil series because
of the small areas that are tested.

Irrigation Guide
For periodic move or set type sprinkler systems using rates occur somewhere along the lateral, typically in
rotating impact type heads, a portable application the outer quarter to one-third of the center pivot
evaluation device and process were developed by lateral. This is especially true on medium to fine tex-
Rhys Tovey and Claude H. Pair, ARS, published in tured soils. Continuous recording catch devices are
American Society of Agricultural Engineering, almost essential to record the increasing and decreas-
44(12):672-673: Dec. 1963, and Transactions of the ing application rates of a moving lateral. This also is
ASAE 9(3): 359-363: 1966. The Tovey Meter has a the only way to realistically record an accurate short
rotating impact type sprinkler head mounted inside a duration maximum application rate. Where simple
vertically mounted barrel having a vertical narrow catch devices are used, only an average rate for the
discharge slot on one side. The slot allows the sprin- total irrigation set (lateral pass) is obtained. A method
kler head to discharge onto an area of about one-tenth using five catch containers set perpendicular to the
of a full circle, thus conserving water and providing a lateral can be used to approximate maximum applica-
dry area to work from. Water is supplied by a portable tion rate. The containers are kept covered until the
water tank. Size of the sprinkler head nozzle (dis- lateral is over the first container. The cover is removed
charge) is increased to where a range of application and timing is started. An elliptical shape application
rates in the wetted pattern from below to above the pattern is used to approximate maximum application
maximum application rate can be observed. A set of rate when compared to average application rate (maxi-
catch containers is placed at some evenly spaced mum rate = about 1.5 x average rate). See section
distances from the sprinkler head. Observations are 652.0905(g)(iii), Continuous/self move sprinkler, field
made as to whether the application rate is under, equal procedure step 9 for a process to measure maximum
to, or exceeds the soil maximum application rate. soil application rate.
Catch rates are then measured in the containers in the
desired area observed.
(d) Infiltration and application
More recently, an application device and process have rate test procedures
been developed by Michigan State University (MSU).
The MSU infiltrometer is a light truss supported pipe- (1) Border and basin
line from which several water application devices can A brief description of manual procedures is presented
be suspended. The pipeline is supported on each end in this part. Use reference ARS-NRCS Bulletin ARS 41-
by A-frame style electrical conduit pipe supports. An 7 for additional information and details of equipment
auxiliary water supply with pump is generally used. needed.
Spray heads are typically used in this device. Several
sizes of sprinkler or spray heads can provide a range (i) Equipment needed—The equipment needed for
of low-to-excessive application rates for the soil being border and basin systems include:
tested. Sprinkler heads are cycled on and off at differ- • Set of five cylinder infiltration rings (14- to 16-
ent frequencies to vary water application rate. A video inch lengths of bare welded steel pipe at least 12
is available from NRCS showing the use of the MSU inches in diameter), driving plate, driving ham-
infiltrometer. mer, and coarse burlap or cotton sack material to
be laid on soil surface inside rings to prevent soil
Existing sprinkler systems can also be used. Larger puddling when pouring water into rings. See
than normal discharge sprinkler heads are temporarily figure 9–32 for plates showing cylinder
installed on two adjacent risers on a lateral. Odd infiltrometer and hook gauge.
shaped areas somewhere in the sprinkler pattern will • Carpenter’s level to level rings, hook gauge,
visually display ranges of low-to-excessive application engineer’s scale, recording forms.
rates for the soil and site being tested. Before system • 50-gallon barrel(s) for water supply, several 3-
startup, valves are placed at least on two adjacent gallon buckets.
sprinkler heads to allow changing of nozzles without • Soil auger, push type sampler, probe, shovel.
interrupting the balance of the irrigation lateral. • Buffer rings generally cut from 55-gallon barrels.
Small earth dikes built around each ring can also
Existing systems are used for continuous moving be used. Water level is not measured inside the
center pivot and linear laterals. Excessive application buffer rings.

Irrigation Guide
Figure 9–32 Cylinder infiltrometer
10 in.
Weld
Do not weld
along inside Weld
edge of lug
Weld 1 1/4-inch
3/4-inch galvanized
1/2-inch pipe handle
galvanized
,,,
,,,,

,
diameter
handle pipe handle
22 in. ±
Weld 1/2- x 1/2- x 2-inch

steel lugs 4 ft
Note: Minimum plate size
14- x 14- x 1/2-inch
1/4-inch Fill with lead
1 in. D + 2 in. for weight
steel Weld desired
fillet
1/8 in.
D
Approx.
30° Intake
cylinder 8 in. 3- x 1 1/4-inch
banded
reducer
Detail cutting edge
Note: Sharpen all cylinders 6 in
.
that have wall thickness .
greater than 0.08 inch See detail 2 in
Plate 1: Intake cylinder and Plate 2: Driving hammers for

driving plate intake cylinders

Irrigation Guide
Figure 9–32 Cylinder infiltrometer—Continued
Hook gauge
,
in use
Welding rod to fit

into groove in face
,, Gauge index
of scale about
3/16 inch in diameter
by 16 inches long.
Engineers scale
50
12
,,,,
Welding rod
About 3 in.
2
Water surface
4
Triangular
Intake
11
engineers cylinder
scale
10
Read at top
of plate (9.90)
0.02 inch thick

9
brass plate
soldered to
welding rod Approx.
Welding rod about 3/4 in.
3/16 inch in diameter
Grind point
8
before bending
Assembled gauge Detail of hook

Irrigation Guide
(ii) Site selection—Carefully preselect sites in minutes. Also, with some deep cracking fine textured
advance that represent specific kind of soil and crops. soil, the initial intake can be high and dramatically
Sites in irrigated mature alfalfa that are in need of slow after the cracks are filled and the soil particles
irrigation are suggested; otherwise, use the crop and swell. Worm activity can cause high initial intake
soil condition being irrigated. Replicated infiltrometer because of preferential flow paths.
measurements on a few typical extensive kind of soil
provide more reliable information than single mea- Step 3—Place the burlap over soil in the infiltrometers
surements on a large number of soil types. With coarse and pour water into infiltrometers. Record hook gauge
to medium textured soils on readily accessible sites, readings and time. Infiltrometers should be started at
two people can reasonably run two tests in 1 day. With successive 1-minute increments, if practical. This gives
medium to fine textured soil and slow intake rates, an opportunity to observe the first 5-minute reading
only one test can be reasonably run in a day. for each infiltrometer in succession. For high intake
rate soil, water may need to be added before the first 5
Measurements made on five kinds of soil for each land minutes passes. As water is added to maintain near
resource area at carefully selected model sites for constant levels, hook gauge readings must be made
each soil are suggested. Three to five cylinder before and after water is added. Times of water addi-
infiltrometers should be used at each site. Test data tion need not be recorded if they fall between regular
from one infiltrometer is often extreme compared to reading times. If buffer rings are used, water must be
the others and is not used. Doing fewer select soils maintained in them also, but measurements need not
and sites should provide a basis for estimating intake be recorded. With level basin irrigation systems, the
rates for closely related soils. flooded basin can be used as a buffer ring.
A soil scientist should identify and correlate soil series Step 4—The first 5 to 10 minutes can be rather frantic
and surface texture at each site. The sites should on moderately high to high intake rate soil. Record all
represent average soil conditions for the soil series. data on form NRCS-ENG-322. Figure 9–34 is example
For each test site, identify and record distances to field data recorded on this form. When readings are
field edges or other permanent features near the site. taken on the suggested elapsed time intervals as
See figure 9–33 for example soil description for test indicated on the form, calculations and plotting are
site. simplified. Soil condition, past cropping history, and
tillage practices used by the farmer may be significant
(iii) Performing tests—Tests are performed using in interpreting results.
the following procedure:
Step 5—A complete test requires nearly 4 hours of
Step 1—Carefully drive rings into the soil keeping actual running time. Testing low to very low intake
them vertical as possible. Avoid obvious rodent holes, rate soil takes longer, and high intake rate soil can
rotted roots, and cracks. The soil should be reasonably take as little as 1 to 2 hours. When accumulated intake
moist to provide ease of driving and to provide a good is about 6 to 8 inches, the test can be stopped. Erratic
seal between soil and infiltrometer walls. Identify rings data from one or more infiltrometers at a site should
and reference the point on each ring where hook be discarded. On low intake soil, a complete test that
gauge is to be located. Install outside buffer rings, allows a full irrigation may take 24 hours to complete.
earth dikes, or use the entire basin as a buffer. Quite often an intake test can be performed for an
initial period of 3 to 4 hours, then by plotting on log-
Step 2—Have a supply of water readily available for log paper and extending the accumulated intake
quick filling of buckets. Open 55-gallon barrels are versus time line, infiltration for latter parts of an
convenient to use. Have buckets full of water ready to irrigation is represented. If the line extension is within
put into infiltrometers. Have hook gauge, scale, and 10 percent of actual infiltration, performing long
forms located at the measuring location in the duration tests is not justified. Reduced test time is
infiltrometer ready to measure and record water level. more practical, especially when soil variability is
Account for rapidly infiltrating water early in the test, considered.
especially with coarse textured soil where a significant
amount of the irrigation can infiltrate in the first few

Irrigation Guide
Figure 9–33 Soil description

NRCS-SOILS-2328
Rev. 5-96
Example - Soil Description File Code Soils-11
Soil Havre Loam File No.
Area McCone Co. MT Date 7-5-85 Stop No.

Classification Fine-loamy, mixed (calcareous), frigid ustic torrifluvents
Location NE 18 - T26 N - R 44E
N. veg. (or crop) Alfalfa hay Climate
Parent material Alluvium derived from sedimentry plains and glaciated uplands
Physiography Northern rolling high plains and brown glaciated plains
Relief Smooth Drainage Well drained Salt or alkali —
Elevation 2,500 Gr. water Deep (>6') Stoniness —
Slope 0.27 Moisture Mod. dry
Aspect E Root distrib. (See column below) % Clay*
Erosion None % Coarse fragments* None % Coarser than V.F.S.*
Permeability Moderate
Additional notes Alfalfa stand is 3 years old. Last irrigated 2 weeks ago.
Cut 2 days ago.
*Control section average
Hori- Color Struc- Color Reac- Boun- Effer-

Depth Texture Roots Pore Line
zon ture tion dary vesc-
Dry Moist Dry Moist Wet ence
1, f, pl ss,
Parting 3.vf
Ap 0-5" 2.5 y 5/2 2.5 y 4/2 L to 1, f, gr sh fr sp 7.6 cs es &f — —
L with 1, m, pr few
ss, 3, vf threads
strata parting
ro
3, vf
in pores
C1 5-18" 2.5 y 6/2 2.5 y 4/2 of VFSL -1, m, sbk sh fr sp 8.2 gs es & f &f
1L with ss, few

m 3, vf threads
C2 18-60" 2.5 y 6/2 2.5 y 4/2 strata
of FSL sh fr sp 8.2 — es 2, vf & f in pores

Chapter 9
Figure 9–34 Example cylinder infiltrometer test data using form NRCS-ENG-322


05-96

Joe Example Yellowstone MT NW 1/4 S27, T3N, R28E 7-24-84
SOIL MAPPING SYMBOL SOIL TYPE SOIL MOISTURE: 0' - 1' - % of available 40%
Glenberg loam 1' - 2' - % of available 50%
Alfalfa 1 week after cutting
GENERAL COMMENTS

Compacted layer between 10 and 14 inches
Elapsed time
Average accum.
intake
of gauge intake of gauge intake of gauge intake of gage intake of gauge intake
0 11:15 1.80 0 11:16 2.10 0 11:18 3.21 0 11:19 4.10 0 11:19 3.56 0 0
5 11:20 2.44 .64 11:22 2.80 .70 11:23 3.56 .35 11:24 5.30 1.20 11:24 3.99 .43 0.66
10 11:25 2.57 .77 11:26 3.05 .95 11:27 3.64 .43 11:28 5.75 1.65 11:29 4.13 .57 0.87
20 11:35 2.76 .86 11:37 3.45 1.35 11:38 3.72 .51 11:39 6.30 2.20 11:40 4.41 .85 1.17
Irrigation Guide
Part 652
30 11:45 2.95 1.15 11:46 3.80 1.70 11:47 3.82 .61 11:48 6.85 2.75 11:49 4.71 1.15 1.47
45 12:00 3.25 1.45 12:01 4.35 2.25 12:03 3.97 .76 12:04 7.60 3.50 12:05 5.11 1.55 1.90
60 12:15 3.58 1.78 12:17 4..80 2.70 12:18 4.15 .94 12:18 8.20 4.10 12:20 5.46 1.90 2.28
90 12:45 4.05 2.25 12:46 5.50 3.40 12:47 4.51 1.30 12:47 9.20 5.10 12:48 6.26 2.70 2.95
120 13:15 4.50 2.70 13:16 6.10 4.00 13:17 4.91 1.70 13:18 10.10/ 6.00 13:19 7.26/
3.90 3.68 3.70 3.62
180 14:15 5.30 3.50 14:17 7.50 5.40 14:18 5.71 2.50 14:19 5.6 7.70 14:20 5.88 5.90 5.00
9–195
240 15:15 6.20 4.40 15:16 8.80 6.70 15:18 6.61 3.40 15:19 6.9 9.00 15:20 7.98 8.00 6.30
Irrigation Guide
Step 6—Calculate each infiltrometer and average (iv) Automation of infiltration tests—Use of
accumulated intake for increments of elapsed time automatic water supply devices, pressure transducers
and plot on log-log paper. See example data and the or strip gauges for water level indication, and continu-
resulting plot in figure 9–35. Draw best fit curve ous water level recorders (data loggers) can substan-
(straight line on log-log paper) through the plotted tially reduce labor compared to a manual testing
points (use 2 x 3 cycle logarithmic paper). Many soils process. Only one person would need to visit the test
match the standard curves. For those not matching, a site periodically during the infiltration test after initial
regression analysis can be made to develop an equa- startup. The basic testing process and time of test are
tion for the curve or line. Compare to figure 9–36 for the same regardless. Five sets of equipment are
intake families for border irrigation design. Determine needed except one data logger can handle water level
accumulated intake for the curve: data from all five cylinder infiltrometers.
Accumulated Intake = c × t n
Water level automation within buffer rings or dikes is
simple. A water supply barrel, large diameter garden
where:
hose, and a float controlled valve can eliminate the
c = y intercept at t = 1 minute
need for manually adding water to buffer rings. Float
n = linear slope of line
controlled valves should be mounted on a durable
stake where each valve can be raised or lowered to
From the plotted line: Using an engineer's scale, deter-
adjust the buffer ring water surface at each site.
mine slope of line (n). The example shows 0.48 inches
rise in 1-inch horizontal. Plotted line intercept (c) at 1
minute = 0.134 inches.
(
Accumulated Intake = 0.134 × T 0.48 )
Figure 9–35 Example cylinder infiltrometer test data accumulated intake for border irrigation design
Joe Example
Land user ____________________
7-24-84
Date ________________________
Soil-water intake curves Billings
Field office ___________________
4 5 6 7 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 1,000

10.0 10.0
8.0 8.0
X
6.0 6.0
X
5.0 5.0
4.0 X 4.0
X
3.0 3.0
X
4 X
2.0 2.0
X
2 X
1.0 1.0
X 1
.8 .8
X
.6 5 .6
3
.4 .4
.3 .3
.2 .2
4 5 6 7 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 1,000
Time in minutes

Irrigation Guide
Figure 9–36 Standard intake families for border irrigation design
Land user ____________________

Intake curve overlay Date ________________________
(Clear plastic overlay is available through NRCS State Office) Field office ___________________
8
7
6
4
4.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.3 0.1
3
1
10 20 30 50 70 100 200 300 500 700 1000 2000 3000 5000
Time in minutes
Intake Grouping for Border Irrigation Design

Instructions
1. Plot data from cylinder intake test on matching logarithmic paper using
accumulated intake (inches) as ordinates and elapsed time (minutes) as
abscissas. Draw line representing test results.
2. Place overlay over plotted curve, matching the intersection of the lines
for 10 minutes time and 1-inch intake. Select the intake family that
best represents the plotted curve within the normal irrigation range.

Irrigation Guide
(2) Furrow test length generally is some portion of the full furrow
Manual procedures for measuring furrow intake rates length (50 to 200 feet recommended). Most testing is
are described in this part. Refer to NEH Section 15, to identify infiltration characteristics for a soil series
Chapter 5, Furrow Irrigation, for additional informa- and surface texture, thus that soil series and texture
tion on inflow-outflow method of furrow intake deter- should be measured. Sites should represent average
mination. soil conditions for the soil series and surface texture
tested. Identify test site with reference to field edges
(i) Equipment—Equipment needs for furrow or other permanent features in or near the field.
inflow-outflow method include:
• Portable water flow measuring devices for deter- If field (instead of soil series and surface texture)
mining inflow and outflow in each furrow (small infiltration characteristics are desired, measure the
broadcrested v-notch or trapezoidal flumes, v- number of furrows and furrow length that best repre-
notch weirs, or orifice plates). Water surface in sents field conditions. Values obtained are good for
furrow should not be raised above normal flow that field and may represent field conditions for simi-
conditions by the measuring device. lar conditions and soil series.
• Auger, push type sampler, probe, shovel.
• 100-foot tape, lath, or wire flags. (iii) Performing tests—Tests are performed using
• Level and rod to determine elevations at 100-foot the following procedure:
stations down the length of the test furrows.
• Pocket tape and straight edge to measure furrow Step 1—Set stakes or wire flags at 100-foot stations
cross sections at two or three stations. (use measuring tape), determine elevation at each
station (use level and rod), and measure furrow cross
(ii) Site selection—Carefully preselect sites in sections at two or three stations (use pocket tape and
advance for specific soil series, soil surface textures, straight edge). A uniform grade for the furrow length is
and crop. Replicated measurements on a few typical desirable. The full furrow length does not need to be
soil series and surface textures provide more reliable used; any length will work. The minimum evaluation
information than single measurements on a large length should be 50 to 100 feet for high intake rate soil
number of soils. On medium to high intake rate soil, and 100 to 200 feet for low intake rate soil. (The
two people can reasonably run one test in 1 day. On evaluator’s ability to determine flow rate at each end
low intake soil, it may take 24 hours for a complete of the furrow test section determines length.)
test that allows a full irrigation. Quite often a furrow
intake test can be performed for an initial period of Step 2—Three adjacent furrows should be evaluated.
3 to 4 hours, then by plotting on log-log paper and Adjacent furrows on each side of the test area should
extending the accumulated intake versus time line, also be irrigated simultaneously. This requires observ-
infiltration for latter parts of an irrigation is repre- ers to walk either on top of the beds or in the adjacent
sented. If the line extension is within 10 percent of irrigated furrows themselves. Use the same inflow
actual infiltration, performing long duration tests is stream size that the irrigator uses. However, the flow
not justified. should be large enough to produce a fairly uniform
rate of advance through the test section.
Measurements made on predominant soil series and
surface textures for each land resource area at care- Start flow into furrows, record time, adjust streams so
fully selected model sites for each soil are suggested. that flows into all test furrows are about equal. For
Also, replicated measurements on a few typical domi- advance rate data, record the time water in each
nant soils provide more reliable information than a furrow reaches each station. Two people are essential
single measurement on a large number of soils. The to perform tests where inflow rates are high or the soil
data can be projected to other close related soils. provides fast advance rates. Periodically check water
inflow rate and record time of readings. Inflow should
A soil scientist should identify the soil series and be constant during the test. Record time water starts
surface texture at each furrow evaluation site. (Soil to flow through the outflow measuring device. Periodi-
map units may contain inclusions.) Because of the cally measure and record time for outflow.
inclusions or local soil series changes in the field, the

Irrigation Guide
With field evaluations, outflow starts gradually and Step 4—Although not needed for the intake test,
increases to a constant flow rate. It decreases after measuring the wetted bulb is desirable about 24 hours
inflow shut-off and recession starts. Record time of after the irrigation is completed. A probe or push type
inflow shut-off. Continue to periodically measure core sampler can be used to define the boundary line
outflow and record times until flow stops. If ending between wet and dry soil. Another method is to exca-
the intake evaluation before completion of a full vate a trench perpendicular across the furrow and
irrigation, take final inflow-outflow readings at the observe and measure the wetted area. The soil mois-
same time. The full irrigation time does not need to be ture (after 24 hours) immediately below the furrow is
used. The test should run sufficiently long for the generally considered to be field capacity (in medium
outflow to become constant for at least 3 to 4 hours. to fine texture soil).
This indicates infiltration is at a constant rate.
Often a previously irrigated set with the same soil
Step 3—Computation and evaluation procedures are series and surface texture is used for this purpose.
described in NEH, Section 15, Chapter 5, Furrow Check wetted depth at 0, 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 percent
Irrigation. Example of data collected from a field of the furrow length for distribution uniformity and
intake test are displayed in figures 5–23 to 5–28. The adequacy of irrigation, if test is of equal duration to a
cumulative intake and associated opportunity time are regular irrigation. Observe root development location
plotted on log-log paper (fig. 9–37). This information and pattern for a better understanding of the actual
defines the measured intake curve. This curve is then plant root zone.
compared to standard intake-family curves in figure
9–38 to determine the most representative intake
family. Example displayed indicates intake family for
existing site condition, If = 0.5. Appropriate values of a
and b are selected. Graded furrow detail evaluation
procedure and example forms are described in section
652.0905(g)(3).

Irrigation Guide
Figure 9–37 Furrow accumulated intake versus time
Land user ____________________

Date ________________________
Accumulated intake vs. time Field office ___________________
10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
0 .5
6.0 I F=
Cumulative intake (F) in inches
5.0 5.33
600
4.49
4.0 420
3.06
225
3.42
3.0 2.68 285
165
1.99
100
2.0
1.35
50
1.0
50 100 200 400 600 1,000
Time (T) in minutes

Figure 9–38 Intake families as used with furrow irrigation
Chapter 9
Land user ____________________

Date ________________________
Intake families as used with furrow irrigation Field office ___________________
100 100
If a b 80
80
70 F = a Tb + .275 70
0.05 .0210 .6180
60 0.10 .0244 .6610 60
0.15 .0276 .6834
50 0.20 .0306 .6988
50
0.25 .0336 .7107 40
40 0.30 .0364 .7204
0.35 .0392 .7285
30 0.40 .0419 .7356 30
0.45 .0445 .7419
0.50 .0471 .7475
0.60 .0520 .7572
20 0.70 .0568 .7656
20
0.80 .0614 .7728
0.90 .0659 .7792 0
1.00 .0703 .785 4.0 3. .0 1.5
1.50 .0899 .799 2 1.0
2.00 .1084 .808
10
10 3.00 .1437 .816

0.8 6
9
4.00 .1750 .823 0. .7 0. .45
0 8

8 0 5
7 0.5 4 0.3 5 7
6 0. 0.2 6
0. 3
5 5 5

0.2 0.1
4 4
Part 652
3
0.1 5 3
0.0
Irrigation Guide
2 2
1 1
10 20 30 40 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 8,000
Time (T) minutes
9–201
Irrigation Guide
(3) Flowing furrow infiltrometer method (iii) Performing tests—With water from a water
(i) Equipment—Equipment needed for flowing supply tank, start flow into the downstream furrow
furrow infiltrometer method include: sump via the hose and float controlled valve. Water is
• Auger, probe, push type core sampler, shovel, immediately pumped (returned) to the upstream sump
measuring tape. and measuring device where furrow inflow rate is
• Flowing furrow infiltrometer device consisting adjusted with a value to the planned furrow flow rate
of: or flow rate used by the irrigator. A near study water
— water supply flow rate into the furrow and a constant furrow water
— calibrated vertical sided water supply tank storage volume should be obtained within about 5
— pump for return of furrow outflow minutes. Record the supply tank water surface eleva-
— upstream flow control valve sump that has tion to start the test. Water lost by infiltration during
measuring flume the test is made up with new water from the water
— downstream sump that has float controlled supply tank via hose and float control valve at the
water supply valve downstream pump sump.
— two hoses for inflow from water supply and
return of furrow runoff to upstream sump. Water surface elevation (or stage) in the water supply
tank versus time is recorded about every 10 minutes.
The required water supply volume can be calculated Although automated data recording may be available,
by knowing the area irrigated by the test, in acres; manual recording is generally adequate. After initial
planned depth of water application during the test, in set up, one operator should remain at the site through-
inches; plus water volume contained in the furrow out the test.
during the test and miscellaneous losses. Cross sec-
tional area of the water supply tank should be such Typically, tests can be discontinued after 3 to 4 hours.
that the water surface elevation drops at least 2 feet If the plotted accumulated intake versus opportunity
during the test. time can be extended for longer set times within about
10 percent of actual, conducting longer tests is not
(ii) Site selection—Carefully preselect sites in justified. Soils generally are more variable than addi-
advance for specific soil series and surface texture. tional accuracy obtained by running longer tests.
Furrows are tested individually. Two people can
reasonably run tests at two nearby sites in 1 day for All data can be measured with small flumes or cali-
medium to high intake rate soil. brated cans, pressure transducers, or strip gauges, and
recorded using data loggers.
Measurements made on predominant soil series and
surface textures for each land resource area at care- (iv) Calculations—With the cross sectional area of
fully select model sites for each soil are suggested. the vertical sided water supply tank known, the vol-
Also, replicated measurements on a few typical domi- ume of water (in acre-inches) applied to the test area
nant soils provide more reliable information than (furrow length times the furrow spacing) can be calcu-
single measurements on a large number of soils. The lated. Accumulated furrow infiltration in acre-inches
data can be projected to other close related soils. versus elapsed (opportunity) time can be plotted on
log-log paper. Infiltration during the first 15 minutes to
A soil scientist should identify soils series and surface 1 hour can be significant when irrigating high intake,
textures at each test site. Each test site is relatively cracking or loose soil.
small (30- to 100-foot furrow length) to avoid soil
inclusions and have a sufficient water supply. Identify A composite curve for tests performed on the same
test site with reference to field edges and local fea- soil series and surface texture can be plotted manually
tures. or a best fit curve can be calculated using all plotted
points.
Additional water measurement detail is presented in

section 652.0907.

Irrigation Guide
(4) Sprinkler ment on a large number of soils. Two people can

A brief and generic type infiltration (application) test reasonably run two tests in 1 day if sites are close
procedure is described here. Additional details de- together and a water supply is relative accessible.
pending on method used and type of application or
infiltration test device are described in section Measurements made on predominant soil series and
652.0907. surface textures for each land resource area at care-
fully select model sites for each soil are suggested.
(i) Periodic move or set type sprinkler Also, replicated measurements on a few typical domi-
Equipment needed: nant soils provide more reliable information than a
• Catch containers or rain gauges. single measurement on a large number of soils. The
• 100- to 250-milliliter graduated cylinder. data can be projected to other close related soils.
• Measuring tape, watch, recording forms.
• Stakes, rubber bands, or similar way to support A soil scientist should identify and correlate soils
catch containers or rain gauges above crop series and surface texture at each test site. Because a
canopy. test site is relatively small, inclusions in the field are
• Miscellaneous sprinkler nozzles or spray heads generally not a problem. However, actual surface
and tools. texture at the site needs to be known. Identify test site
• Operating sprinkler lateral or sprinkler with reference to field edges and local features.
infiltrometer. When using an operating sprinkler
lateral, first obtain permission to change sprin- Describe soil surface conditions, such as surface
kler nozzles (and heads if necessary). Before organic debris, surface storage, soil condition, cultiva-
performing the infiltration test, install valves tion practices, and crop condition.
(ball type preferred) in sprinkler head risers
where nozzles and or heads may be changed. Performing tests:
Valves in adjacent risers help to minimize getting Use the following procedure to measure maximum
wet. allowable sprinkler application rate:
• Sprinkler infiltrometer test device. The test
device need only wet a small portion of a full Step 1—Catch containers are set in the wetted pattern
circle so operators and observers are working on in groups of three (suggested at 5-foot intervals). Care
dry soil. A collection system is necessary to must be taken to avoid foot traffic in the area around
catch and recirculate water from the sprinkler or each catch container where infiltration is observed.
spray head area when it is not discharging water The observer must be able to see bare soil around
onto the soil surface. Sharp edged and vertical each catch container. The maximum application rate
sided containers work; however, 4-inch or larger typically occurs when soil has become wet and the
diameter sharp edged catch containers are pre- initial high intake rate has passed. To pre-wet the site
ferred as they can more accurately catch precipi- before the test is run may be necessary unless a full
tation. If containers are not vertical sided, the range of under-to-over application is desired.
catch must be measured volumetrically and
converted to depth in inches based on the open When using an existing sprinkler system, increase
area at top of container. With some nozzle trajec- nozzle size in two adjacent sprinkler heads. Install a
tory patterns, such as low angle sprinkler heads valve just below the sprinkler head so discharge can
on short risers, water droplets are moving more be controlled when setting out, starting and stopping
horizontal than vertical. This type of sprinkler the test, and retrieving the catch containers. Excessive
head presents a challenge, so the results are application rate needs to occur somewhere in the
meaningful. sprinkler or spray pattern. This provides a spot or area
in the sprinkler pattern that is near the maximum
Site selection: application rate. Set out a linear series of catch con-
Carefully preselect sites in advance for specific soil tainers in this area. Record time of start and stop of
series, surface textures, and crop. Replicated measure- catch. Observe soil surface condition in the area
ments (3 to 5) on a few typical extensive soils provide around the containers for under application, adequate
more reliable information than do a single measure- application, and over application rates.

Irrigation Guide
Step 2—Observations are taken frequently (15 min- Performing tests:

utes) at each group of catch containers where applica- Use the following procedure to measure maximum
tion rates are categorized into three general classes: allowable sprinkler application rate:
under, adequate, or over.
Step 1—Place a minimum of five groups of catch
Step 3—At the conclusion of the test, the volume in containers or rain gauges (suggest three containers in
each catch container is measured and converted to a group) in a line perpendicular to the lateral in the
application rates expressed in inches per hour. The area of observed maximum application rate. Distance
maximum allowable application rate based on visual between groups of catch containers depends on spray
observation can be displayed in table 2–8, Chapter 2, pattern width. Suggested maximum distance is 10 feet.
Soils. This value is used when designing fixed set or For low pressure systems, the distance may be rela-
periodic move sprinkler systems on the kind of soil tively short, 4 to 5 feet.
tested. Factors developed (or affirmed) in the local
area are used to adjust the long-term maximum allow- Step 2—Cover all containers. The center group of
able application rate for shorter duration applications containers must be directly under the spray head when
made with continuous move sprinkler systems. See test is started, with equal groups of containers forward
continuous move system evaluation procedure. and rearward of the direction of movement.
(ii) Continuous move systems—center pivot or Step 3—Quickly remove all covers from containers
linear move (using catch containers) when spray nozzle is directly over the center group of
containers. Observe intake characteristics of soil
Site selection: throughout the test.
Carefully preselect sites in advance for specific soil
series, surface texture, and crop. Replicated measure- Step 4—After 5 to 10 minutes of operation, cover
ments (3 to 5) on a few typical extensive soil series containers as quickly as possible.
and surface textures provide more reliable information
than a single measurement on a large number of soil Step 5—Measure water volume caught in each con-
series. tainer and convert to application rate in inches per
hour. Average group of three containers into one
Measurements made on predominant soil series and value. Containers within a group are equal distance
surface textures for each land resource area at care- from the lateral. The group of containers with the
fully select model sites for each soil are suggested. largest quantity will represent the average application
Also, replicated measurements on a few typical domi- rate for that time duration (5 to 10 minutes). This
nant soils provide more reliable information than a approximates the maximum rate of the soil with a
single measurement on a large number of soils. The system similarly equipped moving at the given rate.
data can be projected to other close related soils.
A soil scientist should identify and correlate soil series

Depth caught, inches
Time of catch, min
( )
60 min/hr = ____ inches per hour
and surface texture at each test site. Identify test site

with reference to span number, field edge, and direc- Step 6—Duplicate tests at other locations along the
tion from pivot. Specific location of test sites is not lateral in the same general area. This tends to elimi-
easy to identify until the pivot system has made sev- nate the effect of nozzle pattern and start-stop opera-
eral rotations and areas of runoff observed. tion and the effect on application rate.
Soil surface condition must be described as to crop Step 7—Additional tests may be needed (closer to-
residue on the soil surface and soil surface storage, ward the pivot or toward the end) to determine maxi-
soil condition, and cultivation practices. mum soil intake rate for that site, depending on loca-
tion of runoff. This point is not necessarily be easy to
observe until after some practice. In fact, runoff may
not occur at the same location each rotation.

Irrigation Guide
(e) Automation of testing for

maximum application rate 652.0906 Water measure-
Use of a continuous recording rain gauge, such as the ment
standard U.S. Weather Bureau tipping bucket rain
gauge, makes the application rate evaluation process
much easier. The gauge can be relocated in front of (a) General
the moving pivot lateral and quickly set up for another
High irrigation application efficiencies require apply-
test. Setting up one recording gauge is faster than
ing uniform, predetermined amounts of water onto the
setting out a series of catch containers. Limitations are
field at the proper time (irrigation scheduling). Mea-
crop height and elevation of spray or sprinkler heads
surement accuracy of applied water needs to be suffi-
above the ground. When used to catch the applied
cient to make the decision: "When should irrigation
water during the entire pass, any increment of time
change to another area or cease entirely?" Too often,
can be used to plot application rate versus time. Be-
plant water needs are measured or calculated accu-
cause of the short application time with low pressure
rately, then water is applied with no thought of mea-
systems, timely observation of application and runoff
surement.
is essential. Use of waterproof rain gear is recom-
mended to be close enough to the catch device to
Refer to Water Measurement Manual, Bureau of Recla-
make good visual observations at ground surface.
mation (1997) for flow characteristics, siting, rating
tables, and recommended operation and maintenance
of water measuring devices.
(b) Using water measurement

Water measurement has traditionally been used to
regulate the division of irrigation water between
groups (irrigation organizations, districts, or compa-
nies) or individuals. Irrigation districts or organiza-
tions in turn use water measuring to portion water
between individuals within a district. Thus, water
measurement is often perceived as a regulatory action.
Water users also view the installation of water mea-
surement devices as a cost and a nuisance with little
return on investment.
The benefits of providing onfield water measurement

for water management purposes are incalculable.
Investment costs are often returned many times during
one irrigation season. Typically, at least 10 to 30 per-
cent additional area can be irrigated with the same
amount of water. Inversely, 10 to 30 percent less water
can be used to irrigate the same area when water is
measured. Crop yield or quality of product almost
always improves with improved water management.
Applying a measured, predetermined amount of water
onto a field at the proper time is the basis for good
irrigation water management.

Irrigation Guide
Several accurate methods are used to determine plant (2) Flumes

water needs and available soil water. Combining these • Long-throated (modified broadcrested weir)
two factors determines when and how much irrigation sometimes called Replogle or Ramp Flume.
water to apply (irrigation scheduling). Where water • Short-throated, such as Palmer Bowles
supplies are not limited, over irrigation (with associ- • Parshall (no longer recommended for most
ated yield reduction or soil and water resource degra- installations)
dation) is by far the greatest irrigation water manage-
ment problem. Water measurement onto the field can (3) Gates and orifices
help avoid over (or under) irrigation. • Sluice
• Radial
Successful micro irrigation depends on an accurate • Armco Meter Gate (no longer in production)
knowledge of flow rates. Water measurement devices • Orifice plates
allow for determination of line or emitter plugging,
which then allows for line flushing or chemical treat- (4) Current metering
ment. With sprinkler systems, water measurement • Mechanical and electrical
devices allow for determination of worn and plugged
nozzles and excessive gasket leaks. Unexplained (5) Acoustic meters
changes in flow indicate something in the system has • Cross path, transit time, single path, ultra sonic
changed and needs attention. A good example may be
worn sprinkler nozzles. They provide an opportunity (6) Other open channel measuring devices
for system flow to increase, especially where the • Vane-defection
pump can provide additional flow. Overall pump • Volume and weight tanks
efficiency is often decreased. • Bucket and stop watch
• Volume drawdown
• Surface velocity/area
(c) Basic hydraulic concepts • Bubble curtain
• Chemical dilution
Flow measurement is based on specific predetermined
hydraulic concepts. Measurement accuracy is strongly
influenced by adherence to these concepts. For open (e) Closed-pipeline primary
channel weirs and fumes, water must pass through measuring devices
critical depth or two flow depths must be measured.
With closed conduits the pipeline must be flowing full (1) Differential head meters
at the measuring device. This can be accomplished by • Orifice plates, end-cap orifices, etc.
dropping the pipeline below the hydraulic grade line. • Ventura meters
• Pitot tubes
• Elbow meters
(d) Open channel primary measur- • Shunt meters
ing devices
(2) Velocity meters
(1) Weirs • Propeller meters
• Sharp-crested, triangular, rectangular, and • Turbine meters
trapezoidal • Paddle-wheel turbines
• Short-crested, such as OG weir • Electromagnetic
• Cipolletti (sharp crested trapezoidal)
• Broadcrested, trapezoidal, rectangular, and (3) Acoustic meters (fig. 9–39)
circular • Transit time, diametrical path, 2 or 4 transducers
on opposite sides of pipe
• Transit time, diametrical path, reflective, 2 trans-
ducers on same side of pipe

Irrigation Guide
• Transit time, chordal path, multiple transducers (2) Volume totalization

on opposite sides of pipe • Totalizing devices
• Doppler reflective type (like radar), ultrasonic • Integration
• Shunt meters
(4) Other closed pipe meters
• Siphon tubes (3) Data storage and transmission
• Flow from vertical pipe • Data loggers (mechanical, electronic, digital)
• Flow from horizontal pipe • Communication mechanisms (electronic, infra-
• Vortex shedding red, sonic)
• Volume and weigh tanks
(g) Methods of water measurement

(f) Secondary measuring devices
The chosen water measurement method should be
(1) Head and pressure measurement sufficiently accurate to make factual water measure-
• Water stage recorders ment decisions. These decisions include: Should the
• Pressure transducers flow rate change? or, should the flow cease entirely?
• Bubblers
• Pressure bulbs
• Pressure chambers (i.e. Mariott siphon)
• Weir stick
• Differential stage recorders
• Differential pressure transducers
• Ultrasonic water surface elevation detection
Figure 9-39 Transit-time acoustic flowmeters: diametrical path, diametrical path reflective, and chordal path transducer
configuration
(A) Diametrical path (B) Diametrical path-reflective

w/ 4 transducers w/ 2 transducers
Flow
ng th
Ac
th
le Pa
pa ou
th sti
s c
Side view Side view
(C) Chordal paths Transducer

locations
Velocity
profile
pat stic
hs
u
Aco

Irrigation Guide
(h) Measuring method categories Sometimes classifying a particular flow metering

system is a problem when it is perceived to use more
Flow meters for pipe and open channel flows can be than one principle, or even the wrong principle. For
grouped into devices that primarily measure rate or example, ultrasonic doppler meters use ultrasonic
volume of flow and those that primarily measure rate waves as a type of radar system that detects the veloc-
of flow. All fluid meters consist of two distinct sub- ity of moving particles in a flow. Thus, it depends on
units: the force-velocity effects of the fluid on suspended
• The primary element that interacts with the fluid. particles.
• The secondary element that translates the inter-
action into flow quantities (volumes, weights) or Almost all recent claims for new flow measuring
flow rates (quantity per unit time) that can be techniques are improvements in the readout format or
observed and acted on by an operator or by in the detection of some primary interaction with
control equipment. water flow. Such is the case with ultrasonic flow
meters.
Basically all flow meters, whether for irrigation or
industrial pipe flows, use at least one of a few basic Meter classification, while giving a general framework
physical principles and properties of fluids. These and understanding of flow metering promises and
include fluid mass, weight, volume, viscosity, and limitations, is somewhat subjective. Variations occur
mixing types of properties, as well as the electrical, between classifiers; thus the classification used in
magnetic, thermal, optical, and acoustical types. table 9–5 is not sacred, but is convenient for compari-
Force, momentum, and energy principles (including sons.
force-velocity effects on floats) are commonly used, as
well as energy conversions (kinetic to potential or
potential to kinetic), heat, or electromagnetic energy.
Other physical principles include electromagnetic or

acoustical wave transmission, distortion, or refraction;
reflection by the fluid or tracer particles in the fluid;
unclear magnetic resonance behavior of certain polar-
fluid molecules; and fluid such behaviors as wall
clinging and vortex formations by shaped flow cavities
and obstructions in the conduit. Representatives of
these groups are in table 9–5.

Irrigation Guide
Table 9–5 Types and characteristics of flow meters
Meter type or method Standard accuracy Usual ratio Remarks

max:min
Flow rate meters

Variable head and area (also see table 10–2)
Weirs (thin plate) 1-5% of actual >100:1 Lab calibrated
Weirs (short-crest) 1-5% of actual >100:1 Lab calibrated
Flumes (short) 2-7% of actual 55:1 Lab calibrated
Flumes (long) 2-5% of actual >35:1 Computable
Differential head
Venturi 1%, full scale 5:1 Low head loss; tolerates slurries
Pitot tubes 1%, full scale 5:1 Point velocities
Orifice 0.5-1.5%, full scale 5:1 Low to high head loss; many shapes
Elbow 3-10%, full scale 3:1 Adds no further losses in line
Force-velocity meters
Tracers, salts/dyes 1-2% of actual 20:1 Indicates flow velocity
Floats 5% of actual 10:1 Indicates flow velocity
Ultrasonic doppler 5-10%, full scale 10:1 Works best in dirty water
Special metering methods

Electromagnetic 1% full scale 20:1 Conductive liquids
Ultrasonic, transmission 1% full scale 20:1 Only clean liquids
Vortex-shedding 1% of actual 100:1 No moving parts
Tracer dilution 2% of actual 100:1 Needs no flow area
Flow quantity meters

Gravimetric
Weigh tank 0.1% of actual 100:1 Good lab standard
Volumetric (quantity)
Volume tank 1% of actual 10:1 Field and lab uses
Tipping bucket 1% of actual 100:1 Used on rain gages
Propeller 1% of actual 15:1 Can be rate meter
Paddle wheel 3% of actual 15:1 Can be rate meter
Turbine 0.5-1% of actual 15:1 Many blades
Positive displacement 1% of actual 20:1 Used for ag. chem

Irrigation Guide
(i) Suitable measurement methods (2) Short-crested weirs

for irrigation and drainage The most common example of short-crested weirs is
the V-notch weir sill. A V-notch, thick-sill weir has
For irrigation delivery systems and drainage systems, triangular openings with sides formed by slopes as flat
open-channel flow measuring devices dominate. as 10 horizontal to 1 vertical. A common format is to
Therefore, this guide deals mostly with flumes and construct weirs as vertical retaining walls about 1.5
weirs. The classification of flumes and weirs, some- inches (40 mm) thick with the top edge receiving a
times listed as part of the variable head and area group prescribed bevel upstream and downstream of 3
of flow meters and sometimes as part of the differen- horizontal to 1 vertical. The resulting edge has a hori-
tial head group, convert potential energy to kinetic zontal portion that is about 4 inches (100 mm) wide.
energy to cause critical flow. If enough potential
energy is not converted because of a high downstream (3) Broadcrested weirs
water surface elevation, the device becomes a Venturi A wide variety of shapes can be included under
flume. The general Venturi flume operates on the same broadcrested weirs, and a wide variety of discharge
theory as a Venturi meter in pipe flows. Because the coefficients will be encountered. Most broadcrested
pressure differences generally are small, their use weirs offer no advantage over flat-plate, sharp-crested
requires two depth measurements of high precision, weirs for measuring flows. As a result, broadcrested
one upstream and one in the throat region. These weirs are seldom used for measuring purposes. This
precise measurements generally are not practical in does not imply that they cannot be used as accurate
the field. General Venturi flumes are not commonly flow measuring devices because in some cases they
used for this reason. Critical-flow flumes are a special are desirable. For example, if difficulty is expected in
case of the Venturi flume where the critical condition maintaining a flat-plate weir in good condition because
eliminates the need for the throat measurement. of rusting, impact, or abrasion, a broadcrested weir
should be used. If possible, the crest shape should
Flumes and weirs can be subdivided into sharp- conform to the shape of some other structure or
crested weirs, short-crested weirs, broadcrested weirs, model for which the coefficient of discharge has been
short-throated flumes, and long-throated flumes. A experimentally determined. If this is not practicable,
summary of their general characteristics is shown in the crest must be calibrated either by field tests on the
table 9–6. actual structure or by model studies of it.
(1) Sharp-crested weirs (4) Movable weirs and adjustable weirs

Sharp-crested weirs are one of the oldest open channel Movable weirs are weir assemblies mounted in metal
flow measuring devices. Head-discharge equations and timber frames that can be moved from one struc-
were derived from laboratory ratings. They are influ- ture to another. The frames fit freely into slots pro-
enced by the flow bending in the crest region. The vided in the structures and are not fastened in place.
location of upstream sidewalls and floor elevations, as Adjustable weirs are weir assemblies mounted in
well as the condition of sharpness at the sharp edge, metal frames permanently fastened to the structures.
are part of the calibration. The weir blades in both the movable and the fixed
frames can be raised or lowered to the desirable
For usual open channel applications, the difference in elevations, usually by threaded stems and hand
water surface elevation between upstream and down- wheels.
stream must be large enough to allow complete free
overfall. An exception may be sharp crested V-notch A sufficiently large pool must be provided upstream
weirs where 30 to 40 percent submergence can some- from the weir to slow and quiet the flow as it ap-
times be tolerated. The usual recommendation is that proaches the notch in the weir. A fixed head gauge is
the downstream water surface be at least 2 inches (50 not generally useful for flow measurement if the weir
mm) below the crest of the weir opening. Adequate is to be moved up or down because the zero of the
aeration of the nappe (between downstream weir wall gauge does not coincide with the elevation of the weir
and backside water surface) must be available. crest.

Irrigation Guide
Table 9–6 Major operational characteristics of flumes and weirs
Operational characteristics
Weirs
Sharp-crested weirs (lab calibrated) Easily constructed, well defined lab-calibrated history; high head-drop
Rectangular required (<100%); poor tolerance to submergence; primary accuracy
Triangular ± 1 to 3% is intended.
Cipolletti (trapezoidal)
Circular
Short-crested weirs (lab calibrated) Poor tolerance to submergence; high head-drop needed; primary
V-notch, thick-sill weir accuracy, ± 3 to 5%.
Triangular profile flat-V
(crump type)
Broadcrested weirs Poor tolerance to submergence; high head-drop needed; primary

Square edge accuracy, ± 3 to 5%.
Approach ramp or rounded
Flumes
Short-throated (lab calibrated) Moderate tolerance to submergence; predictable, reliable flow limit
Cutthroat flume is 60 to 70%; careful field construction needed; two head readings
Parshall flumes 1/ required to extend limit to about 90% primary accuracy is ± 3 to 5%.
H-flumes
Long-throated (computer calibrated) Good tolerance to submergence; predictable, reliable flow limit is
Rectangular about 85 to 90%; reliable computable ratings; primary accuracy
Triangular is ± 2%; single head readings required; liberal construction tolerances.
Calibrations Trapezoidal can be based on as-constructed dimensions.
Circular
Complex
Palmer-Bowles
Long-throated (computable) modified Good tolerance to submergence with very low head-drop required
broadcrested weir, Replogle or (< 1 inch for most irrigation flows) single head reading, easily
Ramp flumes constructed, one level critical surface, ± 2% primary accuracy,
computable as built ratings.
1/ The Parshall flume has 10 critical surfaces that must be accurately constructed to meet published accuracy. Meeting this criterion often
requires increased labor costs. Other types of flumes are more cost effective and provide similar accuracy.

Irrigation Guide
(5) Short-throated flumes long-throated flume can be located within any cross
The streamlines in the short-throated flumes are not as area. Computer software has been developed to calcu-
curved or variable as in the sharp-crested weirs. They late flow rates through any cross sectional area. Dis-
include flumes with side contractions and bottom charge flow rate tables have been developed for stan-
contractions (weirs not sharp-crested) with some type dard geometric cross sections.
of transition section. However, the flow curves enough
to again require the use of laboratory calibrations and The Replogle flume can be used as a measuring device
flow coefficients. Familiar examples are the Parshall in pressure pipelines. Two pressure (head) readings
flume and the cutthroat flume. Deviations from stan- are needed in the pipeline, one in the throat and one
dard plans may be difficult to evaluate without special upstream. The flume can be oriented in any direction.
field or model ratings.
Replogle flumes and certain properly dimensioned,
(6) Long-throated flumes broadcrested weirs form the class of computable
These flumes are also called the computables because flumes. These styles can be proportioned so that
their construction specifications are such that parallel, almost any flow can be measured. Small flows are
not curvilinear, flow is produced. This allows accurate least accurate to measure because of the difficulty of
prediction of their hydraulic behavior. It also permits obtaining precision depth readings. Generally, flows
estimates of effects of construction anomalies. In larger than about 150 gallons per minute (10 L/s) can
these flumes, the streamline curvature is limited by be measured with an error of less than 2 percent in an
providing gentle contractions from the upstream appropriately dimensioned flume. There is no theoreti-
channel to the throat section. The throat section itself cal upper limit on size. Replogle flumes capable of
is made long enough (preferably about 1.5 times the measuring over 3,000 cubic feet per second (85 m3/s)
maximum expected upstream head reading, refer- have been constructed in Arizona.
enced to the bottom centerline of the level throat) to
provide nearly parallel flow through the control area. For a complete treatment of these flumes, see Flow
The horizontal location of the control section does not Measuring Flumes for Open Channel Flow Systems,
need to be precisely known. Its vertical reference is by Bos, Replogle, and Clemmens (1991).
needed for total energy head computations. This
vertical reference is most easily handled in the compu-
tations if the throat is level in the direction of flow. A 1 (j) Demands made on a measuring
percent error in cross slope approximates an addi- device
tional 1 percent error in accuracy.
The actual selection of a flow measuring device type
(7) Long-throated flumes, modified and size depends on its functional requirements, the
broadcrested weir, Replogle or Ramp required accuracy, the desired flow range, debris in
flumes water, installation location, and several other consid-
The modified broadcrested weir, sometimes called a erations discussed below.
Ramp flume or Replogle flume, has nearly the same
operating characteristics as long-throated flumes. By (1) Functions of the device
definition, the long-throated flume is a cut-throat Devices for measuring flow often serve two basic
flume where the downstream or discharge portion of functions in their application. One is to indicate flow
the flume has been eliminated. It is perhaps the most rate or volume, and the other is to control the flow
accurate and easiest to construct of all open channel, rate or volume. In this section we distinguish between
low head, flow measuring devices. The weir sill is the the measuring and control functions and emphasize
only critical surface, which is level. A 1 percent error measuring devices for open channel flows.
in cross slope (the level bubble is not visible in the
carpenter level site glass) approximates an additional Good quality flow rate measurement and good quality
1 percent error in accuracy. The slope of the ramp up control are best achieved with two separate devices.
to the sill should approximate three horizontal to one However, dual function devices are used. An example
vertical. The long-throated flume requires a short is a variable area orifice meter, such as an irrigation
flume (usually less than 10 feet) or lined ditch. The canal slide gate. Another is the vertically adjustable
weir.
Irrigation Guide
Most meters require some head loss to measure flow. In addition to the above uncertainty of error in the
Ultrasonic meters cause negligible head loss, but must basic discharge equation, three other types of errors
introduce an outside source of sonic energy. Likewise, can affect either the primary meter type or the second-
a piston pump used as a positive displacement meter ary readout device. They are systematic, random, and
can introduce a head gain into the measured flow, and spurious errors.
uses power for pumping.
(i) Systematic errors—These errors are generally
(i) Required head loss for pipe flow meters— associated with dimensional problems, such as gauge
Head loss implications for pipes and open channels zero settings or area changes resulting from plant
differ considerably, as mentioned before. Available growths or soil deposits on the channel or pipe walls,
head loss in pipes is generally used to determine or to structural deflections. Systematic errors can be
whether the meter can be successfully incorporated corrected if they are known.
into the system. If not, pressure may need to be in-
creased or another size or type of meter selected. (ii) Random errors—If several people read a wall
mounted gauge or dial and record a flow rate from a
In pipe flows, available head loss can influence the chart, the variation in flow readings should be ran-
type of differential head meter selected. Pipe meters domly distributed about the true average. These errors
vary widely in the pressure drop imposed. For ex- are subject to statistical treatment.
ample, the passive type orifice meters produce higher
pressure drop than do Venturi meters. Propeller and (iii) Spurious errors—These errors invalidate the
turbine meters vary according to their special designs. measurements because of human mistakes, recording
Unfortunately, low head loss propellers and turbines equipment malfunction, or obstructions of normal
generally trade off accuracy because they achieve flow.
their low loss by sampling a limited cross section of
the flow. Active meters, including sonic and electro- In selecting a measuring device, appropriate precision
magnetic, introduce negligible head loss, but have and accuracy should be carefully specified. The pur-
generally been expensive. poses of the flow measurement should dominate this
specification. For usual irrigation management pro-
(ii) Required head drop for open channels—The cesses, accuracies of about 5 percent are suitable.
head loss requirement is particularly important in Accuracy needs to be sufficient to make a decision,
open channel water measuring devices. Most of these such as to change flow rate or cease irrigation entirely.
devices depend on creating critical flow at an overfall If one were trying to determine seepage losses by
or channel contraction as is the case with flumes and measuring inflow and outflow in a reach of canal, then
weirs. This is in contrast to the head loss in pipes that plus or minus 1 percent may not be sensitive enough.
is usually of little importance to the meter function
itself, but is more important to the ability of the pipe (3) Sediment discharge capability
system to deliver the needed flow rates. Besides transporting water, almost all open channels
transport some sediment and debris. Bedload sedi-
(2) Accuracy of measurement ment is generally the most difficult to accommodate in
The accuracy of discharge measured with a particular measuring devices. The ability of various long-throated
structure is limited to the accuracy that a measure- flumes to carry sediment depends, among other things,
ment can be reproduced. If two identical structures on the absolute velocity of the water, the density and
are independently and correctly constructed, then size of the sediment particles, and the sediment con-
presented with flow at the same upstream sill-refer- centration. A general discussion is presented in Flow
enced head, both flow rates are not likely to be equal. Measuring Flumes for Open Channel Systems, by
For flumes and weirs constructed as described herein, Bos, Replogle, and Clemmens (1991).
the difference between the presented flow calibrations
and absolute accuracy have been determined to be A major condition appears to be the throat width. The
less than 2 percent. flume or weir throat width should be as wide as, or
wider than, the approach channel delivering the sedi-
ment (e.g., sills in trapezoidal channels). This is based

Irrigation Guide
on the observation that sediment moves in response to (l) Matching requirements and
the water velocity immediately upstream. The slope of meter capabilities
the ramp appears to play a small role in retarding Selections of the measuring site and the appropriate
sediment movement, particularly if it is on a slope of 3 measuring device are closely related. Some devices or
or 4 horizontal to 1 vertical. This contradicts former structures are more appropriate for certain sites than
practices that recommended leaving a continuing others. Some sites require a certain device or struc-
channel floor for sediment transport and constructing ture. Site consideration, particularly for open chan-
flumes with only side contractions. nels, must be given to the exact location, elevation,
and upstream and downstream flow conditions. This
(i) Passing of floating and suspended debris— information is needed in addition to the general loca-
Open channels transport various kinds and amounts of tion and the structural shape.
floating or suspended debris. To avoid catching debris,
the staff gauge or recorder housing should be located In pipe flows, pipe pressures and head loss generally
to one side of the flow pattern. Most long-throated receive only passing attention. In open channel flows,
flumes are streamlined enough to avoid debris trap- head loss may be the prime consideration because of
ping unless the debris is larger than the throat. Parallel the sensitive relationships among the water surface,
installations should have rounded piers that are at total energy, and flow rate.
least 12 inches (300 mm) wide. Sharp-nosed and
narrow piers tend to catch debris. The measuring method must be compatible with the
water delivery method and purpose of the delivery. If
Most pipeline meters do not tolerate debris well, flow rate is the needed information, then rate meters
especially moss. Trash screens and racks should be are usually appropriate. For open channel flows, rate
used to keep debris out of the pipeline if it adversely meters generally are less expensive than totalizing
affects the measuring device. Venturi, magnetic, sonic, meters. Pipeline meters that totalize from some kind
and other meters that can handle suspended debris are of rotating impeller are less expensive than flow rate
described in a later section. meters. For billing purposes, totalizing meters are
usually specified.
(k) Getting the most from open Pipe flows, because of their fixed flow area, can ac-
channel measuring devices commodate many meter styles that basically provide a
flow velocity that is combined with the inside pipe
Most users desire to get the maximum performance diameter to obtain flow rate. Open-channel flow
and functions from a given gate, weir, meter, or meter- meters add the complication of variable flow area.
ing system. This encourages attempts to try measuring
and controlling flow with the same device. This is not
generally recommended because it results in degraded (m) Open channel flow measure-
measurement and degraded control. One exception ments
might be the vertically movable flume. When ad-
equately automated, it can measure flows with the This section describes the design, selection, and
precision of flumes and also control to the precision of installation of weirs and flumes in open channels.
the selected automation equipment. Equipment costs Frequency and duration of measurements determine
and labor may not compete with a fixed flume and whether to select a portable, temporary, or permanent
regulating gate, which could also be automated. An- measuring device or structure. A variety of portable
other exception is the vertical moving sharp-crested structures are described in Bos, et al. (1991). Often
weir. The weir is a cut-out in the upper part of a stan- permanent measuring structures, such as Replogle
dard irrigation canal slide gate. Fluctuations in the flumes, can be installed at all sites for equal or little
water surface in the canal create a degraded measure- increased cost over that required for installing mount-
ment and require frequent operator control and moni- ing brackets at each site and purchasing portable flow
toring. measuring devices.

Irrigation Guide
(1) Designing for open-channel flow measure- Water level in the channel generally should be predict-
ments able. Water surface elevations are affected by channel
The process of designing a flume or weir consists of discharge, downstream confluences with other chan-
three steps: selection of site, selection of head mea- nels, operation of gates, and reservoir operation.
surement technique, and selection of an appropriate Channel water surface elevations greatly influence the
structure. Design is a process between these steps. sill height to obtain modular flow through a measuring
The order and importance of these steps depend on structure.
specific conditions encountered. If a structure to
measure or regulate the flow rate is to function well, it Based on channel water surface elevations and the
must be selected properly. All demands that will be required sill height in combination with the flow
made on the structure should be listed and matched versus head relation of the structure, the possible
with the properties of known structures. Broadly inundation of upstream surroundings should be as-
speaking, these demands or operational requirements sessed. These inundations cause sedimentation be-
originate from four sources: hydraulic performance, cause of the subsequent reduction in approach flow
construction and/or installation cost, ease with which velocities.
the structure can be operated, and cost of mainte-
nance. Soil conditions at the site can influence the tendency
for leakage around and beneath the measuring struc-
(2 ) Locating and selecting the measuring site ture caused by the head differential. Excess leakage
and device must be prevented at reasonable costs. Also, a stable
All structures for measuring or regulating the rate of foundation, without significant settling is important.
flow should be located in a channel reach where an
accurate value of head can be measured. Also, suffi- To avoid sedimentation upstream of the structure,
cient head loss must be created to obtain a unique sufficient head must be available in the selected chan-
flow rate versus head relation (modular flow). The nel reach to control flow velocities. For more details
survey of a channel to find a suitable location for a on sediment handling, see Bos, et al. (1991).
structure should also provide information on a number
of relevant factors that influence the performance of a (3) Measurement of head
future structure. These factors are described in the As discussed above, the accuracy of a flow measure-
following paragraphs. ment depends strongly on the true determination of
the upstream, sill-referenced head. The success of a
Upstream of the potential site, the channel should be measuring structure often depends entirely on the
straight and have a reasonably uniform cross-section effectiveness of the gauge or recorder used and de-
for a length equal to about 10 times its average width. sires of the operator.
If a bend is closer to the structure, water elevations
along the sides of the channel become different. Rea- A sill-reference head refers to the effective hydraulic
sonably accurate measurements can be made (added control section. With broadcrested weirs and flumes,
error about 3%) if the upstream straight channel has a this section is located on the weir crest or flume
length equal to about two times its width. In this case throat, a distance of about one-third the length up-
the water level should be measured at the inner bend stream of the downstream edge of the sill. The top of
of the channel. the sill (weir crest or invert of flume throat) must be
level in the direction of the flow. If minor undulations
The channel reach should have a stable bottom eleva- are on the sill crest, it is recommended that the aver-
tion. In some channel reaches, sedimentation occurs age level at the effective control section be used rather
in dry seasons or periods of low water. The sediment than the average level of the entire sill. See figure 9–40.
may be eroded again during the wet season. Such
sedimentation can change the approach velocity With sharp-crested weirs, hydraulic control occurs
toward the structure or may even bury a flow measur- immediately upstream of the weir crest. Distance
ing structure. Erosion may undercut the foundation of varies relative to approach velocities. Actual location
the structure. can be observed by the light reflection pattern on the
flowing water surface. See figure 9–41.

Irrigation Guide
(4) Location of head measurement the head. The diameter, if circular-shaped, ranges from
The gauging or head-measuring station should be a recommended minimum size of 4 inches (0.1 m) for
located sufficiently upstream to avoid detectable hand-inserted dipsticks to over 20 inches (0.5 m) to
water surface drawdown, but close enough for the accommodate large diameter floats. The pipe connect-
energy losses between the gauging station and ap- ing the stilling well to the canal should be large enough
proach section to be negligible. Typically, this distance to allow the stilling well to respond quickly to water
varies between two and four times the total head loss level changes. In most cases the pipe diameter is about
upstream of the weir crest. one-tenth the diameter of the stilling well. Further
details on stilling wells are in Bos, et al. (1991).
(5) Head measurement method
The head generally is measured either in the channel (ii) Staff gauges—Periodic readings on a cali-
itself or in a stilling well located to one side of the brated staff gauge can be adequate when continuous
channel. The stilling well is connected to the channel information on the flow rate is not required. Examples
by a small pipe (to dampen head fluctuations). Many are canals where the fluctuation of flow is gradual.
methods can be used to detect water surface eleva- The gauge should be placed so the water level can be
tion. Some use the electromagnetic properties of water read from the canal bank. Staff gauges are commonly
and of the water-air interface. Other methods depend used where quick readings can be taken without
on reflecting a sonic wave from the water surface. Still entering a locked house to read a continuous recorder.
other methods detect water depth with a variety of The surface of the staff gauge should be kept clean.
pressure sensing devices and deduce the head from
that information. The most frequently encountered For concrete-lined canals, the gauge can be mounted
methods are vertical and sidewall mounted staff directly on the canal wall. The value, read on the
gauges in the canal or in a stilling well, or both, and sloping walls of trapezoidal-shaped canals, must be
float-operated recorders placed in a stilling well. appropriately converted by scale or table to vertical
Digital recorders and data logging devices are readily head values before entering discharge tables. Tables
available and have typically replaced the continuous are made for stilling well use or vertical gauge applica-
recording devices on rotating drums (ink pens and tions. For unlined canals, the gauge can be mounted
paper rolls). onto a vertical support.
(i) Stilling wells—Stilling wells facilitate the Most permanent gauges are enameled steel, cast
accurate reading of the water level at a gauging station aluminum, or some type of plastic resin. Enameled
where the water surface is disturbed by wave action. It linear scales marked in English or metric units are
can also house the float for a recorder system or other available from commercial sources. Important flow
water surface detecting equipment. The size of the rates can be noted on these scales by separate mark-
stilling well depends on the method used to measure ings to avoid the need for tables to be always at hand.
Figure 9–40 Profile of long-throated flume (from Bos, Figure 9–41 Profile of sharp-crested weir

Replogle, Clemmens)

,,,,
Point to measure
Gauge depth (H)

Elevation of 4H
weir crest Water surface Sharped-crested
Flow weir
3:1 H
S
3xS L Channel bottom 2H
Channel bottom

Irrigation Guide
Within an irrigation district or farm, it is frequently tures. The benchmark can be a metal rod or cap
desirable to use a limited number of standard sized placed in concrete. Its elevation should have been
structures. The gauges of these structures can be previously established relative to the sill elevation.
conveniently marked directly in discharge units rather More detailed information on zero-setting procedures
than in head or depth units. is in Bos, et al. (1991).
(6) Selection of head-measurement device (8) Determining structure dimensions

The success or failure a water measuring structure and Long-throated flumes and broadcrested weirs operate
the value of the collected data depend closely on by using a channel contraction to cause critical flow. If
proper selection of a suitable head measurement there is not enough contraction, critical flow does not
device. The three most important factors that influ- occur. Flow is then nonmodular, and gauge readings
ence this selection are frequency of discharge mea- become meaningless. If there is too much contraction,
surement, allowable error in the head detection, and the water surface upstream may be raised excessively
type of measurement structure under consideration. and cause canal overtopping or other problems. The
challenge facing the designer is to select the shape of
(7) Gauge placement and zero-setting the control section, or throat, so that critical flow
The most important factor in obtaining accurate occurs throughout the full range of discharges to be
discharge measurements is the accurate determination measured. Also, the designer must provide acceptable
of the sill referenced head. The upstream sill refer- sensitivity and accuracy while not causing too much
enced head can be measured by a gauge or recorder disruption in upstream flow conditions (sediment
only if the observed water level is known with respect deposition, canal overtopping). This appears to be a
to the weir sill (or flume crest) elevation at the control difficult task, but existing design aids and rating tables
section. The method used to set (zero register) the make this task more manageable.
gauge and recorder depends on the structure size,
type, flow rate in the channel during the setting proce- Flumes and weirs constructed of wood can be used.
dure, and available equipment. Standard surveying However, until flow through a wood structure begins,
techniques are practical for accurate setting of most it must be weighted down or be well anchored to
wall or staff gauges. prevent flotation. If a wood structure floats after flow
begins, the flume or weir is said to be submerged, thus
The canal side slopes only approximate the intended unusable. A different size or structure should be
slope. To compensate partly for this, the gauge can be installed.
mounted so that a selected scale reading from the
most frequently used range of the gauge coincides
with the corresponding elevation for that reading. (n) Pipeline flow meters and
Thus, greatest reading errors occur in the flow ranges applications
that are seldom used. If this procedure causes the zero
end of the scale to be displaced by more than about Flow meters for pipelines are frequently used for
1/4 inch (5 mm), the actual side slope should be deter- irrigation water management decisions, particularly
mined for adjustments to the calibration. This also where pumped wells are used. Some flow meters are
should be done if accuracy over the full flow range is well established. Other less well known meters are
required. described in some detail herein. The familiar meters
are given less treatment because they are either well
Several methods are available for zeroing a water level documented or are judged to be of limited application
recorder; three are particularly suitable. The recorder to irrigation. Yet another group is too new to irrigation
can be set when the canal is dry, when water is to have an extensive history in this application; there-
ponded over the flume, or when water is flowing fore, they are again given broader treatment.
through the flume. These zero-setting methods assume
that the sill referenced elevation can be determined Some of the newer pipe flow meters have very low
during the procedure. This is not always practical, head loss. They include vortex shedding meters,
especially on wide structures. A stable and permanent magnetic flow meters, and sonic flow meters. The last
surveying benchmark should be added to these struc- two meters can operate with no detectable head loss

Irrigation Guide
to the flow because no restrictions or mechanisms are tube and a pipe wall piezometer tap are frequently
inside the pipe. used to accomplish the same thing. Several variations
of pitot tube based devices are marketed. Most of the
(1) Venturi meters variations depend on careful laboratory calibration.
Venturi meters represent one of the older, more reli- Standard pitot tubes and the prandtl type tubes have a
able flow measuring methods called differential head coefficient nearly equal to unity. These tubes are best
meters. The head loss is low, and slurries pass readily. used for intermittent and attended measurements
In irrigation works, small venturi meters are used for because they are subject to clogging in all but the
chemical injection applications. Sizes compatible with cleanest flows.
most irrigation wells generally are considered too
costly. The flow range is similar to that of the orifice (3) Orifice meters
meters, which are described later in this chapter. Many of the marketed flow meters, for other than
These devices are well covered in the literature, and residential use, are differential pressure types. Of
little new information is available. See: Handbook of these the most common type is the sharp-edged orifice
Hydraulics, King and Brater, for a complete descrip- plate. Thousands of these meters measure gas, liquid,
tion of these meters. and mixed fluid streams in pipelines around the world.
The modern computer has given these primary mea-
Certain angles of convergence and divergence must be suring devices renewed importance.
observed for standard venturi meter behavior. The
conduit walls should converge relative to the Orifice flow meters are frequently used in irrigation
centerline at about 10 degrees and diverge on the applications for measuring well discharges and for
downstream side at about 5 to 7 degrees. Low velocity injecting agricultural chemicals into irrigation flows.
venturi meters have also been constructed from ordi- The latter are usually of small diameter and opera-
nary PVC pipe and fittings. Where throat lengths are at tional details generally are furnished by the manufac-
least three times the diameter of the pipe, fitting turer of the chemical injecting device. Consequently,
configuration appears to have little effect. Venture larger diameter orifice plates in round pipes are prima-
flow meters require two pressure taps, one in the rily dealt with in this guide. Usual rusted pipe condi-
throat and one upstream before convergence. Typi- tions and general maintenance for irrigation wells limit
cally venturi flow meters have low head loss. To keep field accuracy in irrigation practice to no better than 3
venturi flow meters to a reasonable size on large to 5 percent of actual flow.
pipelines, they are often used as a shunt meter, where
a much reduced part of the total flow is actually mea- Most reliable flow meters require fairly stringent
sured. The ratio must be known to project the mea- installation requirements. The orifice plate is no ex-
sured flow to total pipe flow. Chemical injection ception. Because abrupt pressure changes take place
systems often use a shunt Venturi. at the plate, the orifice plate is generally affected more
by disturbed flows than other differential pressure
(2) Pitot tubes meters. Poor installation of an otherwise properly
Like venturi meters, pitot tubes are well documented designed orifice plate can result in 20 percent errors.
in King and Brater, 1954. The original version is named
for Henri Pitot who used a bent glass tube to measure Orifice plate standards are based on extensive experi-
velocities in the River Seine in 1730. Pitot tubes have a mental data and can be applied with a fair degree of
narrow range of application similar to venturi meters. confidence. Anomalies still exist, however, and some
A flow-differential version is the standard prandtl tube of which will be discussed later.
that incorporates the impact pitot tube within a jack-
eted concentric outer tube. Holes in the side of this Advantages of the orifice plate are its simplicity and
outer tube are used to detect the existing static pres- the ability to select a proper calibration on the basis of
sure in the flow region. the measurements of the geometry. Disadvantages of
the orifice plate include the long, straight pipe length
The difference between the impact pressure and the requirements and the complication of extending the
static pressure represents the velocity head, from measuring range beyond a ratio of about one to three.
which the point velocity is computed. An impact pitot

Irrigation Guide
The operating flow range can be changed by substitut- (5) Elbow meters
ing an orifice plate with a different hole size. Tap Elbow flow meters are made by drilling pressure taps
locations based on pipe diameter rather than orifice midway along the bend centerline on the inside and
diameter make this feasible because the same tap the outside of the elbow bend (Spink 1967). This
locations can be used for all orifice plate sizes. The corresponds to 45 degree tapping for a 90 degree
pressure tap is located about one pipe diameter up- elbow bend. If the radius of the inside bend is accu-
stream of the orifice plate. In a continuous pipeline, rately determined by plaster casting or other means,
the downstream pressure tap is located at the vena- the discharge equation can be estimated to within 3
contracta (immediately downstream and adjacent to percent of actual. The differential pressure across the
the orifice plate). inside and outside taps is produced by velocity differ-
ential and by the centrifugal force of fluid in the el-
The orifice plate should be mounted in such a way that bow; velocity responds to about the square-root of the
inspecting at least the orifice plate and preferably the head differential.
adjacent piping is possible. Portable orifice plate
meters can be attached to the downstream end of (6) Current meters, propeller meters, and
discharge pipelines. Care should be taken to install the cuptype meters
meter level and have the appropriate straight pipe Propeller meters are commonly used in open channel
length upstream of the orifice plate (generally a part of flows to measure velocities at various points in the
the meter). channel cross-section. Cup type rotors are also used.
The choice depends on whether the user wishes to
(4) Rectangular sharp edged orifice/open detect velocities in the direction that the meter is
channel applications pointing (propeller) or whether all velocities in the
Rectangular orifices formed by a partly open, irriga- flow plane are to be detected, regardless of flow
tion canal gate are frequently used as flow indicating direction (cup type). Accurately determining cross-
devices. Accuracy of the primary opening, not includ- sectional area (especially depth), particularly with
ing the errors of secondary detection of depth, can be earth, grass lined, or cobbly bottom canals, is a major
within 5 percent of actual. Every gate should be cali- problem with open channel applications. Another is
brated for specific onsite conditions. velocity distribution effects. The technician generally
divides the channel into about 10 equally spaced,
Early day miners in the West developed a flow term vertical sections. If standard flow profiles can be
called miners inches where a rectangular orifice (2 assumed, a single measurement at 0.6 of the depth
inches high and up to 12 inches wide) was cut through from the surface gives reasonable results. This depth
a 2-inch wooden plank. Thus, a 2-inch by 10-inch is typically used in shallow flows. When depths permit,
orifice would deliver 20 miners inches. How to mea- 0.2 and 0.8 locations generally give more reliable
sure the standard 6-inch hydraulic head on the orifice results. In fixed section channels, well-trained opera-
varies between geographical areas. If the 6-inch head tors using well-maintained equipment can expect
is measured from the horizontal center of the orifice to results with errors less then plus or minus 5 percent of
the upstream water surface, 1.0 miners inches = 1/40 the actual flow rate.
cubic foot per second or 11.25 gallons per minute
(applicable in Northern California, Arizona, Montana, A short, smooth, level concrete section is often con-
Nevada, and Oregon). Where the 6-inch head is mea- structed in the open channel where long-term mea-
sured above the lower edge of the orifice, 1 miners surements are made. This is done to reduce opportuni-
inch = 1/50 cubic foot per second, or 9.0 gallons per ties for errors. If a variety of flows over a wide flow
minute (applicable in Southern California, Idaho, depth for any stable cross section can be measured,
Kansas, New Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota, the section can be rated. A staff gauge can then be
Nebraska, and Utah). In Colorado, 38.4 miners inches used to measure depth and, with a rating table, con-
= 1 cubic foot per second. verted to gallons per minute, cubic feet per second, or
acre-inches per day. Occasionally, flow measurements
are taken to check the rating table. USGS, state water
resource agencies, and local irrigation organizations
use this method to measure larger flows in canals and

Irrigation Guide
streams. Installation of a long-throated flume at these (i) Paddle wheel turbines—Although not really a
locations should be considered. propeller, a small paddle wheel turbine is widely used
in large diameter irrigation pipelines and supply wells.
As mentioned, major errors with the current metering It samples only the flow near the pipe wall. This veloc-
method may be with the cross-section area determina- ity is converted to average flow velocity using general
tion rather than velocity detection. For example, if a expectations about flow velocity profiles in pipes. This
flow of 17-inch depth and 3-foot width is attempted in method of flow measurement is sensitive to velocity
a grass-lined channel, an uncertainty of the flow depth changes across the pipeline cross-section.
and width may be greater than 1 inch (30 mm) or over
10 percent error in flow area. This uncertainty must be (9) Vortex-shedding flow meter
combined with velocity errors. The vortex-shedding meter is a relative newcomer to
pipeline flows. It is expected to essentially replace the
(7) Propeller meters orifice meter. Application in irrigation pipelines,
Propeller meters are frequently used in irrigation particularly water delivered from wells, is a likely
pipelines, particularly for flows from irrigation wells application. The most common form of the vortex-
and at farm deliveries. Propeller meters offered for shedding flow meter is a strut or bluff body placed in a
irrigation service generally stress ruggedness and turbulent stream. Periodic vortices generated, travel
durability over accuracy. Secondary readout devices several pipe diameters downstream in the mean veloc-
are usually mechanical. Recently, electronic readouts ity of the stream.
have been offered. Most have less than plus or minus 3
percent error when installation specifications are The phenomenon is demonstrated by air flowing past a
followed. Errors in field installations frequently ex- flagpole, which generates vortices that alternate on
ceed plus or minus 5 percent because some of the pipe either side of the flag causing it to wave. Applied to a
length requirements are hard to meet when retrofitting flow meter, the rate of vortices generated (the rate of
older piping installations. Vanes can be used to mini- vortex reversals) when flow strikes the blunt obstruc-
mize nonstandard installation conditions. tion, or bluff body, is sensed as a measure of passing
flow. Passing vortices cause pockets of low pressure
The main difference between a propeller and a turbine in the flow stream and allow for a variety of measure-
meter is fewer blades on a propeller and the absence ment techniques in commercial flow meters, including
of a blade tip ring for blade stability. Propellers are ultrasonic, thermal, mechanical, strain gauge, and
often built with a swept-back design on two, three, or differential pressure devices.
four blades so they tend to shed debris. Some pipe
propellers are restrained by the nose with a long Little research has been reported on critical dimen-
sweeping shaft so that the mounting also sheds trash. sions in the design of the bluff body (blunt obstruc-
tion) to enhance strength of vortices. One study was
(8) Turbine meters conducted in the United Kingdom by Lucas and Turner
Turbine meters are used extensively in the gas and (1985). They developed the critical dimension of a
petroleum industries. They are especially applicable to T-shaped bluff body that optimizes measure accuracy.
flows in high pressure lines. More often the related The response is linear with range abilities on the order
full-pipe diameter or part-pipe diameter blade is used. of 100:1. The T-shaped buff body used has fast re-
sponse capabilities with good accuracy, repeatability,
Several problems are associated with the use of tur- and stable calibration conditions.
bine meters. Unlike simpler meter types, turbine
meters are viscosity-sensitive. Meters calibrated in The major disadvantage of the T-shaped buff body is
water, for instance, give different meter-factor curves the need to a have sufficient flow rate to create vorti-
when used in another fluid. The reasons are complex ces. However, the device can be used at low flow rates
and are associated with the combination of lift, drag, without special detection methods. Other known
and friction forces affecting the rotor and the bearings problems are associated with pipe vibrations. Outside
differently. Turbine meters are also sensitive to instal- vibration sources, such as from pump machinery,
lation conditions. appear to interfere with vortex generation and detec-
tion.

Irrigation Guide
Head loss across a vortex shedding flow meter is (11) Ultrasonic flow meters
typically two pipe velocity heads, although this de- Ultrasonic meters, like many modern meters, were
pends on the blockage caused by the particular bluff initially oversold. A particular problem is convincing
body. Fluid velocities of up to 150 feet per second can users that the two basic systems using ultrasonic
be handled; however, high flow rate limitations do waves, the Doppler and the transit time meters, oper-
exist. In liquids these would be dictated by the onset ate on completely different principles. The modern
of cavitation at the meter. Despite these limitations, clamp-on transit-time meter can indicate flow rate to
vortex shedding flow meters may eventually replace better than plus or minus 2 percent of actual, depend-
orifice plates at comparable cost. ing on design. The Doppler meters usually indicate
plus or minus 5 percent. A major advantage of ultra-
(10) Magnetic flow meters sonic methods is the negligible head loss and the
Magnetic, or electromagnetic, flow meters offer an ability to install either portable or dedicated systems
excellent solution to problems of flow measurement in without line shutdown.
conductive liquids. In recent years they have become
widely accepted in industry because of their many As mentioned, ultrasonics are applied to flow metering
advantages. Some advantages are no moving parts, in two basic ways. This results in two basic meter
head loss equal to that of a similar length of pipe, and types: transmission and reflection (Doppler). The
accurate measurements over a wide flow range. transmission type establishes a sound path through
the liquid in the pipe or channel. The reflection type
The measuring principle is based on Faraday's law of depends on particles in the fluid that can reflect sound
electromagnetic induction. Essentially, electrically to the receiver, and is really just another way to detect
conductive liquid flowing though a magnetic field particles in the flow. Sonic signals are about 100,000
induces a voltage at right angles to the magnetic field cycles per second.
and in the direction of flow. If the flux density is a
constant, the pipe diameter is fixed, and the pipe is A major disadvantage of externally mounted ultrasonic
flowing full, then the induced voltage is proportional meters is the need to know exact inside pipe diameter
to the velocity of the flowing liquid. The voltage gener- and inside wall surface condition. Ultrasonic meters
ated can be AC or DC, depending on the electrical work best on noncorrosive pipe materials unless the
source used to excite the coils that produce the mag- corrosion or built-up material (scale) can be deter-
netic field. Completing this system is a transmitter, mined. Calibration on a similar pipeline and known
which is a specially designed voltmeter, or more flow rate is recommended to compensate for these
recently may include a microprocessor. The transmit- uncertainties.
ter converts the low-level generated voltage to a us-
able output signal for flow-rate indication, totalization, Proper operation of both transit time and Doppler
or control. ultrasonic flow meters require:
• Acoustic contact between transducer face and
In practice, voltage is sensed by two electrodes pipe so the ultrasonic signal can be injected into
mounted in the same plane, but directly across an the pipe. Machine grease or silicon grease can be
electrically insulated section of pipe. Since its inven- used, or silicon rubber can be used if the device
tion in the late 1930s, the electromagnetic flow meter is to be permanently installed.
has been extensively developed. The developments • The system should not be used with partially full
include DC coil energization and weighted magnetic pipes. The sensed velocity may be correct, but
fields. More recent emphasis has been on coil design the flow area generally is wrong.
to reduce the size and power consumption of the flow • The mounting of the transducer must be parallel
meters, which has been about 20 to 30 watts. to the axis of flow. The extreme top or bottom of
horizontal pipe walls should not be used. This
Electromagnetic flow meters typically provide accuracy helps avoid problems with bubbles (top) or
of between 0.5 and 1.0 percent of actual over a wide bedload sediment (bottom).
range. As long as a minimum electrical conductivity is
present in the measured fluid, volumetric flow rate is
measured without interference from entrapped solids.

Irrigation Guide
(i) Ultrasonic transit time (time-of-flight) side of the pipeline are used. The sonic signal is re-
meters—The ideal flow meter is one that can be flected off the opposite inside pipeline wall. Sonic flow
installed on the outside of a pipe, but can give the path is perpendicular to the pipeline centerline.
performance of the best flow meters installed inside
the line. Ultrasonic transit time meters have been Doppler theory in this application is based on the
developed toward these apparently conflicting but assumption that the doppler shift is inversely propor-
demanding criteria. Multiple beam, single path, sys- tional to the velocity of the particles in the liquid.
tems have been installed on many pipelines, the most
notable of which is the Alaskan oil pipeline. Single (iii) Ultrasonic meter for irrigation flow mea-
path transit time ultrasonic meters require a transmit- surements—A particular exception to high cost and
ter/receiver on opposite sides of a pipeline. With lack of ruggedness usually associated with ultrasonic
double path meters, only one side of the pipeline is transit time flow meters may be a recently introduced
used. A reflective path (one-sided) ultrasonic transit device designed for measuring both flow rate and total
time meter reflects the sonic signal off the opposite flow in irrigation pipelines that are flowing full. Badger
inside wall of the pipeline. With both types, good Meter, Inc., sold the particular units observed to the
contact must be made between the transmitter/re- New Magma Irrigation District, Central Arizona Irriga-
ceiver and outside pipeline wall. Both types send a tion and Drainage District, and Maricopa-Standfield
sonic signal across the flow area at a 20 to 45 degree Irrigation District, all in Arizona. They were put into
angle to the flow velocity. service during the fall of 1986. (Use of brand names is
for the reader’s reference and information and does
These meters are popular for measurement of flows in not constitute endorsement by the author or USDA,
large pipelines. Many transit time meters can be used NRCS.)
on pipelines as small as 2 inches in diameter. They
have also been used in some open canal systems. The Called the Model 4420 Compusonic meter, it is a
flow must be relatively free of suspended materials transit time, single path, ultrasonic flow meter. It uses
that could reflect and spread the sonic energy. In pipes battery power with solar panel recharging, and is
that are more than 3 feet in diameter, four paths microprocessor controlled to allow a sleep/wake-up
across the full pipe are commonly used. The meters mode to conserve power. It has two LCD displays, one
are relatively expensive and require an electric power three-digit display for flow rate and a six-digit display
source and trained technicians for assured operation. for totalized flow volume. It is programmable in BASIC
to particular units. A serial communications port
Ultrasonic transit time flow meters require at least two allows accumulated flow data to be dumped to a data
transmitters and two receivers. Two sound paths are logger. The meter has two internal totalizers. One
established in the fluid, usually along the same diago- cannot be reset and is displayed continuously. The
nal path, but in opposite directions. On one path, the other totalizer can be temporarily displayed in its
sound travels with the direction of fluid flow (at an place and can be reset to zero. Flow rate readings can
angle across the flow). On the other, the sound moves be obtained by manual activation. Because of pipeline
against the direction of fluid flow. The motion of the flow turbulence, 3 to 5 readings averaged over a 10-
fluid causes a frequency or phase shift in each path, minute are recommended for best accuracy.
which is measured and converted to fluid velocity.
Sonic sensors are installed about 100 feet downstream
(ii) Ultrasonic, reflective type Doppler meter— from circular slide gates in pipes that are about 2 feet
The Doppler, or reflective type, meter developed to in diameter. Most of the pipelines are slightly curved.
measure effluent flow also works on a frequency shift Sonic sensors are premounted on a stainless steel
principle. The frequency shift occurs in the sound circular band that is inserted into the pipe immediately
reflected from particles that are presumed to be mov- upstream of the outlet. The outlet is installed below
ing at the same velocity as the fluid itself. Latest ver- the grade of the farm lateral it supplies, so the irriga-
sions claim to operate with particle sizes below 100 tion district pipeline stands full of water between
micron and at a concentration of 100 parts per million deliveries. This should inhibit growth of crystals on
or less. With the Doppler reflective type meter, only the sensor faces. Sensors sample a single horizontal
one transmitter and one receiver located on the same path across the pipe for 16 seconds every 15 minutes,

Irrigation Guide
or when manually activated. Best accuracy is claimed

for flow velocities in excess of 0.5 foot per second, but
detection of flow is practical at velocities as small as
0.1 foot per second. The angle of the single path beam
is at 22 degrees across the pipe. Field checks against
Replogle broadcrested weirs showed good agreement
within less than plus or minus 3 percent for the four
locations tested.
(12) Other measuring devices

Other meters or measuring devices having limited
application to measuring irrigation flows are available.
They are mentioned primarily as examples that meters
exist using one or more of the common physical
principles. Others are so uncomplicated as to require
little explanation. For example a volume meter, which
can consist of a calibrated container and stopwatch,
can be used to measure flows from sprinkler heads,
siphon tubes, or other small diameter conduits that
have water flowing in a free-fall condition. Rotameters
are sometimes used to monitor chemicals being me-
tered into irrigation flows, such as for chemigation
with pressurized irrigation systems. Many of these
simple measuring procedures are described with
applicable irrigation system evaluation procedures
earlier in this chapter. Several open channel measuring
devices are commercially manufactured in reduced
sizes to provide small portable flow measuring devices
for small channels or furrows. These devices include
orifice plates, v-notch weirs, Replogle flumes, v-notch
flumes, H-flumes, and Palmer-Bowles flumes.

Irrigation Guide

Chapter 9 Irrigation Water Irrigation Guide
Management
652.0901 Irrigation water management concepts 9–2

(a) Irrigation water management concepts ..................................................... 9–2
652.0902 Soil-plant-water balance 9–4

(a) Soil .................................................................................................................. 9–4
(b) Measuring soil-water content ...................................................................... 9–7
(c) Crops ............................................................................................................ 9–19
(d) Upward water movement (upflux) ........................................................... 9–22
652.0903 Irrigation scheduling 9–22

(a) General ......................................................................................................... 9–22
(b) Irrigation scheduling methods .................................................................. 9–23
652.0904 Irrigation system evaluation procedures 9–30

(a) General ......................................................................................................... 9–30
(b) Irrigation efficiency definitions ................................................................. 9–31
(c) Irrigation system evaluations .................................................................... 9–33
(d) Simplified irrigation system and water management evaluations ........ 9–34
(e) Abbreviated water management and irrigation system evaluations .... 9–35
(f) Water management and irrigation system evaluations .......................... 9–36
(g) Detailed irrigation system evaluation procedures .................................. 9–45
652.0905 Soil intake determination procedures 9–185

(a) General ....................................................................................................... 9–185
(b) Surface irrigation systems intake ........................................................... 9–186
(c) Sprinkle irrigation systems ...................................................................... 9–189
(d) Infiltration and application rate test procedures .................................. 9–190
(e) Automation of testing for maximum application rate .......................... 9–205

9–i
Irrigation Guide
652.0906 Water measurement 9–205

(a) General ....................................................................................................... 9–205
(b) Using water measurement ....................................................................... 9–205
(c) Basic hydraulic concepts ......................................................................... 9–206
(d) Open channel primary measuring devices............................................. 9–206
(e) Closed-pipeline primary measuring devices.......................................... 9–206
(f) Secondary measuring devices ................................................................. 9–207
(g) Methods of water measurement ............................................................. 9–207
(h) Measuring method categories ................................................................. 9–208
(i) Suitable measurement methods for irrigation and drainage ............... 9–210
(j) Demands made on a measuring device .................................................. 9–212
(k) Getting the most from open channel measuring devices .................... 9–214
(l) Matching requirements and meter capabilities ..................................... 9–214
(m) Open channel flow measurements ......................................................... 9–214
(n) Pipeline flow meters and applications ................................................... 9–217
Tables Table 9–1 Available water capacity for various soil textures 9–6
Table 9–2 Oven dry moisture content based on 3-minute carbide 9–13
moisture tester readings
Table 9–3 Recommended depths for setting tensiometers 9–14
Table 9–4 Interpretations of readings on typical electrical 9–17

resistance meter
Table 9–5 Types and characteristics of flow meters 9–209
Table 9–6 Major operational characteristics of flumes and weirs 9–211
Figures Figure 9–1 Total soil-water content for various soil textures 9–5
with adjustment for changes in bulk density
Figure 9–2 Soil-water content versus depth 9–6
Figure 9–3 Available soil-water holding worksheet 9–9

(feel and appearance)
9–226
Irrigation Guide
Figure 9–4 Soil-water content worksheet (gravimetric method) 9–11
Figure 9–5 Determination of soil moisture and bulk density using 9–12
Eley volumeter and Speedy moisture tester
Figure 9–6 Tensiometer, installation, gauge, and servicing 9–15
Figure 9–7 Example irrigation scheduling program flowchart 9–24

using soil water content for validation
Figure 9–8 Soil-water measurements used to predict day to irrigate 9–25
Figure 9–9 Typical water balance irrigation scheduling worksheet 9–27
Figure 9–10 NRCS (SCS) SCHEDULER—seasonal crop ET 9–29
Figure 9–11 NRCS (SCS) SCHEDULER—seasonal soil moisture 9–29

status
Figure 9–12 Plot of example advance and recession curves 9–37
Figure 9–13 Minispray head catch device (made from a 2-liter 9–44
plastic soft drink bottle)
Figure 9–14 Border downslope profile and cross-section 9–56
Figure 9–15 Cylinder infiltrometer curves 9–57
Figure 9–16 Cylinder infiltrometer test data 9–58
Figure 9–17 Advance and recession curves 9–59
Figure 9–18 Cylinder infiltrometer curve 9–61
Figure 9–19 Depth infiltrated curve 9–63
Figure 9–20 Soil-water intake curve 9–78
Figure 9–21 Furrow profile 9–95
Figure 9–22 Advance recession curve 9–96
Figure 9–23 Flow volume curves 9–97
Figure 9–24 Soil water intake curve 9–98
Figure 9–25 Ditches, turnouts, measuring devices, and field grid 9–105
for example site
Figure 9–26 Cumulative intake curve 9–113

9–iii
Irrigation Guide
Figure 9–27 Example cylinder infiltrometer test data 9–114
Figure 9–28 Catch can data for lateral move system 9–121
Figure 9–29 Typical split flow layouts for micro irrigation system 9–163
Figure 9–30 Typical wetted area under a plant with two emitters 9–163
Figure 9–31 Water infiltration characteristics for sprinkler, 9–187

border, and furrow irrigation systems
Figure 9–32 Cylinder infiltrometer 9–191
Figure 9–33 Soil description 9–194
Figure 9–34 Example cylinder infiltrometer test data using 9–195

form NRCS-ENG-322
Figure 9–35 Example cylinder infiltrometer test data accumulated 9–196

intake for border irrigation design
Figure 9–36 Standard intake families for border irrigation design 9–197
Figure 9–37 Furrow accumulated intake versus time 9–200
Figure 9–38 Intake families as used with furrow irrigation 9–201
Figure 9-39 Transit-time acoustic flowmeters: diametrical path, 9–207

diametrical path reflective, and chordal path
transducer configuration
Figure 9–40 Profile of long-throated flume 9–216
Figure 9–41 Profile of sharp-crested weir 9–216
Examples Example 9–1 Estimating furrow inflow and outflow depths 9–39
Example 9–2 Evaluation computation steps 9–56
Example 9–3 Evaluation computation steps for level border and 9–77
basin irrigation systems
Example 9–4 Evaluation computation steps for graded furrow 9–95

irrigation systems
9–228
9–iv (210-vi-NEH, September 1997)
Irrigation Guide
Example 9–5 Evaluation computation steps for contour ditch 9–113

irrigation systems
Example 9–6 Evaluation computation steps for periodic move and 9–129
fixed set sprinkler irrigation systems
Example 9–7 Evaluation computation steps for continuous move 9–146

center pivot and linear move laterals
Example 9–8 Evaluation computation steps for continuous move, 9–160

large gun type sprinklers
Example 9–9 Evaluation computation steps for micro irrigation 9–169

systems
Example 9–10 Evaluation computation steps for irrigation 9–181

pumping plants
Exhibits Exhibit 9–1 Guide for estimating soil moisture conditions 9–8
using the feel and appearance method
Exhibit 9–2 Completed worksheet—Surface irrigation system, 9–48

detailed evaluation of graded border system

detailed evaluation of level border and basins

detailed evaluation of graded furrow system

detailed evaluation of contour ditch irrigation system
Exhibit 9–6 Completed worksheet—Sprinkler irrigation system, 9–123

detailed evaluation of periodic move and fixed set
sprinkler irrigation systems

detailed evaluation of continuous/self move center
pivot lateral

9–v
Irrigation Guide

detailed evaluation of continuous move, large
sprinkler gun type
Exhibit 9–9 Completed worksheet—Micro irrigation system 9–166

detailed evaluation
Exhibit 9–10 Completed worksheet—Irrigation pumping plant 9–175

detailed evaluation
9–230
9–vi (210-vi-NEH, September 1997)
Chapter 10 Conservation Management Systems and Part 652
Chapter 10 Conservation
Irrigation Planning Irrigation Guide
Management Systems
and Irrigation Planning
652.1001 Objectives of an irrigation plan 10–2

(a) Written plans ............................................................................................... 10–2
(b) Degree of planning ...................................................................................... 10–2
652.1002 The planning process 10–3

(a) Determining problems and objectives ..................................................... 10–5
(b) Resource inventory and analysis of data ................................................. 10–5
(c) Formulate and evaluate alternatives ...................................................... 10–10
(d) Decisions and implementation ................................................................ 10–11
652.1003 Irrigation system, operation, and water management plan 10–11

(a) Conservation plan for crops, pasture, or hayland ................................ 10–11
(b) Irrigation system application plan .......................................................... 10–12
(c) Irrigation water management plan ......................................................... 10–12
(d) Installation ................................................................................................. 10–13
(e) Maintenance .............................................................................................. 10–13
(f) Followup and evaluation ......................................................................... 10–13
652.1004 Planning aids 10–14

10–i
Figure Figure 10–1 Irrigation planning process 10–4
Exhibits Exhibit 10–1 Environmental effects for resource management plan 10–8
Exhibit 10–2 Irrigation system inventory worksheet 10–15
Exhibit 10–3 Irrigation planning worksheet 10–21
Exhibit 10–4 Irrigation plan map 10–23
Exhibit 10–5 Irrigation water management plan for sprinkler 10–24

irrigation system
Exhibit 10–6 Guide for estimating soil moisture conditions using 10–27
feel and appearance method
10–30
Chapter 10 Part 652
Conservation Management Systems and
Chapter 10 Conservation Management
Irrigation PlanningIrrigation Guide
Systems and Irrigation Planning
The art and science of planning involve working

652.1000 General closely with the irrigation decisionmaker to under-
stand objectives and concerns and to identify resource
problems. This requires a resource inventory to de-
The material in chapter 10 is intended to help the velop the foundation on which to base alternative
consultant assist users of irrigated land plan conserva- conservation management systems. Alternatives must
tion management systems that maintain productivity be presented to the user in such a way that details can
of the soil, water, air, plant, and animal (SWAPA) be easily understood and informed decisions can be
resource base as well as take into account human made. Implementation requires quality and detailed
considerations (social, economic, and cultural). Con- plans. Installation of an irrigation system and compo-
servation management systems consider the total farm nents should be completed according to these plans.
or ranch environment, including the watershed, Daily management, operation, and maintenance of the
airshed, and environment in which it exists. Conserva- irrigation system must be included in the plan with
tion management can involve one or more resource costs and benefits identified.
management systems. Irrigation system planning must
consider the potential interactive effect on SWAPA Planning is a continuing process, not an end product
resources plus how an action may affect the onsite in itself. Planning has value only if implemented. A
and offsite human environment. An irrigation sys- cooperator’s objectives change as do economic condi-
tem plan is a component of an overall farm con- tions. Follow-up assistance may be required to address
servation plan. Irrigation system planning includes: these changes and to make adjustments in conserva-
• Sustaining or improving soil condition tion resource management. Even with detailed plan-
(includes productivity) ning and design, most irrigation related recommenda-
• Maintaining or improving surface and ground tions are estimates and must be adjusted under actual
water quality and quantity field conditions. The management plan must take
• Wise use of limited water supplies these factors into account.
• Providing a condition healthful for growing
plants without degrading other resources
• Consideration of domestic animals and wildlife
• Impacts on soil erosion and deposition
• Consideration of human needs
Conservation irrigation planning requires the develop-

ment of conservation management systems. An con-
servation management system is a combination of
conservation practices that when installed and main-
tained will protect the SWAPA resource base. Included
are meeting tolerable soil losses, maintaining accept-
able water quality, conserving limited water supplies,
providing equal or greater returns, and maintaining
acceptable ecological and management levels for the
selected use. Conservation management systems also
include conservation practices that improve the qual-
ity of the environment and standard of living of those
living on the land. To an irrigator this can mean reduc-
ing water and energy use, controlling erosion, improv-
ing crop yield, improving product quality, and main-
taining productivity of the land.

content of written plan documents. Information given

652.1001 Objectives of an to the decisionmaker must be clearly understood,
usable, and not cluttered with unneeded material.
irrigation plan
(b) Degree of planning
The irrigation plan helps implement the irrigation
component of an overall farm conservation resource Irrigation planning can be complex, involving environ-
management. The plan is the result of a joint effort mental assessments and impacts, agronomy, soil,
between the consultant, owner, operator, and the animal husbandry, engineering, economics, ecology,
irrigation decisionmaker in which technical knowl- and farm and ranch management. On the other hand, it
edge and experience are pooled. An irrigation plan can be direct, addressing only one concern and its
follows the nine steps of planning (NRCS National effect on the environment. Plan preparation and con-
Planning Procedures Handbook) and encompasses all tent should be based on the irrigation decisionmaker’s
aspects of planning on irrigated land. The plan in- needs and identified resource concerns.
cludes determining the water user’s objectives and
problems, SWAPA resource inventories, alternative An conservation planning process considers the farm,
analysis, and decisionmaking. Irrigation system opera- ranch, or community as a whole even if the decision-
tion and maintenance plans are a part of irrigation maker is interested in only one field or practice. This
system planning. Coordination with cropping system can ensure that delivery system components of pipe-
plans, irrigation system plans, drainage plans, irriga- lines and ditches are an adequate size and elevation to
tion water management plans, and follow-up plans is service all the unit. Should operators choose not to
essential.
size a pipeline or ditch for the expanded system, they
should understand the pipeline or ditch may need to
be enlarged or supplemented when the current irriga-
(a) Written plans tion system is expanded. The conservation planning
process also helps assure the irrigation operation fits
Written documentation is essential for use by the into the rest of the farm or ranch operation. The total
decisionmaker. Documentation of the irrigation plan farm water supply (rate, volume, and availability)
should be used in decisionmaking processes and as a should be inventoried to help assure proper irrigation
guide to carry out the plan. Irrigation plan documenta- in the selected area.
tion may be presented as one document or, more
likely, as several documents over a period of time Implementation of the irrigation plan may begin with
depending on the stage of planning. one field, one ditch, or one pipeline and may continue
for several years. Revisions may be needed because of
Written documentation should be thoroughly dis- the constantly changing farm economy and changing
cussed with and understood by the decisionmaker. client objectives.
The type and amount of information that must be
presented and when the information is needed have a Clients may have strong feelings about certain irriga-
bearing on the form of written documentation. The tion methods or systems. Even so, they deserve infor-
minimum content of the plan is up to the professional mation on the best available systems and management
judgment of the persons (consultant and decision- techniques that will meet both their needs and those of
maker) preparing the plan. The desires of the decision- the site. Pros and cons, including labor and economic
maker should always be reflected. As a minimum, the
considerations, of the best fit systems need to be
plan should identify irrigation scheduling methods and
provided. The decisionmaker can then make an in-
the chosen method, the irrigation system to be used,
formed choice from alternatives presented.
and an operation and maintenance plan.
Often the irrigation water user wants technical help,
The individual(s) preparing the plan must decide the
cost share, or both, on a single practice. A planner’s
amount of detail that planning should involve and the
skill is reflected in how well the opportunity is used to

promote conservation of primary soil and water re-

sources, and how well NRCS consultants work with 652.1002 The planning
the water user to plan a sound conservation manage-
ment system for irrigated land. process
The planning process involves nine basic steps in the

development of a total conservation management
system. They involve:
• Irrigation system and components
• Soils, crops, and tillage management
• Irrigation system operation and maintenance
• Water management
Planning process steps are:
Step 1 Identify the problem including resources

of concern—Water source, quality, and quantity; soil
erosion; labor; energy.
Step 2 Determine objectives—Water user’s desires

and needs, community resources of concern, and
other such information.
Step 3 Inventory the resources—Soils, water, air,

plant, and animal resources, including drainage, salin-
ity, existing irrigation system, and labor available.
Step 4 Analyze resource data—Consider the effect

each resource has on the others.
Step 5 Formulate alternatives—Irrigation method,

system, components. Include irrigation scheduling
methods appropriate for the user.
Step 6 Evaluate alternatives—Consider potential

environmental impacts, costs, and on-farm labor and
skill availability.
Step 7 Water user decision—Which irrigation

method, system, and components to use; and, overall
water management desires.
Step 8 Water user implements irrigation plan.
Step 9 Followup—Evaluating results of plan imple-

mentation, onsite and offsite. Revise plan as needed.
See NRCS National Planning Procedures Handbook

(NPPH) for more detailed information on the NRCS
planning process. A flowchart illustrating this process
is displayed in figure 10–1.

Figure 10–1 Irrigation planning process
Identify problems Identify resource problems

determine objectives and determine operator's
objectives
Inventory resources Inventory irrigation

related resources
Analyze resource data Analyze inventoried data

and clarify and define
resource objectives
Formulate alternatives and Develop alternatives and

evaluate alternatives evaluate their effect on
addressing objectives
Make decisions Land user makes

decisions to meet
objectives
Implement plan Prepare final plans for a

resource management
system (RMS)
Conservation management Irrigation plan

system plan
Cropping Irrigation system Irrigation Erosion Operation and

system plan(s), specs, water mgmt control maintenance
plan quantities plan plan plan
Application or installation of planned practices
Evaluate plan Followup, evaluation Revisions

and update plan

(a) Determining problems and resource data required for planning are soils, crops,
objectives topography, water supply, existing physical features,
existing irrigation systems, water table presence,
One of the most important steps in the planning pro- existing drainage systems, environmental factors,
cess is to determine the water user’s objectives and present farm operation, skill and labor available,
concerns. One of the best ways to do this is to walk operators desires and concerns, and energy resources.
the fields to be planned with the user. Look around,
look at the next field, dig or auger some holes, use a (1) Soils
probe, check root development of previous crops, talk The soil survey, where available, is a prime source for
about what you see, and listen. Expand the inquiry soils information. The survey gives a good indication
beyond the boundary of the original request for assis- of what can be expected in a specific field; however, it
tance. If the request was for a specific practice or generally is not in great enough detail to provide all
irrigation system component, what thought was given information needed for detailed planning and design
to how the practice fits into overall resource conserva- on irrigated cropland, hayland, or pasture land. Addi-
tion operations? tional field investigation is generally necessary to
identify actual surface soil texture(s) and plant root
Ask the water user what the objectives, concerns, and zone volume.
problems are. (Problems may be real or perceived.)
Consider how individual actions within one resource On alluvial fans the action of flowing water has re-
impact other resources, both onsite and offsite. Iden- sulted in many soil inclusions and variations within
tify planning objectives for each resource of concern. fields. Observation of crops and soil color sometimes
Encourage the user to make these objectives a part of gives a clue as to soil differences. The irrigator may be
the irrigation plan. Objectives can include: able to identify some of the soil problems. With use of
• Protecting the soil from excessive erosion a hand auger, and a little experience, planners can gain
• Maintaining or improving community water enough information about soils based on their own
quality field investigations to do an adequate job of planning.
• Reducing dependency upon selected farm
chemicals Never assume a plant root zone depth. Excavate a 12-
• Sustaining productivity of soil to grow plants to 18-inch-deep pit or use a soil auger to observe (and
• Conserving water where supply is limited, and measure) onsite root development patterns and
wise use of water where supply is not limited depths.
• Promoting fish and wildlife habitat
• Reducing energy use Nearly all soils are affected by field equipment caused
• Identify the true decisionmaker involved in day- compaction. Compaction, especially tillage pans, can
to-day (and perhaps hourly) decisions concern- limit plant root development and water measurement.
ing operation of the irrigation system. The deci- Overirrigation can also limit root development pat-
sionmaker can be the owner, operator, or the terns. An otherwise deep soil responds as a shallow
irrigator. Typically all three (even if one person soil if root zone volumes are limited by cultural prac-
fills all three roles) are involved and should be a tices on that field. Onsite cultural practices often limit
part of the planning process. root development to the soil volume above a tillage
pan.
(b) Resource inventory and Critical data, such as available water capacity and
analysis of data intake rates, may require taking tests on soils in spe-
cific fields. These parameters vary even within the
The soil, water, air, plant, and animal resource inven- same soil series. Judgment must be used by the plan-
tory is an information collection process. It provides ner in determining how reliable existing data are and if
information needed to prepare the irrigation plan. The additional detail surveying and testing are needed.
first phase, the resource inventory, is performed Other basic considerations include crop rooting
during the field visit as part of the previous step. Then depths, soil salinity and sodicity, soil acidity, presence
data must be analyzed. Some of the more important of a water table, drainage problems, erosion and
sedimentation problems, and soil condition.
(2) Crops (5) Existing physical features

Crops most likely to be grown should be identified and Determine access to all parts of the irrigated area and
peak crop evapotranspiration (ETc) by these crops location of access roads, aboveground utilities, buried
determined. Net irrigation requirement and frequency utilities, and other physical features. Depth to buried
of irrigation need to be determined based on soils and utilities may control excavation location and depths.
crops grown and the amount of risk the owner wishes Aboveground utilities may limit the use and layout of
to assume. Determine what crop yields and product sprinkler systems (pivot and linear move systems,
quality have been typical in the past. Find out from the side-roll wheel lines, traveling gun types). Use aerial
water user what cultural practices have been used. photographs and maps as plan base maps and add
They may include cultivation sequence, equipment sketches or overlays.
used, width of equipment (cultivators, haying equip-
ment), crop varieties, fertilizer usage and time of (6) Existing irrigation systems
application, crop rotations, and planting and harvest An analysis of the existing irrigation method and
dates. Discuss crops and cultural practices that might system, including management, helps to determine if
be used in a planned cropping system. the present system is appropriate for the resources
involved. Improving management using the existing
(3) Topography system is always the first component of improved
Determine high and low points in each field and the water application. Too often the perception exists that
direction of irrigation for surface irrigation and sur- to improve water application a new or different irriga-
face drainage. Simple bench level surveys may be tion system must be installed. Installing a new irriga-
required to obtain spot elevations. A detailed topo- tion system to improve water application efficiency is
graphic or grid survey is expedient for selecting alter- not only costly, but often unnecessary. Water applica-
natives for detailed planning and design of specific tion efficiency improvements are usually limited to 5
irrigation systems and determining if intensive land to 10 percent increase over using proper water man-
leveling or reorganization is needed. A detailed topo- agement with the existing system. Using proper water
graphic map is often necessary for planning and de- management with the existing system often results in
signing micro and low pressure sprinkler irrigation increasing water application efficiency more than 30
systems. Small changes in elevation can have large percent.
effects on irrigation uniformity when using low pres-
sure irrigation systems. After a thorough analysis of water management prac-
tices used, make an inventory of the existing system.
(4) Water supply Gather data on equipment brands, models, and capaci-
Determine flow rate (when available), source location, ties. Perform a simple irrigation system analysis or a
and elevation of water supply. Water quality, including detailed system analysis if needed. The water user may
chemical content, sediment, and debris loads also have some strong feelings about certain irrigation
need to be determined. Quality of runoff water from methods and systems. Users deserve information on
upstream irrigators can determine its suitability for the best available method and systems that meet their
use on certain crops. Runoff water may contain cer- needs and are most suitable for the site. Pros and
tain pesticides and their metabolites, nutrients (i.e., cons, including labor requirement and costs of a best
phosphorous) and sediment. fit system, need to be provided.
Tailwater recovery and reuse should be a consider- (7) Water table presence
ation where allowed by local water regulations. It may Determine availability, depth, duration, type of buried
be necessary to obtain laboratory tests for chemical conduit system (where it exists), water quality, and if
content and to measure water supply flow rates. the water table can provide either part or all the crop
water needs.
If an irrigation company or district is involved, deter-
mine their delivery schedule. Amount of lift (depth to
water table with drawdown) and costs while pumping
are factors when using wells. Water costs and pump-
ing costs can be major factors in any cost-benefit
analysis.
(8) Existing drainage systems (11) Operator's desires and concerns

Analyze existing surface and subsurface drainage Determine operator’s objectives, desires, and con-
facilities. Include condition of existing ditches and cerns. Ask the water user about desires and concerns,
underground drains, sources of water, and problems and listen to the answers. Are desires based on fact,
created by poor drainage. Determine if poor drainage perception, or what the neighbor has?
is the result of mismanagement or natural causes.
Overirrigation is by far the greatest water management (12) Energy resources
problem where water supplies are adequate. Determine the availability and unit costs of electrical
power. This should include power company policies
(9) Environmental factors concerning new installations, standby charges, de-
Among many resources, wetland areas within the mand charges, and minimum charges. Diesel, natural
planning area must be identified and assessed. Pos- gas, or gasoline engines for powering pumps can be
sible water pollution sources need to be identified, and more cost effective especially where most or part of
floodplain hazard needs to be evaluated. This inven- the seasonal crop water requirements is met by pre-
tory process and environmental effects can be facili- cipitation. Estimate efficiency of the existing power
tated by use of exhibit 10–1, environmental effects for equipment. Consider the need for total pumping plant
resource management plan (Exhibit 5, Part 600.7, evaluations. Investigate the potential for gravity flow
NRCS National Planning Procedures Handbook). systems.
(10) Present farm operation

Find out about the overall mix of farm enterprises and
how the irrigated crops fit into the total farm manage-
ment system. Determine the amount and skill of labor
available. As irrigation systems become more auto-
mated and computerized, higher level of operation and
management skills are necessary. Observe the level of
present farm management. It is unlikely a less than
adequate manager will suddenly assume high manage-
ment skills and desires.

Exhibit 10–1 Environmental effects for resource management plan 1/

Environmental Effects Worksheet for Resource Management Plans

NAME _________________________________________DATE ______________________________PREPARED BY_______________________________________
DISTRICT _______________________________________________COUNTY _______________________________________ENG. JOB CLASS________________
Purpose: This form summarizes effects of the practices/systems. It also provides summary documentation for
environmental evaluation of the planned actions.
Instructions: Complete the evaluation of each conservation management system (CMS). Short term refers to
installation period and; long-term refers to the effects during the life span of the practice or systems.
Effect codes: += beneficial; - = adverse; 0= none. For Quality criteria columns, check yes or no.
Effects are to be quantified where possible.
Meets Q criteria
Effects
Benchmark Planned
Resource Effects Quality criteria
considerations* Short Long notes No Yes No Yes notes
Soil
Erosion
Condition
Deposition
Water
Quantity
Quality
Air
Quality
Condition
Plant
Suitability
Condition
Management
Animal
Habitat (domestic)
Habitat (wildlife)
Management
* May be amplified, if appropriate, by subcategories such as sheet erosion, wind erosion, gully erosion.
See continuation on reverse page.

Exhibit 10–1 Environmental effects for resource management plan—Continued

Environmental Effects Worksheet for Resource Management Plans—Continued
Human Instructions: An explanation of the specific effects should be noted for

considerations No Yes each category necessary or important to decision making.
Economics Notes:
Cost effectiveness
Financial condition
Markets available
Client input (mgt., labor)
Base acreage maintained
Sustainability
Social Notes:
Public health and safety
Social values
Client characteristics
Social risk-reasonable
Client tenure considered
Cultural resources: (If response to the following questions is “No” implementation may proceed when documentation is complete.)
No Yes
1. Do the planned alternatives include undertakings defined by NRCS GM 420-401? (Practices that may
damage cultural resources.) If “Yes,” see below.
2. Are cultural resources present? If “Yes,” document the resource(s) on the site and determine impacts
following NRCS GM 420-401.
Special environmental concerns: If yes to any of the following, explain in notes section or on attachment.
Present Effect
Consideration
No Yes Unknown No Yes Unknown
Prime and unique farmland

Threatened and/or endangered plant
Threatened and/or endangered animal
Visual resources
Coastal zone management area
Natural area
Wild and scenic river
Wetlands
Riparian areas
Special aquatic sites
No Yes Met
404 permit required
State, county, local requirements
Mitigation planned required
Degree of public interest/potential controversy
This is not a Federal action that will have significant effect on the quality of the human environment.
This may be a major Federal action that will have significant effect on the quality of human environment
1/ Source: National Planning Procedures Handbook, part 600.7, exhibit 5, United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conser-
vation Service, 1993.

(c) Formulate and evaluate • Irrigation field ditches

alternatives • Pipelines (surface and buried)
• Structure for water control (including measuring
The planner needs to consider all alternative conserva- devices)
tion management systems that meet the needs of the • Irrigation water conveyance, ditch, and canal
water user, address resource concerns, and solve lining
resource problems. Work through the most promising • Irrigation system tailwater recovery and reuse
alternatives just to the extent needed to determine • Irrigation land leveling, grading, and smoothing
feasibility. Refine the most feasible alternatives, and • Irrigation pit or regulating reservoir
document them in enough detail that water user can • Irrigation storage reservoir
select the alternative that best meets the defined needs • Water table control
and desires. The most promising alternatives generally • Well
require at least a cost estimate and may require an
economic analysis. The alternatives must be thor- Drainage system:
oughly discussed with the water user at the time • Controlled drainage
documentation is presented and discussed. • Subsurface drain
• Surface drainage
Alternatives considered should meet all requirements • Irrigation tailwater disposal
of an conservation management system, the FOTG,
and the objectives of the water user. An conservation Conservation cropping sequence:
management system on irrigated land may include one • Crop residue use
or more of the following practices and measures: • Conservation tillage
• Pasture and hayland management
Irrigation method: • Field windbreaks
• Surface—Level and graded systems including • Nutrient management
border, basin, furrow, rill, corrugation, contour • Pest management
levee, contour furrow, and contour ditch. • Pumping plant for water control
• Sprinkle—Periodic move, fixed (solid) set, gun • Wildlife wetland habitat management
type, and continuous (self) move (center pivot or
linear move including LEPA and LPIC, and gun Other:
type). • Access road
• Micro—Line source, point source, basin bubbler, • Field arrangement
and minispray. • Obstruction removal
• Subirrigation—Water table control.
Water budget or balance
Irrigation water management: A representative or specific water budget or balance
• How will the need to irrigate (when and how taken from the FOTG or developed for the specific
much) be determined? farm can be displayed in table or graph form. A water
• What irrigation system adjustments can be made budget is a planning or predictive tool. Water balance
to increase or decrease application? is most often a daily operational tool. A water balance
for any period can show:
Irrigation system distribution components: • When and how much water is used by the
crop(s).
• When and how much water is available or ap-
plied for crop use—from ground water, precipi-
tation, irrigation, or a combination of these.
• When and how much water is available for deep
percolation below the plant root zone, and to
runoff.

A water budget is a useful planning tool in comparing

effects of different irrigation systems and levels of 652.1003 Irrigation sys-
management of what water goes where, on a monthly
and yearly basis. Where daily crop water use data are tem, operation, and water
available, the more detailed water balance can display management plan
effects of water availability, nutrient and pesticide
application, and management. For design and manage-
ment purposes, the field water balance can be written Once decisions are made regarding the irrigation
mathematically as: method and system to be used, a detailed irrigation
Fg = ETc + DP + SDL + RO − P − GW − ∆SW system installation plan along with operation and
management plans can be prepared. These parts of the
overall irrigation plan may include engineering draw-
where: ings, specifications, resource data, quantity estimates,
Fg = gross water required during the period and other data needed by the water user to implement,
ETc = crop evapotranspiration during the period operate, maintain, and properly manage the selected
Dp = deep percolation from the crop root zone irrigation system. Some major detailed plan segments
during the period are:
SDL = spray and drift losses from irrigation water • Conservation plan for crops, pasture, or hayland
in air and evaporation from plant canopies • Irrigation system application plan
during the period • Irrigation water management plan
RO = surface runoff that leaves the field during the • Installation
period • Maintenance
P = total precipitation during the period • Followup and evaluation
GW = ground water contribution to the crop root
zone during the period
∆SW = change in soil water in the crop root zone (a) Conservation plan for crops,
during the period (this may be plus or minus)
pasture, or hayland
Note: The above equation provides for all losses when This plan should provide recorded decisions for crops
computing Fg. If net application (Fn) is used instead of to be grown, crop rotation, varieties, planting depth
gross application (Fg), then losses would be estimated and rates, nutrient and pesticide management, weed
by using overall irrigation efficiency (IE). control, residue management, establishing crops, and
cultivation and harvest procedures. It may include
such practices as:
(d) Decisions and implementation • Conservation cropping sequence
• Crop residue use
After decisions are made by the water user, they need • Conservation tillage system
to be documented. Technical assistance required for • Mulching
implementation and followup can be tentatively identi- • Chiseling and subsoiling
fied. Definite decisions for irrigation method and type • Cover and green manure crops
of system, system components, and operation and • Toxic salt reduction
management practices are essential, but timing of • Contour farming
implementation is sometimes not totally predictable. • Nutrient management
• Pest management

(b) Irrigation system application • The operations plan should detail how they
plan system is to be operated including: changing and
draining the system operating and closing valves;
Details relating to the installation of the irrigation winterizing motors, engines, and pumps; and
system (including method of handling tailwater and making application rate changes.
drainage) are translated into drawings, specifications, • The method for determining when (frequency)
quantity and cost estimates, and operation and mainte- and how much water (normal depth of applica-
nance procedure details. As in other parts of the tion per irrigation) to apply. This information is
overall irrigation plan, irrigation system improvements based on peak period use rate and on soil water
are often designed and installed in stages. When this is content or plant water use (stress) levels. The
the case, enough design must be done initially on the peak period use rate should include enough
overall system to assure that all the subsequently water to meet the use rate for all months during
installed components operate satisfactorily when the the irrigation season. The following basic equa-
complete system is installed and operating. tion is applicable:
QT=DA
Construction drawings and specifications should be
tailored to the user to some degree. Drawings should where:
be neat, complete, and professional. Depending on Q = flow rate (ft3/s)
skill and construction experience of the water user or T = time (hr)
contractor, more detail, including more drawings, may D = depth of application (in)
be needed on how to do the job. A = area (acres)
Details of the drawings and specifications must be A useful relationship for converting flow rate to
reviewed with each water user at the time the plans depth of application is:
and specifications are provided. This will help ensure 1 ft 3/s for 1 hr = 1 in depth over 1 acre
that there is full understanding of what is to be in- or
stalled and how it is to be done. The water user can 1 ft3/s = 24 ac-in/d
also be an important part of the construction inspec- or
tion process where NRCS or a consultant does not 1 ft3/s = 2 ac-ft/d
provide full time inspection.
• Know the relationship between gross irrigation
An irrigation system operations plan is a part of every depth and the net irrigation depth for each field.
irrigation system applications plan. The operating plan • Recommend design flow rates, how to measure
should detail how the system is to be operated includ- flows, effects of advance times, how to make
ing: charging and draining the system, opening and adjustments, and irrigation set times for
closing valves, winterizing motors, engines, and borders, levees, furrows, sprinklers, and micro
pumps, and making application rate changes. system emitters, bubblers, or hose. For example,
misapplying adjustment in flow and set time for
eliminating or reducing runoff may inadvertently
(c) Irrigation water management increase deep percolation. Flow measurement is
plan a primary management tool along with being a
regulation tool.
The irrigation water management plan covers the • Details of irrigation scheduling method and how
details needed to manage the irrigation system. Such to prepare a day to day schedule, accounting for
details may include the following information. effective precipitation, automation setting and
• How fast the soil absorbs water (intake and adjustment, and computerized scheduling.
application rates), including how to determine • How to check field for adequacy of irrigation.
when adjustments are necessary and how to • Guidelines for self-evaluation of irrigation effec-
make the needed adjustments. tiveness.
• Know cost of each irrigation and anticipated
benefits.

Management aspects of irrigation should be discussed (f) Followup and evaluation

throughout the planning process. Different irrigation
scheduling methods, soil-water content determination Planned followup is essential for an irrigation plan
procedures, flow measurement procedures, and pros because soil, water, and crop conditions change.
and cons of different set times should all have been Adjustments must be made in management of the
thoroughly discussed and perhaps demonstrated. The system. Data and technical design procedures rely
final written management plan should contain details on upon best available and average values, which are
procedures selected by the irrigation decisionmaker. All never fully accurate, to make absolute predictions of
irrigation application amounts, set time, and scheduling how irrigation systems will function. Typically, some
periods are estimates. Procedures must be provided for technical help is needed to make adjustments. All
making adjustments in frequency, quantities, and times sources of followup and evaluation technical assis-
of application. Every water user has a different learning tance should be considered. The need for adjustments
level, operation and management desire, and skill level. during system use needs to be fully explained to the
The planner must develop an accurate feel for the level water user during the planning process.
of irrigation water management appropriate for the
individual water user. Remember a below average
manager will seldom become an above average manager
overnight.
(d) Installation
Installations of the irrigation system, system compo-
nents, and agronomic practices need technical sup-
port. Planning and design are of no value if practices
are not installed, operated, and managed properly.
Sufficient time for technical assistance needs to be
provided to ensure that the job is done right. Consider
all sources of installation technical assistance includ-
ing farm consultants, irrigation dealers, and private
engineers.
Operation and management of irrigation by the water

user are much easier and less time consuming if plan-
ning was thorough. This includes working closely with
the water user to assure documentation is complete
and has been thoroughly explained and discussed.
(e) Maintenance
Maintenance of the irrigation system and all compo-
nents is essential for satisfactory long-term economi-
cal operation. Maintenance items need to be presented
and discussed in the irrigation plan. This includes:
• Annual (or between crops) laser leveling or
grading of surface irrigated fields
• Maintenance of pump, well, valves, and pipeline
• Replacement of worn or malfunctioning sprin-
kler/spray nozzles and heads, and micro emitter
devices.

652.1004 Planning aids
Worksheets can aid in planning and documentation;

however, they should be used only if they facilitate the
planning effort. Other methods of documenting the
planning processes should be used if they better serve
the planner and water user. Many computer assisted
irrigation planning and design software programs
provide a summary of irrigation system design or
evaluation.
Irrigation Inventory Worksheet—A step-by-step

process in recording needed resource inventory data is
necessary. Exhibit 10–2 provides an example inven-
tory of resource data. It is not all inclusive and should
be supplemented with other records as needed. Only
information on those items that apply and are needed
should be collected and recorded. See chapter 15 of
this guide for a copy of blank example worksheets.
Irrigation Planning Worksheet—Soil and crop evapo-

transpiration data and irrigation system capacity
requirements can be recorded and computed using the
worksheet shown in exhibit 10–3. See chapter 15 of
this guide for a copy of blank example worksheets.
Irrigation Plan Map—Exhibit 10–4 displays an ex-

ample plan of a simplified irrigation system. The plan
should be only as detailed as is necessary to display
pertinent features of the irrigation system. Things to
show include delivery facilities, structures, pump,
mainlines, laterals, ditches, ponds, and methods of
irrigation.
Irrigation Water Management Plan—An example

irrigation water management plan for a sprinkler
irrigation system is displayed in exhibit 10–5. Exhibit
10–6, Guide for Estimating Soil Moisture for Plant Use
(Feel and Appearance Method), is included as a part of
the IWM plan. See chapter 15 of this guide for a copy
of blank example worksheets.

Exhibit 10–2 Irrigation system inventory worksheet

Irrigation System Inventory Worksheet
OWNER/OPERATOR _____________________________________________________ FIELD OFFICE _______________________________________________
JOB DESCRIPTION ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
LOCATION ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
ASSISTED BY _____________________________________________________________ DATE _____________________________________________________
(Collect and fill out only portions of this form that apply and are needed)
Area irrigated _______________ acres
Crops
Crops now grown
Typical planting date
Typical harvest date
Typical yield (unit) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Age of planting
Cultivation and other cultural practices
Water
Water source(s)
irrigation organization
Water available (ft3/sec, gpm, miners inches, mg/da)
Seasonal total water available (ac-ft, million gal)
Water availability continuous demand rotation fixed schedule
Typical water availability times (schedule and ordering procedure)
Method of determining when and how much to irrigate:
Is flow measuring device maintained and used?
Method of measuring water flow rate
Water quality: Sediment Debris, moss
Electrical conductivity mmhos/cm SAR
Comments

Exhibit 10–2 Irrigation system inventory worksheet—Continued

Example Irrigation System Inventory Worksheet—Continued
NAME ________________________________________ DATE __________________________ PREPARED BY ______________________________________
Soils (principal soil in field)

Soil # 1
Map symbol Soil series & surface texture
Percentage of field (%) Area (acres)

Depth Texture AWC (in/in) AWC (in) Cum AWC (in)
Depth to water table or restrictive layer 1

Intake family/intake group/max application rate
Comments
Soil # 2


Comments
Soil # 3


Comments
1 If restrictive for root development or water movement


Irrigation System Inventory Worksheet—Continued
Water supply and distribution system

Supply system to field (earth ditch, lined ditch, plastic pipeline, etc.):
Type
Size
Capacity (ft3/sec, gpm, miners inches, mgal/day)
Pressure/Elevation at head of field or turnout (lb/in2) (ft)

System condition
Estimated conveyance efficiency of supply system (%)
In-field distribution system (earth or lined ditch, buried pipe, surface portable pipe, lay flat tubing):
Type
Size
Capacity
Total available static head (gravity) (ft)

System condition
Estimated efflciency of delivery system (%)
Comments
Water application system

Existing sprinkler system (attach design and/or system evaluation. if available):
Type system (center pivot, sidewheel-roll, hand move, traveler, big gun)
Manufacturer name and model

Tower spacing (pivot or linear) (ft) End gun (pivot)?
Wheel size (sidewheel-roll) diameter
Type of drive
Pressure at lateral entrance (first head) (lb/in2)
Mainline diameter/length
Lateral diameter/length
Lateral spacing (S1) Sprinkler head spacing (Sm)
Sprinkler make/model
Nozzle size(s) by type
Design nozzle pressure (lb/in2) Wetted diameter (ft)
(Attach sprinkler head data for pivot)
Maximum elevation difference: Along lateral
Between sets
Application efficiency low 1/4 (Eq) (%) (Estimated or attach evaluation)

Wind - Prevailing direction and velocity
Comments


Existing surface system (attach system evaluation if available)

Type of system (graded border, level border, graded furrow, level furrow, contour levee, contour ditch, wild flooding)
Leveled fields: Field slope: In direction of irrigation ft/ft
Cross slope ft/ft
Smoothness: Rough Smooth Very smooth Laser equipment used yes no
Border or levee width ft Furrow/corrugation/rill spacing in
Length of run: Minimum ft Maximum ft Average ft
Number of furrows or borders per set
Border or levee dike heights
Application efficiency, low 1/4 (Eq) % (Estimated or attach evaluation)
General maintenance of system
Drainage, tail water reuse facilitv

Method for collection and disposal of field runoff (tailwater, precipitation)
Final destination of runoff water

Surface/subsurface drainage system
Environmental impacts of existing drainage system
Existing micro irrigation system (Attach design or system evaluation if available)

Type of system: Drip emitters Mini spray/sprinklers Line source
Spacing between discharge devices along distribution laterals (ft, in)
Laterals - diameter, length
Main lines and submains - diameter, length, etc.
Spacing between distribution laterals (ft, in)

Average application device discharge pressure (lbs/in2)
Are pressure compensating devices required? yes no
Are pressure compensating devices used? yes no
Average application device discharge (gph, gpm)
Area irrigated by one irrigation set (acres)
Typical irrigation set time (hr, min)
Maximum elevation difference with one irrigation set (ft)
Type and number of filters used
Irrigation is initiated by: manual control programmed timer clock timer soil moisture sensing device
Comments:


Existing subsurface irrigation system

Water table control type and number of system or segments
Water table control devices flashboard float
Buried laterals diameter spacing depths
Water table elevation(s): Existing Planned
Month Elevation Depth below surface
Pumping plant
Pump
(Attach pump characteristic curves and/or pump system analysis if available)

Pump elevation above mean sea level (approx) (ft)
Pump type: centrifulgal turbine submersible Propeller axial flow
Make Model
Electric motor RPM Engine operating RPM
Pump design discharge gpm @ ft or lb/in2
Impeller size Impeller diameter Number of impellers
Pressure at outlet of pump or inlet to pipeline lb/in2 date
Discharge gpm How measured date
Valves, fittings
Power unit
Rated HP at RPM
Gear or belt drive mechanism

Type (direct, gear, belt)
RPM at driver RPM at pump
Energy (A pump evaluation is required to get this data)
Energy input (from evaluation) (KW) (gal/hr) (mcf)
Pumping plant efficiency (from evaluation) ( %)
Energy cost per acre foot (from evaluation)
General condition of equipment, problems


Irrigation management
Irrigation scheduling method(s)
Typical number of irrigations per season
Typical time between irrigations
Set times or time per revolution
Method of determining soil moisture
Typical water application per (set, revolution, pass)
Source, availability and skill of irrigation labor
Comments about management of the existing system and reasons for improvement. What are the objectives of the irrigation decisionmaker?
What management level is planned?
Other observations and comments

Exhibit 10–3 Irrigation planning worksheet

Irrigation Planning Worksheet
JOB DESCRIPTION ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
LOCATION ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
ASSISTED BY _____________________________________________________________ DATE _____________________________________________________
Soil—Data for limiting soil

Percent Cumulative AWC
Depth to Intake
Soil series of area 1 ft 4 ft 5 ft restrictive fam., grp.
2 ft 3 ft
(%) (in) (in) (in) (in) (in) layer 1 max. rate
1Actual observed depth in the field
Maximum time between irrigations for any method/system based on peak crop ET
Maximum net replacement Maximum
Management Total Peak daily
MAD irrigation
Crop root zone AWC
percent crop ET frequency
(ft) (in) (in/d) (days) (in/d)
(in) (days)
Minimum system flow requirement for irrigation system

Depth of irrigation application Minimum system flow requirement
Peak daily Max. irrig.
System description total flow
Net Efficiency Gross crop ET frequency
(Fn) (in) (%) (Fg) (in) (in/d) (days) (gpm) (ft3/s)
Minimum dependable flow available to system _________________________ gpm, ft3/s, inches, etc.
Total irrigated area ________________ acres. Total operating hours per day __________________ .

Exhibit 10–3 Irrigation planning worksheet—Continued

Irrigation Planning Worksheet—Continued
Weighted monthly crop evapotranspiration

The following process is used where more than one one crop is grown under the same irrigation system; i.e., several fields, farm group, district.
Monthly crop evapotranspiration - ETc

Acres
Crop
(ac) Depth1 Volume 2 Depth1 Volume 2 Depth1 Volume 2 Depth1 Volume 2
(in) (ac-in) (in) (ac-in) (in) (ac-in) (in) (ac-in)
Total
Weighted average crop ET3
Computed peak daily crop evapotranspiration 4
Net irrigation Highest weighted Peak period
depth applied monthly average average daily
(fn) (in) crop ET crop ET

(in) (in)
1 Calculated monthly crop ET, inches.

2 Calculated volume of water needed monthly crop ET = ac x ETc = ________________ acre-inches.
3 Calculated weighted monthly crop ET = Total Volume/ Total Area = _____________ inches.
4 Determined from table 2-55, Part 623, Chapter 2, Irrigation Water Requirements, or from formula:
ETd = 0.034 ETm1.09 Fn-0.09, Where: ETd = average daily peak crop ET
ETm = average crop ET for peak month
Fn = net depth of water application per irrigation

Exhibit 10–4 Irrigation plan map
Land owner/operator __________________________________________________ Field office _________________________________________

Job description ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Location __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Assisted by ______________________________________________________________________________________ Date ____________________
Water source
Direction
of move Laterals
1 2
Field crops
Sprinkler irrigation Orchard
system Micro irrigation
(wheel lines) system
(drip emitters)
Buried
submain
Buried
Mainline
Field Ditch
Side roll (wheel line) lateral
Direction Direction
3 of irrigation
of move
Field crops
Graded border
irrigation system
Buried
Pipeline
Pump
Tailwater Tailwater
collection collection ditch
pond
Scale: 1 in = 400 ft

Exhibit 10–5 Irrigation water management plan for sprinkler irrigation system

Irrigation Water Management Plan—Sprinkler Irrigation System

J.P. Farmer
NAME ________________________________________
12/14/94 Joe Technician
DATE __________________________ PREPARED BY _______________________________________
Lower Power
DISTRICT _________________________________________ Eagle Point
COUNTY ____________________________________ ENGR JOB CLASS _________________
Resource inventory
Crop information
Field number(s) #1
Crop irrigated Pasture Grass
Acres Irrigated (acres) 30 ac
Normal rooting depth (feet, inches) 30 in
Management allowable depletion (MAD) (percent, inches) 50%
Peak daily crop requirements (ac-in/day) 0.22 ac-in/da
Average annual net irrigation requirements (ac-in/ year) 22 ac-in/yr
Soil Information
Soils series and surface texture Jackson Silt Loam- 33A (0-1% slope)
Capability class II (irrigated)
Allowable soil loss (T=tons per-acre per year) T=5
Wind Erodibility Group (WEG) WEG=4
Actual on-site (observed and measured) average root zone depth 48 in
Total available water capacity (AWC) of soil plant root zone 9.6 in
Soil intake (Maximum application rate for sprinkler system) 0.35 in/hr
Available water capacity (AWC) for crop rooting depth: Depth AWC
(inches) (inch/inch) (total inches)
0-24 0.20 4.8
Irrigation system management information
Irrigation system Periodic move side roll wheel line sprinkler

Source of water well
Delivery schedule continuous
Estimated overall irrigation efficiency 60%
Management allowable depletion for pasture 50%
Irrigation set time to apply full irrigation and replace full MAD 11.5 hours
Gross application 4.0 inches
Net application 2.4 inches
Actual gross sprinkler application rate 0.35 in/hr
Irrigation system flow capacity requirement for full time irrigation, Q (gpm) 216 gpm

Exhibit 10–5 Irrigation water management plan for sprinkler irrigation system—Continued

Irrigation Water Management Plan— Sprinkler Irrigation System—Continued
J.P. Farmer
NAME ________________________________________ 12/14/94 Joe Technician
DATE __________________________ PREPARED BY _______________________________________
Irrigation scheduling Information

Monthly net1 Crop evapo- Irrigation Average2
Month irrigation transpiration frequency number of
requirement use rate needed Irrigations
(inches) (in/day) (days) needed
April 1.0 0.03 30 0

May 2.8 0.09 26 1
June 4.0 0.13 18 2
July 6.5 0.21 11 3
August 5.0 0.16 15 2
September 2.1 0.07 30 1
October 0.5 0.03 30 0
Total 21.9 9
1 Net irrigation requirement (NIR) represents crop evapotranspiration less effective rainfall.
2 Assuming a full soil profile at start of season. Check soil moisture before irrigating. Account for rainfall that can replace soil moisture
depletion. If soil moisture depletion is less than 50% wait for a few days and check it again.
Warmer than “average” months will typically require additional irrigation water; cooler than “average months will typically
require less irrigation water; months with more than “average” effective rainfall will typically require less irrigation water.
Only operate the system when needed to furnish water for crop needs. The preceding irrigation schedule can be used as a
guide to determine when to irrigate. It is a guide only for average month and year conditions. Optimizing use of rainfall to
reduce unnecessary irrigations during the growing season is a good management practice. In semi-humid and humid areas, it
is recommended to not replace 100 percent of the soil moisture depletion each irrigation. Leave room in the plant root zone
for containing water infiltration from rainfall events. This will vary with location, frequency, and amount of rainfall occurring
during the growing season. It should be approximately 0.5 to 1.0 inches.
Maintaining to a higher soil moisture level (MAD) typically does not require more irrigation water for the season, just more
frequent smaller irrigations. This is especially true with crops such as root vegetables, potatoes, onions, garlic, mint, and
sweet corn.
The attached chart for evaluating soil moisture by the feel and appearance method can be used to help determine when to
irrigate. Other common methods to monitor crop water use and soil moisture include: plant signs (crop critical moisture stress
periods), atmometer, evaporation pan (applying appropriate factors), tensiometers, electrical resistance blocks (moisture
blocks), and crop water stress index (CWSI gm).
NRCS (SCS) - SCHEDULER computer software is available to provide calculations of daily crop evapotranspiration when
used with local daily weather station values. On-site rainfall data is necessary to determine effective rainfall, whereas local
weather station rainfall data is not sufficiently accurate due to spatial variability. Current rainfall and soil moisture data can be
input manually or electronically to assist in predicting when irrigation is needed.

Exhibit 10–5 Irrigation water management plan for sprinkler irrigation system—Continued

Irrigation Water Management Plan—Sprinkler Irrigation System—Continued
NAME J.P. Farmer DATE 12/14/94 PREPARED BY Joe Technician

A properly operated, maintained, and managed sprinkle irrigation system is an asset to your farm. Your system
was designed and installed to apply irrigation water to meet the needs of the crop without causing erosion, runoff,
and losses to deep percolation. The estimated life span of your system is 15 years. The life of the system can be
assured and usually increased by developing and carrying out a good operation and maintenance program.
Pollution hazards to ground and surface water can be minimized when good irrigation water management practices
are followed. Losses of irrigation water to deep percolation and runoff should be minimized. Deep percolation and
runoff from irrigation can carry nutrients and pesticides into ground and surface water. Avoiding spills from agricul-
tural chemicals, fuels, and lubricants. will also minimize potential pollution hazards to ground and surface water.
Leaching for salinity control may be required if electrical conductivity of the irrigation water or soil water exceeds
plant tolerance for your yield and quality objectives. If this condition exists on your field(s), a salinity management
plan should be developed.
The following are system design information and recommendations to help you develop an operation and mainte-
nance plan (see irrigation system map for layout):
• average operating pressure = 38 lb/in2 (use a pressure gage to check operating pressure)
• nozzle size = 13/64 inch (use shank end of high speed drill bit to check nozzle wear)
• average sprinkler head discharge 7.2 gpm
• sprinkler head rotation speed should be 1 - 2 revolutions per minute
• sprinkler head spacing on lateral = 40 50 ft
ft; outlet valve spacing on main line
• lateral, number(s)2 , 1,280 ft, 4 inch diameter side roll wheel line
• main line = 2.600 ft 6 inch diameter, type PVC , class 160 lb/in2
• pump = 30 hp electric , 475 gpm @ 175 ft Total Dynamic Head (TDH)
Make sure that all measuring devices, valves, sprinkler heads, surface pipeline, and other mechanical parts of the
system are checked periodically and worn or damaged parts are replaced as needed. Always replace a worn or
improperly functioning nozzle with design size and type. Sprinkler heads operate efficiently and provide uniform
application when they are plumb, in good operating condition, and operate at planned pressure. Maintain all
pumps, piping, valves, electrical and mechanical equipment in accordance with manufacturer recommendations.
Check and clean screens and filters as necessary to prevent unnecessary hydraulic friction loss and to maintain
water flow necessary for efficient pump operation.
Protect pumping plant and all associated electrical and mechanical controls from damage by livestock, rodents,
insects, heat, water, lightning, sudden power failure, and sudden water source loss. Provide and maintain good
surface drainage to prevent water pounding around pump and electrical equipment. Assure all electrical/gas fittings
are secure and safe. Always replace worn or excessively weathered electric cables and wires and gas tubing and
fittings when first noticed. Check periodically for undesirable stray currents and leaks. Display appropriate bilingual
operating instructions and warning signs as necessary. During non-seasonal use, drain pipelines and valves,
secure and protect all movable equipment (i.e. wheel lines).
If you need help developing your operation and maintenance plan, contact your local USDA Natural Resources
Conservation Service office for assistance.

Exhibit 10–6 Guide for estimating soil moisture conditions using feel and appearance method
Available - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Texture - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
soil Coarse Mod coarse Medium Fine
moisture fine sand sandy loam sandy clay loam clay loam
loamy fine sand fine sandy loam loam, silt loam silty clay loam
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Available water capacity (in/ft) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
(%) 0.6 – 1.2 1.3 – 1.7 1.5 – 2.1 1.6 – 2.4
0 – 25 Dry, loose, will hold Dry, forms a very Dry, soil aggregations Dry, soil aggregations
together if not dis- weak ball 1/, aggre- break away easily, no easily separate, clods
turbed; loose sand gated soil grains break moisture straining on are hard to crumble
grains on fingers. away easily from ball. fingers, clods crumble with applied pressure.
with applied pressure.
25 – 50 Slightly moist, forms Slightly moist, forms a Slightly moist, forms a Slightly moist, forms a
a very weak ball with weak ball with defined weak ball with rough weak ball, very few soil
well defined finger finger marks, darkened surfaces, no water aggregations break
marks, light coating color, no water staining on fingers away, no water stains
of loose and aggre- staining on fingers. few aggregated soil clods flatten with ap-
gated sand grains grains break away. plied pressure.
remain on fingers.
50 – 75 Moist, forms a weak Moist, forms a ball Moist, forms a ball, Moist, forms a smooth
ball with loose and ag- with defined finger very light water stain- ball with defined finger
gregated sand grains marks, very light soil- ing on fingers, dark- marks, light soil water
remain on fingers, water staining on fin- ened color, pliable, staining on fingers,
darkened color, heavy gers, darkened color, forms a weak ribbon ribbons between thumb
water staining on fin- will not slick. between thumb and and forefinger.
gers, will not ribbon 2/. forefinger.
75 – 100 Wet, forms a weak Wet, forms a ball with Wet, forms a ball with Wet, forms a ball,
ball, loose and aggre- wet outline left on well defined finger uneven medium to
gated sand grains hand, light to medium marks, light to heavy heavy soil water
remain on fingers, water staining on fin- soil water coating on coating on fingers
darkened color, heavy gers, makes a weak fingers, ribbons ribbons easily
water staining on fin- ribbon between thumb between thumb and between thumb and
gers, will not ribbon. and forefinger. forefinger. forefinger.
Field capacity Wet, forms a weak Wet, forms a soft ball, Wet, forms a soft ball, Wet, forms a soft ball
(100) ball, light to heavy free water appears free water appears free water appears on
soil-water coating on briefly on soil surface briefly on soil surface soil surface after
fingers, wet outline after squeezing or after squeezing or squeezing or shaking
of soft ball remains shaking medium to shaking, medium to thick soil water coating
on hand heavy soil water coat- heavy soil water on fingers, slick and
ing on fingers. coating on fingers. sticky.
1/ Ball is formed by squeezing a hand full of soil very firmly with one hand.
2/ Ribbon is formed when the soil is squeezed out of the hand between thumb and forefinger.


Chapter 11 Economic Evaluations Part 652
Chapter 11 Economic Evaluations Irrigation Guide
Contents: 652.1100 Forward 11–1
652.1101 General 11–1
652.1102 Economics of installing a new irrigation system 11–2

(a) Benefit analysis ........................................................................................... 11–2
(b) Cost analysis ................................................................................................ 11–4
(c) Benefit-to-cost analysis ............................................................................ 11–11
652.1103 Economics of operating an existing system 11–12

(a) Benefit analysis ......................................................................................... 11–12
(b) Operating costs ......................................................................................... 11–13
(c) Benefit-to-cost analysis ............................................................................ 11–14
652.1104 Maximizing net returns 11–15

(a) Marginal cost and marginal return ......................................................... 11–15
(b) Water-yield relationships ......................................................................... 11–15
(c) Production function .................................................................................. 11–17
652.1105 Pipeline installation and pumping costs evaluation 11–20
Tables Table 11–1 Present value factors for single payment 11–7
Table 11–2 Cost factors (amortization) 11–7
Table 11–3 Developing water use-yield relationship 11–16
Table 11–4 Marginal cost - marginal return relationships 11–18
Table 11–5 Typical energy consumption 11–24
Table 11–6 Equivalent energy annual cost escalation factors 11–24

11–i
Irrigation Guide
Figures Figure 11–1 Product yield vs. water applied—irrigated corn 11–17
Exhibits Exhibit 11–1 Gross benefits worksheet 11–3
Exhibit 11–2 Ownership (or fixed) costs 11–5
Exhibit 11–3 Increased ownership cost worksheet 11–9
Exhibit 11–4 Increased operating costs worksheet 11–10
Exhibit 11–5 Feasibility worksheet 11–11
Exhibit 11–6 Gross benefits worksheet 11–12
Exhibit 11–7 Increased operating costs worksheet 11–13
Exhibit 11–8 Benefit-to-cost analysis 11–14
Exhibit 11–9 Format for developing a partial budget 11–19
Examples Example 11–1 Pipeline installation and pumping costs evaluation 11–21
Example 11–2 Calculating annual energy savings 11–23
11–26
Chapter 11 Part 652
Economic Evaluations
Chapter 11 Economic Evaluations
Irrigation Guide
652.1100 Forward 652.1101 General
The material in chapter 11 is intended to be self help Decisions are made daily whether to purchase an item
instructional material and reinforce formal training or which item to purchase. Economics is the process
activities on the economics of irrigation. It is intended of deciding where and how we spend our money
primarily to illustrate for field office personnel the use ranging from pennies to thousands of dollars. There-
of economic principles and evaluation procedures. fore, what factors do we analyze in deciding how to
These principles and procedures should be helpful spend our money? Normally we compare the benefits
when working with land users analyzing the econom- of the purchase or investment to its cost. Someone
ics of irrigation. Additional help is available from considering the purchase of a new car might see better
technical specialists. For an expanded discussion of gas mileage and fewer repairs as benefits. Costs might
economic evaluations, see The Handbook of Econom- include higher car payments and higher insurance
ics for Conservation, Natural Resources Conservation premiums. Someone wanting a new computer might
Service (NRCS), April 1992, and Farm Management be comparing benefits that a new computer would give
Course Notebook, NRCS and America Society of Farm them in business and at home to the cost of giving up
Managers and Appraisers, 1994. other activities or items currently enjoyed.
Farmers, when deciding whether to purchase an

irrigation system, go through much the same thought
process. They may ask, “Should I continue my dryland
farming operation or should I irrigate? If I decide to
irrigate, how much water should be applied to get the
greatest profit? Will the greatest profit be realized at
the point of maximum yield? Will the increase in yield
more than pay the increase in costs?”
These questions can be asked when contemplating

whether to replace an existing irrigation system. What
are the proposed changes? What are the costs? What
are the benefits? Is there a better alternative? For
example:
• Improved water management with the existing
irrigation system, or
• Improved precipitation storage in the soil
resulting from improved soil condition, better
crop residue use, changed (usually reduced)
number and type of tillage operations, perform-
ing farming operations on the contour, or
• A combination of 1 and 2.
The need for change should be based on using the

existing irrigation system along with proper water,
soil, and plant management. Too often a poorly man-
aged surface irrigation system is compared to a prop-
erly managed sprinkler or micro irrigation system.
Assumed level of management can be guided by ob-
serving the irrigation decisionmakers current irriga-
tion water management and other farm management

Irrigation Guide
practices. If the water user is an average surface

irrigation system manager, chances are he/she will be 652.1102 Economics of
an average sprinkler or micro irrigation system man-
ager. Automated systems typically require higher installing a new irrigation
levels of management. system
Existing irrigation systems should be checked for both
management and system operational efficiencies. The An Economic Analysis consists of a Benefit Analysis,
basis for change should include an economic evalua- Cost Analysis, and a Benefit-to-Cost Analysis. A Mar-
tion of annual costs and benefits. Included are annual ginal Cost - Marginal Return Analysis can be made to
operating cost, labor availability and cost, annual cost show the relationship per increment of change. For
of installing the existing irrigation system, and annual example, per bushel of yield return or per inch of
net income using the existing irrigation system. water applied. Each of these components will be
described in this chapter.
The decision to purchase an irrigation system is often
based on an inadequate economic analysis. Data are
usually available or can be easily obtained to answer (a) Benefit analysis
questions in paragraph two of this section. The man-
agement ability and performance of the operator are Before installing an irrigation system, a benefit analy-
probably the most important factors in determining sis should be completed to determine management
the feasibility of irrigation or making a change in an requirements and profitability of such an investment.
existing irrigation system. Good water management is An irrigation system should be recommended only if it:
essential to realize the full benefit of irrigation. Under • Improves the net income of the operator.
poor management a farmer will be paying the full cost • Reduces or favorably changes the amount,
of irrigation, but realizing only part of the benefit. timing, or type of labor required.
• Has positive benefits on soil, water, air, plant
A perception among many irrigators is that to do a and animal resources.
better job irrigating, a different irrigation method or
system must be used; i.e., convert from surface irriga- Since there are four irrigation methods and many
tion method to the sprinkle method. Often, however, different irrigation systems to apply water by these
greater benefits can be derived with improved water methods, the decision becomes extremely critical in
management (includes irrigation scheduling and selecting an irrigation method and system that will
system maintenance using the existing irrigation maximize profits while protecting the environment. To
system). All irrigation methods (surface, sprinkle, help make this determination, the water user or con-
micro, and subsurface) can distribute an amount of sultant should employ economic tools as a part of
water uniformly across a field. However, site condi- the planning process to provide best management
tions for some irrigation systems can be quite limiting and system alternatives for a given water user’s
and labor requirements high. The first increment of situation.
change should always be to optimize the use of
precipitation and irrigation water applied using The beneficial evaluation of an irrigation system is
the existing irrigation system (if one exists). usually based on the premise that production, crop
quality, or both, will increase as a result of making
Each NRCS employee should be aware of the econom- irrigation management and system changes. This
ics of irrigating in the general area and be familiar with assumption is made with the knowledge that physical,
the procedure used in analyzing data to determine chemical, and biological properties of the soil, or
feasibility. seasonal variation of temperature and the timing and
availability of irrigation water are not a hindrance to
This chapter provides tools necessary to evaluate the increased production or quality potential.
feasibility of installing an irrigation system. These
tools, or principles, can also be used to evaluate other
types of conservation investments.

Irrigation Guide
Gross benefits from an irrigation system are fairly easy 16 inches of irrigation water to get an average of 170
to identify as compared to benefits from a grassed bushel per acre yield. Supporting data in section I of
waterway or terrace system. Sufficient data have been the FOTG support these numbers. In the example one
obtained, either by research or actual field conditions, alternative will be evaluated, while in reality, several
to develop a reliable relationship between available alternatives would most likely be evaluated. Alterna-
water and yield. In reality, benefits, in addition to tive systems could consist of different irrigation meth-
increased yields, will probably be included in the ods, different irrigation systems, automated versus
evaluation. These benefits can involve higher unit manual system operation, costs, and benefits.
prices for improved quality, reduced cost of operation
per unit of product produced, and with improved The example alternative to be evaluated is a proposed
water management reduced water use per unit of 130-acre center pivot sprinkler irrigation system to
product produced. Average yields rather than maxi- supplement natural precipitation (dryland farming). At
mum yields are recommended for cost benefit analy- 75 percent irrigation application efficiency, about 12.5
sis. Maximum yields do not reflect negative impacts inches of the 16.7 inches applied plus 10 inches of
from weeds, insects, wildlife, or cool growing seasons growing season precipitation is available for plant use.
that can occur. Crop budgets show that the increase in gross return
will be $347.10 per acre, rounded to $347. This is
The site selected for the following example has an calculated from the 130 bushel yield increase at a price
average annual effective rainfall of 19.3 inches, of of $2.67 per bushel.
which 10 inches is considered available (effective) for
plant use most years. Average dryland corn yield on In summary, it can be said that the average annual
the example farm is 40 bushels per acre. Well managed benefits, excluding the cost and operation of the
neighboring farms, also on deep silt loam soils, apply irrigation system and the increased variable produc-
tion costs of corn, is $347 per acre per year. Exhibit
11–1 may be helpful in determining gross benefits.
Exhibit 11–1 Gross benefits worksheet (using example 130-acre site)

Gross Benefits Worksheet
Crop Corn Date 1/ Year of price base 2/
Existing irrigation system none Planned irrigation system center pivot sprinkler
Gross value per acre of expected increase from irrigation:
130 bu/ac yield increase x $2.67 per unit (i.e. bu, etc.) = $347.10 (rounded to $347 )
1/ Date—For future reference, it is helpful to show the date the estimates were made.
2/ Year of price base—The price base is normally the current year prices.

Irrigation Guide
(b) Cost analysis housing, and some maintenance. These costs must be
paid each year the equipment is owned, even if the
The next step in an economic analysis is a cost analy- equipment sits idle. Actual loan amortization is an
sis. The average annual cost per acre to own and annual ownership cost consideration, typically shorter
operate the irrigation system and the increased annual than the life of purchased equipment.
production costs must be determined so that the
benefits and costs can be compared. Operating costs, commonly called variable costs, are
those costs that occur as production takes place.
One of the most difficult tasks in performing a cost Typical operating costs are seed, fuel, fertilizer, power
analysis is to include all costs. Costs associated with for irrigation systems, and labor. If production does
any enterprise can be diverse and thereby easily over- not take place, operating cost items are not needed.
looked. For this reason farm decisionmakers should
try to follow guidelines such as those in this chapter. The decision to purchase, rent, or lease irrigation
Farm decisionmakers and economists categorize costs equipment is extremely important. Fixed cost, variable
as fixed and variable to assist in both long-term and costs, and total cost should all receive some attention.
short-term financial decisions. These two categories Once the purchase has been made, however, the
together constitute total costs. decision to use it in any given year is linked closely to
variable costs.
Costs are generally classified as being either owner-
ship costs (fixed costs) or operating costs (variable (1) Ownership (fixed) costs
costs). Ownership costs are those costs incurred even The estimated cost of the proposed 130 acre center
if no production takes place. These costs are also pivot irrigation system is shown in exhibit 11–2.
independent of changes in yield. Examples of owner-
ship costs are depreciation, insurance, taxes, interest,

Irrigation Guide
Exhibit 11–2 Ownership (or fixed) costs (using example 130-acre site)
Ownership Costs
Center pivot sprinkler system installed with concrete pad at pivot, $ 41,000
system completely set up
Well, 400 feet of steel well casing, installed with gravel pack, 14,000
located at pivot
Installed pump (head, bowls and column) 13,000

with yield of 1,000 gal/min at 80 lb/in2
Electric motor (125 hp range) installed 5,500

Install 0.25-mile underground electric wire, control panel at pump 14,000
Subtotal $ 87,500 for 130 ac = $673/ac
Contingencies at 10 percent 8,750
Subtotal 96,250
Sales Tax at 4 percent 1/ 3,850
Total estimated cost of irrigation system $ 100,100

(Rounded for capital investment analysis) $100,000 for 130 ac = $769/ac
1/ This is a conservative number. Items that require payment of sales tax vary by state.

Irrigation Guide
The $100,000 installation cost must now be converted Acres annual use—The number of acres the equip-
to an average annual cost. This conversion is neces- ment will be used annually. In this example, the center
sary so that both the benefits and costs are expressed pivot will be used on 130 acres; 30 acres in field cor-
in comparable terms, that is, average annual dollars. ners will remain dryland.
Exhibit 11–3 can help determine the average annual
ownership costs per acre. Interest rate—Use either (a) actual loan rate if funds
are borrowed, or (b) a representative, competitive
Note: The following information is helpful in using the market rate or opportunity cost if producer provides
worksheet: funds (not borrowed).
Date—For future reference, it is helpful to show the New cost—The purchase price plus installation cost.
date the estimates were made. For this example the initial cost is $100,000.
Year of price base—The price base will normally be Salvage value—This is usually the salvage value or
the current year prices. remaining value at the time of replacement. This value
may be zero if it is completely worn out and has no
Equipment or irrigation system—Identify the scrap value or will never be sold. Equipment that is
equipment or irrigation system represented in the expected to be replaced after a given period of time
analysis. In this case a center pivot sprinkler irrigation and with some remaining operational use should be
system. assigned a trade-in value. The system in this example
is expected to have a remaining value of $5,000, 15
Life span—The number of years the equipment or years hence.
irrigation system is expected to be used in an opera-
tion or business. It may be the age at which time the The annual value or cost of the salvage value will be
item is completely worn out, or the period may be the present value times an interest rate represented by
shorter if the equipment is expected to be sold or the opportunity cost or the cost of borrowed money. If
replaced while retaining some of its original value. Life one’s own money is used to purchase the equipment,
span for individual components varies. See table 5–2, use the opportunity cost. This would be the interest
Chapter 5, Selecting an Irrigation Method. rate one could get by investing the money in alterna-
tive investments having similar risk and time frames. If
Maintenance costs usually increase with age and use funds are borrowed, use the interest rate being
of the equipment. The cost of maintenance may also charged for the use of those funds. In this example, 12
be used to determine the useful life of equipment. percent has been selected. The $5,000 salvage value is
When annual maintenance cost exceeds the an- discounted to present value (see table 11–1 for present
nual cost of purchasing new equipment, then the value factors) and then amortized over the 15-year
economic life has been exceeded. The farm man- period. The $5,000 represents the value of the equip-
ager may still use it if a major investment cannot ment 15 years hence, or at the end of 15 years.
possibly be afforded at this time, or the manager has
become personally attached to a specific piece of $5000 x Present value of 1, 15 years hence
equipment; i.e., an old tractor that still functions @ 12% (0.18270) = $914
satisfactorily.
Amortization—Amortization involves prorating the
If the purchase was made with borrowed funds, the initial cost, less salvage value of equipment over its
owner for cash flow purposes may also want to make an useful life, in this case $99,086 over a 15-year period.
analysis using the years of loan repayment as the year See table 11–2 for amortization factors. The value of
life, even though the equipment may physically last equipment decreases each year through wear, deterio-
longer. In this example all irrigation equipment has been ration, or obsolescence, and that value should corre-
assigned a 15-year life. (A more detailed economic spond to the amount of amortization taken each year.
evaluation would assign different life expectancies to The net investment is converted to an average annual
each major system component. A separate analysis cost by amortization. Amortization, also called capital
would be completed for each component.) recovery, is the extinguishing of a financial obligation
in equal installments over time.
Irrigation Guide
Amortization, as used in this example, will convert the hence (in this example, $5,000 x 0.18270 = $914) is
net capital (investment) cost into an annual cost, subtracted from the investment cost (in this example,
which also includes the interest or opportunity cost. $100,000 – $914 = $99,086). The factor 0.14682 times
Using an interest rate of 12 percent and a life of 15 $99,086 = $14,548. The $14,548 is the average annual
years, find the appropriate amortization factor cost of ownership associated with the amortization of
(0.14682) from table 11–2 or an average annual cost the irrigation equipment over the life span of the
table. The present value of a salvage value 15 years equipment.
Table 11–1 Present value factors for single payment
Borrowing - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Cost factors at various expected years of loan - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

interest
(%)
6 yr 8 yr 10 yr 12 yr 15 yr 18 yr 20 yr 25 yr
7.0 .66634 .58201 .50835 .44401 .36245 .29586 .25842 .18425

8.0 .63017 .54027 .46319 .39711 .31524 .25025 .21455 .14602
9.0 .59627 .50187 .42241 .35553 .27454 .21199 .17843 .11597
10.0 .56447 .46651 .38554 .31863 .23939 .17986 .14864 .09230
11.0 .53464 .43393 .35218 .28584 .20900 .15282 .12403 .07361
12.0 .50663 .40388 .32197 .25668 .18270 .13004 .10367 .05882
13.0 .48032 .37616 .29459 .23071 .15989 .11081 .08678 .04710
14.0 .45559 .35056 .26974 .20756 .14010 .09456 .07276 .03779
15.0 .43233 .32690 .24718 .18691 .12289 .08081 .06110 .02038
Table 11–2 Cost factors (amortization)
Borrowing - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Cost factors at various expected years of loan - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

interest
(%)
6 yr 8 yr 10 yr 12 yr 15 yr 18 yr 20 yr 25 yr
7.0 .20980 .16747 .14238 .12590 .10978 .09941 .09439 .08581

8.0 .21632 .17401 .14903 .13270 .11683 .10670 .10185 .09368
9.0 .22292 .18067 .15582 .13965 .12406 .11421 .10955 .10181
10.0 .22961 .18744 .16275 .14676 .13147 .12193 .11746 .11017
11.0 .23638 .19432 .16980 .15403 .13907 .12984 .12558 .11874
12.0 .24323 .20130 .17698 .16144 .14682 .13794 .13388 .12750
13.0 .25015 .20839 .18429 .16899 .15474 .14620 .14235 .13643
14.0 .25716 .21557 .19171 .17667 .16281 .15462 .15099 .14550
15.0 .26424 .22285 .19925 .18448 .17102 .16319 .15976 .15470

Irrigation Guide
Interest costs—When capitol is borrowed to make Standby (fixed) charges for electricity—Providing
the initial purchase, interest cost is a fixed cost. How- electrical power availability is generally passed on as a
ever, unlike amortization, interest or opportunity cost fixed cost. Standby charges are paid even if the irriga-
varies with the size of the initial obligation without tion system is not used. In this example the standby
consideration of salvage value. Purchasing irrigation charge was $24.84 per acre or $3,230 per year. These
equipment ties up capital (money); therefore, it has an charges set by the electric utility company are payable
opportunity cost. This opportunity cost is the interest every year. In some areas standby charges are called
cost. If a farmer purchases a sprinkler irrigation sys- demand charges.
tem for a farm and finances through the owner or bank
on a contract, he/she agrees to repay the principal Ownership cost per year—This is the sum of the
amount in a certain number of years. In addition to the annual ownership costs of the irrigation system. In this
repayment of the principal, the borrower must also example it is $21,278.
pay an interest charge each year. Borrowed capitol is
often repaid in a time period less than the life span of Ownership cost per acre—This is the total annual
equipment and materials purchased. Farm decision- ownership cost prorated over the number of acres the
makers can choose to use this shorter time period to system is benefiting. In this example the system is
amortize the initial investment, recognizing salvage benefiting 130 acres, so the annual ownership cost is
value at the end of the amortized period could be $21,278 divided by 130 acres, or $168 per acre.
substantial. However, money is still tied up in the
irrigation equipment, and opportunity cost (interest) Most of the ownership costs have now been accounted
still applies. for and determined to be $168 per acre per year. Total
annual costs consist of ownership (fixed) costs and
Taxes—Some states levee a property tax on equip- operating (variable) costs. With the total annual costs
ment or farm machinery. In this example taxes were known, it can be compared to the total annual ben-
assumed to be $2,000 per year. efits. Notice the break even cost is now $168 per acre
greater than before the irrigation system was installed.
Insurance—This is an annual charge to cover the loss This difference can only be recovered by increased
of equipment from fire, theft, windstorm, or any liabil- outputs (plant yield or biomass) or reduced inputs
ity coverage. It is estimated to be $2,000 per year in (labor, tillage).
this example.

Irrigation Guide
Exhibit 11–3 Increased ownership cost worksheet (see text for explanation of terms)

Increased Ownership Cost Worksheet
Equipment or irrigation system Center pivot sprinkler irrigation system

Life span 15 years , Acres annual use 130 ac , Interest rate 12%
Ownership Costs
New cost $ 100,000

Salvage value 5,000
Present value $5,000 at 12% for 15 years
$5,000 x (.18270) 914
Net investment $100,000 – 914 99,086
Amortization $ 99,086 @ 12% for 15 years

$ 99,086 x (.14682) $ 14,548
Taxes 2,000
Insurance 2,000
Standby (fixed) charges for electricity 3,230
Ownership cost per year $ 21,778

$21 ,778
= $167.52
Increased ownership (fixed) cost per acre
130
= $168 per acre

Irrigation Guide
(2) Operating (variable) costs

In the example, operating costs of the center pivot
sprinkler irrigation system and the increased corn
production costs are estimated in exhibit 11–4. The
format in this exhibit can help develop these costs.
Exhibit 11–4 Increased operating costs worksheet

Increased Operating Cost Worksheet
Irrigation system equipment Center Pivot Sprinkle Irrigation System
Increased yield per acre (bu, ton, bale, etc.) 130 bu
Increased operating costs Increased cost Increased cost

per acre per bushel
Electric power for 16 acre inches of water applied per acre $ 72 $ 0.55
at $4.50 per acre-inch 3/
Repair and maintenance of irrigation system: 12 0.09

$1,560 a year divided by 130 acres benefiting 3/
Increased costs of fuel, oil, seed, fertilizer, harvest, interest, chemicals, labor, 66 0.51
water required to obtain the 130 bushel increase in yield 3/
Total increased operating costs per acre 4/ $ 150 $ 1.15

3/ Field Office Technical Guide, Section I.
4/ This figure is used in table 11–2, section 652.1104.

Irrigation Guide
(c) Benefit-to-cost analysis Observation: From the example benefit-to-cost

analysis, we can conclude that the irrigation system is
Basic data for a benefit-to-cost analysis has now been a good investment. The system will pay its own way
completed. Benefits and increased ownership and and produce an additional $29 annual income per acre.
operating costs are on an average annual per acre The break-even point can also be calculated. We know
basis and can be analyzed to determine system feasi- that the average annual increase in costs associated
bility. Exhibit 11–5 can help put these items in per- with the irrigation system is $318 ($168 + $150) per
spective. acre. At a price of $2.67 per bushel, it would take a 119
bushel ($318 divided by $2.67) per acre increase in
yield, or a total yield of 159 bushels to break even.
Break-even price for 170 bushel yield would be:
$318
= $2.45 per bu
( − 40) bu
170
Exhibit 11–5 Feasibility worksheet

Feasibility Worksheet
Increased yield per acre (bu, ton, bale, etc.) 130 bu
Costs Benefits
Gross value per acre of expected increase (from exhibit 11–1) $ 347
Average annual ownership cost per acre of irrigation system (from exhibit 11–3) $ 168
Average annual operating cost increase per acre (from exhibit 11–4) 150
Total average annual cost increase per acre $ 318 318
Expected average annual increase in net income per acre $ 29

Irrigation Guide
The procedure used in this analysis illustrates steps

that can be used to evaluate similar investments. 652.1103 Economics of
Regardless of the system being evaluated, general
procedures and principles remain the same: operating an existing
1. Using crop budgets, identify and calculate system
annual gross benefits resulting from the
change.
2. Identify and calculate increased costs on an Once an irrigation system has been purchased, the
annual basis. decision to use it in any given year is linked closely to
3. Compare annual benefits to annual costs for the variable costs. This section shows why this is true
feasibility. and illustrates a procedure that can be used in the
analysis.
Decisions made from these calculations are extremely
important, and the magnitude of ownership (fixed)
and operating (variable) costs in relation to the ben- (a) Benefit analysis
efits is the deciding factor. They can also affect the
decision to purchase, rent, or lease equipment. The process to determine the benefits of continuing to
use an existing irrigation system is the same as that
Partial budgeting can be used when calculating and used for the analysis of a new system. The same for-
comparing several alternatives. With partial budgeting, mat may also be used (exhibit 11–6).
only costs that change with each alternative are con-
sidered. Crop budgets prepared by university farm Summary: In this example, it can be said that if
commodity and other specialists should always be irrigation takes place and anticipated benefits do
considered. occur, estimated gross benefits will be $347 per acre.
Costs incurred to obtain these gross benefits need to
be determined.
Exhibit 11–6 Gross benefits worksheet

Gross Benefits Worksheet
Gross value per acre of expected increase from irrigating the crop:
130 bu/ac yield increase x $ 2.67 per unit (bu, lb, ton, bale, etc.) = $ 347.10
rounded to $347 per acre.

Irrigation Guide
(b) Operating costs

Since the system is already installed and the owner-
ship costs ($164 per acre per year) are obligated, the
decision to irrigate or not depends on the anticipated
increase in income being greater than the cost of
operating the system (pumping costs, repairs) plus
increased costs of production (seed, fertilizer, chemi-
cals, labor). Exhibit 11–7 may be helpful in calculating
these costs.
Exhibit 11–7 Increased operating costs worksheet

Increased Operating (Variable) Cost Worksheet
Operating costs of item: Increased cost

per acre
Electric power, 16 acre inches of water applied at $4.50 per acre inch $ 72
Repair and maintenance of irrigation system: $1,560 a year divided 130 acres benefiting 12
Increased costs of fuel, oil, seed, fertilizer, harvest chemicals, labor, water, etc. required 66
to obtain the 130 bu/ac (bu, ton, bale, etc.) increase in yield
Increased operating (variable) costs per acre $ 150


Irrigation Guide
(c) Benefit-to-cost analysis Summary: Exhibit 11–8 shows that if the additional
income will not cover the additional operating cost, it
Irrigation should take place if additional income from is economically feasible to leave the system idle. Once
the increased yield resulting from irrigating is greater operating costs are covered, it is probably best to run
than increased production costs plus the cost of oper- the irrigation system and partly or completely recover
ating the system. This is especially true in the short ownership costs. Profits will be realized when addi-
term even if additional income does not completely tional income exceeds the sum of ownership and
cover ownership costs (principle, taxes, insurance, operating costs. Being aware of a close profit margin
interest). These costs will occur even when the system can stimulate farm decisionmakers to look at other
is setting idle. In the long term, other considerations areas where costs can be reduced; i.e., reduced tillage,
may need to be made. Example 11–8 illustrates why proper irrigation scheduling, soil management prac-
one would irrigate as long as operating costs are tices to capture a greater portion of rainfall during the
covered. In reality, operating cost per acre will usually growing season. In this example, operating costs were
increase with increased yield to additional water, kept constant. In reality, the cost of producing addi-
fertilizer weed control, and harvest costs. tional yield can increase, such as using additional seed
and applying more fertilizer and water. Improved
water management can also increase.
Exhibit 11–8 Benefit-to-cost analysis
Increased Increased Additional Net gain Notes

ownership operating yield/income or loss
cost cost
$/ac $/ac bu/ac $/ac $/ac
168 None 0 0 –168 System is idle, lose only the ownership costs.
168 150 25 7 –251 Ownership and operating costs not covered, better
off left as dryland.
168 150 50 133 –185 Covered operating costs and some ownership costs.
Probable better left as dryland.
168 150 75 200 –118 Covered operating costs and some ownership cost.
Lose $118/ac.
168 150 100 267 –51 Covered operating costs and most ownership costs.
Lose only $51/ac.
168 150 119 318 0 Break even, ownership, and operating costs cov-
ered.
168 150 125 334 +16 Gain $16/ac.
168 150 150 400 +82 Gain $82/ac.

Irrigation Guide
Ownership costs of existing systems are unimportant.

652.1104 Maximizing net The per increment cost (marginal cost) and what that
increment produces (marginal return) are important.
returns Increments can be per acre-inch of water applied, per
pound of fertilizer applied, or per pesticide applica-
tion.
If profits are to be maximized, existing irrigation
systems must be checked for operational efficiency The marginal cost in this example is the additional
and proper management. The management ability and cost of irrigation incurred when an additional acre-
desire of the operator are probably the most important inch of water is applied. Marginal return is the addi-
factors in determining the feasibility of irrigation. tional net return resulting from the added acre-inch of
Good water management is essential to realize the full water. Profits are maximized when the marginal cost
benefit of irrigation. Under poor management a farmer is equal to the marginal return. In the example, the
will be paying the full cost of irrigation, but realizing variable input, water, should be added in increments
only a portion of the benefits. Too often yields are until the cost of adding the last increment (in this case
reduced with poor water management (improper an acre-inch of water) is equal to the net return result-
amount, timing, or both). A good manager seeks out ing from the addition of the increment.
answers to questions, such as How much water
should be applied to realize the greatest profit? Will
the greatest profit be realized at the point of maxi-
(b) Water-yield relationships
mum yield? Will the increase in yield pay more than
the expense of irrigation? The following procedure Required in any marginal cost to marginal return
can help answer these questions.
economic analysis, and to continue the example analy-
sis, is the physical output resulting from the various
increments (acre-inches of irrigation water) applied.
(a) Marginal cost and marginal Table 11–3 shows a water-yield relationship.
return
The previous analysis in this chapter has been con-
cerned with the feasibility of investment in an irriga-
tion system. The question analyzed was: Should I
switch from a dry cropland system to an irrigation
cropland system of crop production?
Once the question has been analyzed and answered

and the irrigation system installed, the optimal amount
of irrigation water to apply needs to be considered.
The optimal amount of water to apply is where the
marginal cost is equal to the marginal return for apply-
ing an additional 1.0 acre-inch per acre of water.
It is easiest to think in terms of increments. Each 1.0

acre-inch per acre of water applied will produce an
associated increment of costs and an associated incre-
ment of dollar return. In the relevant range of produc-
tion, the incremental cost will increase while the
incremental return will decrease. Production should
occur where the two increments are equal.

Irrigation Guide
Table 11–3 Developing water use-yield relationship
- - - - Total water - - - - Reduction Reduction - - - - - - - - Corn - - - - - - - - - - - Water applied - - Marginal

applied 1/ deficit 2/ in ET 3/ in yield 4/ loss 5/ yield 6/ net 7/ gross 8/ yield 9/
(in) (in) (%) (%) (bu) (bu) (in) (in) (bu/ac-in)
10 16 61.5 76.9 130.8 40.0 0 0

11 15 57.7 72.1 122.6 47.4 1 1.3 7.4
12 14 53.8 67.3 114.4 55.6 2 2.6 8.2
13 13 50.0 62.5 106.2 63.8 3 4.0 8.2
14 12 46.2 57.8 98.1 71.9 4 5.3 8.1
15 11 42.3 52.9 89.9 80.1 5 6.6 8.2
16 10 38.5 48.1 81.7 88.3 6 8.0 8.2
17 9 34.6 43.3 73.6 96.4 7 9.3 8.1
18 8 30.8 38.5 65.4 104.6 8 10.6 8.2
19 7 26.9 33.7 57.2 112.8 9 12.0 8.2
20 6 23.7 28.8 49.0 121.0 10 13.3 8.2
21 5 19.2 24.0 40.9 129.1 11 14.6 8.1
22 4 15.4 19.2 32.7 137.3 12 16.0 8.2
23 3 11.5 14.4 24.5 145.5 13 17.3 8.2
24 2 7.7 9.6 16.3 153.7 14 18.6 8.2
25 1 3.8 4.8 8.2 161.8 15 20.0 8.1
26 0 0 0 0 170.0 16 21.3 8.2
27 0 2 2.5 10/ 4.3 165.7 17 22.7 –4.3
28 0 4 5.0 8.5 161.5 18 24.0 –8.5
29 0 6 7.5 12.7 157.2 19 25.3 –12.8
30 0 8 10.0 17.0 153.0 20 26.7 –17.0
1/ Normal rainfall at this site is 19.3 inches. Approximately 10 inches is considered available for plant use most years. 1-inch increments are
added to this base.
2/ The annual potential evapotranspiration (ET) value for this crop, at this location, is 26 inches net. This column lists the average annual
shortage.
3/ ET deficit divided by 26 inches net ET requirement x 100 = percentage reduction in ET. Reduction in yield because of overapplication of
water based on limited research and field observation. Actual yield reduction depends on climate, soils, residual soil moisture, and cropping
history.
4/ Percent reduction x 1.25. From Food and Agricultural Organization Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 33—Yield Response to Water or
Analysis of Land Treatment Practices for Water Conservation, published in the proceedings of the National Workshop on Planning and
Management of Water Conservation Systems in the Great Plains States, October 21-25, 1985, Midwest National Technical Center, Natural
Resources Conservation Service, Lincoln, NE.
5/ Percent reduction in yield x 170 (170 is assumed to be the average potential yield in this area).
6/ Maximum yield – loss in bushels. Use actual yield (i.e., 40 bu) if available and adjust subsequent values. In this example, assumed yield
increase versus water applied function is approximately 8 bu/ac for each 1 ac-in water applied, with a maximum yield of 170 bu/ac.
7/ Net acre inches of irrigation water supplied at 75 percent irrigation application efficiency.
8/ Gross acre-inches of irrigation water applied.
9/ Marginal occurs at approximately half the rate as does a corresponding moisture deficit. For this reason, growers often schedule irrigations
on the wet side of optimum. There is about half the risk of adversely affecting yields.
10/ On the average, a reduction in yield occurs as additional water is applied.

Irrigation Guide
(c) Production function this relationship shifts and thus a change occurs at the
point where profits are maximized.
Once the yield data (output) are developed for each
increment of the variable input (water), a total produc- One of the dangers of an analysis of this type is that
tion curve can be developed. Product yield versus assumptions need to be made concerning costs and
water applied for the example farm is plotted as figure returns of the enterprise. Anytime a change occurs in
11–1. From this production curve we can also develop the costs or prices, the cost-price relationship changes
the relationship between the marginal cost and mar- and a new point of profit maximization is established.
ginal return to determine at what level of water appli- The procedure, however, should be useful regardless
cation the profits will be maximized (table 11–4). of the relationships and assumptions that exist.
The first example demonstrated the gross decision Note: Marginal cost - marginal return analysis does
process for whether to irrigate. Also important is an not apply when growing crops where quality of the
incremental decision regarding what is the economic product is more important than yield. Providing ad-
effect per increment of input. In this case once irriga- equate irrigation water at critical growth periods is
tion is chosen, a decision must be made on how much paramount for desirable product quality, such as for
water is applied. The information in table 11–4 is fresh vegetables, potatoes, melons, berries, fruits, and
based on: sweet corn. Reduced or even increased water applica-
tion without knowing what the result is can mean
Corn @ $2.67 per bushel – $150 per acre ÷ 130 potential total crop failure; i.e., unable to produce and
bushel per acre (variable or increased cost per sell an acceptable quality product. Other local needs,
total increased yield) = $1.15. (From exhibit 11– such as frost protection, temperature control, chemi-
4, $150 per acre is the increased variable cost to gation, and seed germination, may require additional
produce 130 bushels per acre of corn.) Net water over that necessary for desirable crop produc-
income for the 130 bu/ac increase = $2.67 – $1.15. tion. For annual crops, such as truck crops, a marginal
Marginal cost - marginal return analysis is an cost - marginal return analysis can be done, but by
analysis of affects created by adding increments using planted acreage as the variable where the prod-
of input—in this example, 1 acre-inch per acre of uct yield is held constant. With most truck crops,
water. It is a separate process, and not a part of adequate soil moisture for the full growing season
other cost to benefit analysis. must be available to obtain desirable yield and product
quality. Good water management is where applied
From table 11–4, we see that each time 1 net inch of water can serve two purposes—crop cooling and crop
water is applied, the cost is increased $6.00. We also water needs. However, this may not always be the
see that each inch of water, from 1 through 16, in- case. For example, frost protection typically occurs
creases the net return by $12 to $13. This example as when winter carryover soil moisture is high and crop
presented uses the same increased costs as additional evapotranspiration has not started yet.
water is applied. In reality, costs increase as yield
increases because of additional seed, fertilizer, har- Figure 11–1 Product yield vs. water applied—irrigated
vesting, trucking, and storage. Often when water is corn
purchased from an irrigation organization, water costs
increase as additional water is applied above a basic 210
Yield per acre (bu)
rate. To know what each increment of water 180

applied is costing and buying is necessary. 150
120
Summary: Under the conditions set forth in this ex- 90
ample profits will be maximized at the application rate 60
of 16 inches net, or 20 inches gross, irrigation water 30
applied. Even if the water and its application were free, 0
it would not be rational to apply more than 16 inches. 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
One can also see that if there is a change in the cost of Acre-inches/acre of supplemental
water and its application or in the price of corn, or both, irrigation water applied (net)

Irrigation Guide
Table 11–4 Marginal cost - marginal return relationships
- - - Water applied 1/ - - - Total Change Incremental Water Returns above

gross net yield 2/ in yield 3/ change 4/ cost 5/ variable costs 6/
(ac-in) (ac-in) (bu/ac) (bu/ac) (ac-in)
0 0 40.0 7/
1.3 1 47.4 7.4 1 $ 6.00 $ 11.25
2.6 2 55.6 8.2 1 6.00 12.46
4.0 3 63.8 8.2 1 6.00 12.46
5.3 4 71.8 8.1 1 6.00 12.31
6.6 5 80.1 8.2 1 6.00 12.46
8.0 6 88.3 8.2 1 6.00 12.46
9.3 7 96.4 8.1 1 6.00 12.31
10.6 8 104.6 8.2 1 6.00 12.46
12.0 9 112.8 8.2 1 6.00 12.46
13.3 10 121.0 8.2 1 6.00 12.46
14.6 11 129.1 8.1 1 6.00 12.31
16.0 12 137.3 8.2 1 6.00 12.46
17.3 13 145.5 8.2 1 6.00 12.46
18.6 14 153.7 8.2 1 6.00 12.46
20.0 15 161.8 8.1 1 6.00 12.31
21.3 16 170.0 8.2 1 6.00 12.46 8/
22.7 17 165.7 –4.3 1 6.00 –11.48
24.0 18 161.5 –8.5 1 6.00 –22.70
25.3 19 157.2 –12.8 1 6.00 –34.18
26.7 20 153.0 –17.0 1 6.00 –45.39
1/ Gross and net inches of irrigation water applied at 75% application efficiency (from table 11–3).
2/ Corn yield at various amounts of irrigation water applied, assuming an increase of 1 acre-inch water
application represents about an 8-bushel increase in yield (from table 11–3).
3/ Change in yield divided by net inches of water applied; i.e.:
6.7
46.7 − 40.0 = = 6.7
1
15.2
55.2 − 40.0 = = 7.6
2
4/ Incremental change in net irrigation water applied.
5/ Cost of applying one additional acre-inch (net) of water by irrigation with an application efficiency of 75%;
i.e., 1.33 ac-in x $4.50/ac-in = $5.99, use $6.00.
6/ The additional net return resulting from applying that last acre-inch (net) of irrigation water. Increased variable
costs = $2.67/bu – $1.15/bu = $1.52/bu of net income because of increase, or 7.4 bu x $1.52/bu = $11.25.
The $6.00 per acre-inch cost of water is included in the $66.00 increased operating cost used in exhibit 11–7.
7/ Actual yield.
8/ Decrease in returns is the result of less than adequate irrigation scheduling on an average year.

Irrigation Guide
A format for an example partial budget is displayed in

exhibit 11–9. In this example a quick economic analy-
sis is made to determine the feasibility of owning a
combine rather than using custom services. As the
example shows, owning the combine is more costly.
Factors other than up front costs enter into the deci-
sion of owning a combine (or any piece of equipment)
rather that fitting into the schedule of a custom ser-
vice, such as the timeliness of when harvesting could
be done.
Exhibit 11–9 Format for developing a partial budget
Proposed Change: Purchasing combine to replace custom harvesting
Additional cost ($) Additional income ($)
Fixed costs: None

Depreciation $ 5,000
Interest 1,600
Taxes 50
Insurance 50
Variable costs:
Repairs 800
Fuel, oil 600
Additional labor 500
Reduced income ($) Reduced costs ($)

None Custom combining charge $ 8,000
(A) Total annual additional (B) Total annual additional

costs and reduced income $ 8,600 income and reduced costs $ 8,000
– $ 8,600
Net change in profit (B minus A) –$ 600

Irrigation Guide
The method of analysis described here includes aver-

652.1105 Pipeline instal- age annual pipeline installation cost plus annual en-
ergy costs to determine the lowest annual cost for a
lation and pumping costs given flow and total pumping pressure head condition.
evaluation An example is the best way to demonstrate the pro-
cess (example 11–1). Electric energy is used to demon-
strate this process in this example. The process is the
The purchase and installation of an irrigation pipeline same for any type energy fuel used since the basis for
can be a big investment for a land user. It is an invest- pumping costs comparison is dollars.
ment, the cost of which can be spread over several
years covering the life of the loan or the life of the
pipeline and appurtenances. Yet, too often pipeline
materials are purchased and installed based only on
first cost without adequate economic considerations.
A good engineering design attempts to optimize mate-
rials and power costs for the expected life of the
project or loan term.

Irrigation Guide
Example 11–1 Pipeline installation and pumping costs evaluation
The landowner wants to install a new electric powered pump and buried mainline to provide water to a
center pivot covering 150 acres. Keeping the installation cost as low as possible is desired, but it is not know
if this will be the most economical way over the life of the pipeline.
Given:
• Pipeline length is 2,000 feet from pump to center of pivot
• Flow is 1,000 gpm (2.23 ft3/s)
• Operating head not including delivery pipeline friction loss = 43 lb/in2 (100 ft)
• Pump operates 1,000 hours per year
• Expected life of pump and pipeline is 20 years
• Electric power rates are $.04 per kwh with an estimated 7% annual rate increase
Solution:
1. Pipeline hydraulics: Use PVC irrigation pipe (IPS, class 125), 1,000 gpm
Pipeline hydraulics analysis
Pipe Friction 1/ Total loss Operating Total Velocity 2/

diam. loss for loss for head dynamic
100 ft 2,000 ft required head
(in) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft/s)
6 4.8 96.0 100 196.0 11.3

8 1.3 26.0 100 126.0 6.4
10 0.45 9.0 100 109.0 4.1
12 0.2 4.0 100 104.0 2.8
1/ Calculated using Hazen-Williams equation with C = 150.
2/ Nominal diameter used for velocity calculation.
2. Find fixed cost: Pipeline installation
Fixed costs - pipeline materials and installation
Pipe Install 1/ Install Average annual

diam. cost total cost cost 2/
(in) ($/ft) ($) ($/yr)
6 3.35 6,700.00 733.98

8 5.60 11,200.00 1,226.96
10 8.75 17,500.00 1,917.12
12 12.25 24,500.00 2,683.97
1/ Includes pipe and installation, 1994 costs.
2/ Amortized over 20 years at 9% interest, (multiplying factor = 0.10955). To determine annual cost, multiply installed total cost by
amortization factor.

Irrigation Guide
Example 11–1 Pipeline installation and pumping costs evaluation—Continued
3. Find variable costs: Energy required for pumping
Variable costs - energy
Pipe Total - - - Energy required - - - Annual energy Annual Average annual

diam. head req. requirement energy cost energy cost
(in) (ft) (bhp) 1/ (kwh) 2/ (kwh) 3/ ($/yr) 4/ ($/yr) 5/
6 196 70.7 94.8 94,800 $3,792 $5,360

8 126 45.5 61.0 61,000 2,440 3,449
10 109 39.3 52.7 52,700 2,108 2,979
12 104 37.5 50.3 50,300 2,112 2,935
gpm × head
1/ Calculated from equation, bhp = (with overall pumping plant efficiency = 70%).
3, 960 × Eff
2/ Calculated from equation, 0.746 bhp = 1 kw.
3/ Energy required multiplied by 1,000 hr/yr.
4/ Annual energy requirement multiplied by energy cost @ $ 0.04 per kwh.
5/ Annual energy cost multiplied by factor 1.41341 (represents an estimated 5% yearly energy cost escalation
at 10.5 interest rate for 20-year evaluation period).
4. Most economical pipe size: Using annual cost method
Most economical pipe comparison
Pipe Total fixed Average annual Total annual

diam. annual cost energy cost cost
(in) ($/yr) ($/yr) ($/yr)
6 $ 734 $ 5,360 $ 6,094

8 1,227 3,449 4,676 ← most economical size
10 1,917 2,979 4,896
12 2,684 2,985 5,669

Irrigation Guide
Conclusion: The 8-inch diameter pipe is the most A simple economic analysis for calculating annual
economical size for the given conditions of pipe instal- energy savings with a pressure reduction can also be
lation cost and pumping cost. However, annual cost used. When everything remains constant except
for 10-inch diameter is not much higher. If energy changing the operating pressure, the following equa-
costs escalate higher than estimated, 10-inch diameter tion can be used. This equation does not account for
would have been the best choice. Because of the cost escalating energy costs, but the factor from table 11–6
variability in PVC pipe, it may be worthwhile to evalu- can be used as a multiplier to estimate the average
ate other class pipe; i.e., class 100 or 85 (with neces- annual energy costs for a desired period of evaluation
sary pressure control devices). Where competitive time.
priced energy fuels are available, it may also be worth-
while to compare pumping plants using different Energy savings:
( A )×( ac-inch/ac/yr )×( lb/in 2 )×( 0.2)

energy sources. Typically, the most economical pipe
size has velocities in the range of 4 to 6 feet per sec-
ond. Other costs, such as sales tax for purchasing pipe
kWh = E
materials and annual maintenance for pipeline, can be
included at option of the consultant. This analysis can Where:
be used to compare benefits of converting from a high kWh = seasonal energy savings, in kilowatt
pressure system to a low pressure system. The only hours per year
item that needs changing is the column, Operating A = area of the field, in acres
head requirement, in the pipeline hydraulics analysis ac-in/ac = water applied per season, in ac-in/ac/yr
tabular information in solution 1 of the example. lb/in2 = pressure reduction at sprinkler, in lb/in2
0.2 = units conversion
E = overall pumping plant efficiency, as a
decimal
Example 11–2 Calculating annual energy savings
Given:
• An irrigation system for 40 acres.
• Operation pressure presently is 55 lb/in2. After conversion operating pressure will be 35 lb/in2.
• Seasonal gross irrigation application is 18 inches.
• Pumping plant overall estimated efficiency is 70%.
• Electric energy cost is $ .04 per kWh.
Solution:
kWh =
( A ) × ( ac-inch/ac/yr ) × ( )
lb/in 2 × (0.2)
E
40 × 18 × 20 × 0.2
=
.70
= 4 ,114 kWh per year
Dollars saved at $0.04 per kWh:
4 ,114 kWh × $.04 / kWh = $165 per year

Irrigation Guide
Table 11–5 Typical energy consumption

Energy source - - - - - - Consumption per unit of fuel - - - - - -
Whp-hrs Bhp-hrs 1/
Electric 0.9 per kWh 1.18 per kWh

Gasoline 8.7 per gallon 11.3 per gallon
Diesel 11.0 per gallon 14.8 per gallon
Propane 6.9 per gallon 8.9 per gallon
Natural gas 6.7 per 100 ft3 8.5 per 100 ft3
1/ Calculated based on a reasonable operating efficiency.
Table 11–6 Equivalent energy annual cost escalation

factors
Borrowing No. of - - - - - Energy cost escalation rate - - - - -

interest years
(%) 5.0% 7.0% 9.0%
7.0 5 1.09788 1.13970 1.18311

10 1.22416 1.33069 1.44838
15 1.35331 1.53928 1.75795
20 1.48369 1.76451 2.11595
9.0 5 1.09591 1.13685 1.17934

10 1.21520 1.31715 1.42960
15 1.33140 1.50456 1.70734
20 1.44221 1.69553 2.01020
10.5 5 1.09445 1.13476 1.17658

10 1.20869 1.30733 1.41599
15 1.31580 1.47988 1.67145
20 1.41341 1.64783 1.93738
12.0 5 1.09303 1.13271 1.17387

10 1.20237 1.29780 1.40279
15 1.30091 1.45639 1.63734
20 1.38659 1.60357 1.87003

Chapter 12 Energy Use and Conservation Part 652
Chapter 12 Energy Use and Irrigation Guide
Conservation
652.1201 Reducing pump energy requirements 12–2

(a) Increase pumping plant efficiency ............................................................ 12–2
(b) Increase irrigation efficiency ..................................................................... 12–3
(c) Proper irrigation scheduling ...................................................................... 12–3
(d) Reduce pressure requirements ................................................................. 12–3
(e) Conversion from pump to gravity ............................................................. 12–3
(f) Changing to another irrigation method or system .................................. 12–3
652.1202 Energy source 12–4

(a) Energy use criteria ...................................................................................... 12–4
(b) Nebraska pumping plant performance criteria ....................................... 12–4
(c) Reading watt-hour meters ....................................................................... 12–11
652.1203 Irrigation pumping plant design considerations 12–11

(a) Pump characteristic curves ..................................................................... 12–12
(b) Pumping plant installations ..................................................................... 12–18
(c) Electric motors .......................................................................................... 12–18
(d) Internal combustion engines ................................................................... 12–20
(e) Pump installation ...................................................................................... 12–20
652.1204 Pipeline efficiency 12–27
652.1205 Alternative energy reduction devices 12–29
652.1206 Other energy sources for pumping water 12–30

12–i
Irrigation Guide
Tables Table 12–1 Sprinkler irrigation system vs. surface irrigation 12–1
system water use and losses
Table 12–2 Nebraska pumping plant performance criteria 12–5
Table 12–3 Nebraska performance criteria vs. overall efficiency 12–5
Table 12–4 Comparative fuel use 12–6
Table 12–5 Comparison of energy sources 12–6
Table 12–6 Practical static suction lift 12–14
Table 12–7 Electrical current phase required for standard 12–18

electric motor sizes
Table 12–8 Nominal efficiencies for standard and high 12–19

efficiency electric motors
Table 12–9 Pipe friction loss comparison table for welded 12–28
steel, aluminum, and plastic pipe
Figures Figure 12–1 Energy requirements for an efficient irrigation 12–7

pumping plant
Figure 12–2 Electric power costs to pump an acre-foot of water 12–8

against a head of 1 foot
Figure 12–3 Horsepower saved converted to dollars saved 12–9

in a year using electrical energy
Figure 12–4 Horsepower saved converted to dollars saved 12–10

in a year using diesel fuel
Figure 12–5 Single speed centrifugal pump 12–13
Figure 12–6 Multispeed centrifugal pump 12–15
Figure 12–7 Vertical turbine pump 12–16
Figure 12–8 Vertical mixed flow pumps 12–17
Figure 12–9 Installation considerations for centrifugal pumps 12–21
12–ii
Irrigation Guide
Figure 12–10 Priming arrangements for centrifugal pumps 12–24
Figure 12–11 Sump dimensions versus flow for vertical propeller 12–26
pump installation
Figure 12–12 Nomenclature for sump dimensions and pump 12–27

arrangement for vertical propeller pump installation
Figure 12–13 Ratio of pump characteristics to pump rpm 12–29
Example Example 12–1 Change of performance rules 12–25

12–iii
Chapter 12 Part 652
Energy Use and Conservation
Chapter 12 Energy Use and Conservation
Irrigation Guide
sion Application (LEPA) systems, can reach irrigation

652.1200 General efficiencies of 90 to 95 percent. To obtain this effi-
ciency with LEPA systems, adequate water manage-
ment and cultural practices should be used to provide
Energy cost for operating an irrigation pumping plant complete water infiltration where the system is used;
is a major concern to most irrigation decisionmakers. i.e., no water translocation.
Many are taking a close look at their pumping installa-
tions to find ways to reduce operating costs. Some Although energy conservation is not a specific NRCS
irrigators consider converting from medium to high objective, it is a national objective assigned to other
pressure sprinkler back to surface irrigation systems water conservation activities that are NRCS objec-
to reduce or eliminate energy costs. Generally, this tives. Finding ways to reduce energy consumption in
leads to a considerable reduction in water application conjunction with soil and water conservation mea-
uniformity with increased runoff, deep percolation, or sures can be a major selling point when recommend-
both. Typically more water must be applied with ing conservation measures.
graded surface irrigation systems than for sprinkler
irrigation systems, and where the water is pumped Many irrigation pumping installations were designed
from wells, an energy reduction by converting may not and installed when energy costs were lower. Typically,
be realized. the original installation was not as efficient as those
installed today. Some installations were poorly de-
To maintain an efficient operating pumping plant, signed or improperly installed in the first place. Many
modifications to the pump are generally necessary to pumping plants have not been maintained properly
reduce pressure head and increase flow. Many irriga- and have significantly lower efficiencies than when
tors who use center pivot or linear move sprinkles are originally installed. Length of irrigation sets, and thus
converting to low pressure application devices on pumping times, is frequently governed more by the
their systems to reduce energy costs. Flow being irrigators schedule than by the needs of the crop. This
pumped to the system remains the same, but pressure leads to many pumping plant installations being much
head is reduced. This may also require a modification less efficient because of management than they could
to the pump. Reducing pressure by installing a valve be.
between the pump and sprinkler heads does not re-
duce energy.
Because energy is an immediate cost, the irrigator is Table 12–1 Sprinkler irrigation system vs. surface
often more interested in reducing readily apparent irrigation system water use and losses
energy costs than solving other important problems,
such as poor water management for the full irrigation Moderate Surface
season or high seepage losses in the on-farm distribu- pressure irrigation
sprinkler irrig. system
tion system. Table 12–1 demonstrates typical seasonal system
water use and losses of sprinkler irrigation systems (ac-in/ac) (ac-in/ac)
versus surface irrigation systems.
Crop water requirement 20 20
Properly designed and operated surface irrigation
Misc. spray losses @ 15% 4 0
systems can provide good irrigation efficiencies. For
example, adequately designed, operated, and well-
Ditch seepage losses @ 15% 0 5.9
managed level basin irrigation systems can have
Surface system- DP & RO losses 0 13.4
irrigation efficiencies of 85 to 90 percent. To maintain
@ 40%
a high total farm water use efficiency using level
Sprinkler system- DP losses @ 10% 2.7 0
basins, laser controlled field leveling, lined head
ditches with good water control structures, adequate
Total 26.7 39.3
flow rate, and proper water and system management
should be available and used. Propperly designed,
operated, and properly managed Low Energy Preci-

Irrigation Guide
Finding the most economical solution to these prob-

lems requires a multidisciplinary team approach. The 652.1201 Reducing pump
irrigation decisionmaker is the most important mem-
ber of the team. Pump and equipment dealers and energy requirements
manufacturers should be involved. Electric power
companies and public utility districts are interested in
The major considerations for ways to reduce pumping
electrical energy conservation. Electrical power con-
energy are:
served is new power not generated. The Extension
• Increase pumping plant efficiency
Service has an energy conservation objective. Their
• Increase irrigation efficiency
team members have considerable specialized informa-
• Proper irrigation scheduling (amount and
tion and expertise that should be used to the fullest.
timing)
NRCS needs to work closely with other members of
• Reduce pressure (energy) requirements
the team using the planning process to provide good
• Conversion from pump to gravity
energy conservation alternatives.
• Changing to another irrigation method or
system
Several manufacturers are named in the information in
this chapter. NRCS endorsement is not implied. Names
are used for illustration only.
(a) Increase pumping plant
efficiency
Pumping plant efficiency is the ratio of the amount of
work done (output) by a pumping plant (pump and
power unit) to the amount of energy required to do the
work (input). A procedure to check pumping plants is
included in Chapter 15, Planning and Evaluation Tools.
Pumps and many engines and motors are designed to

operate under a narrow range of conditions. They
should be operated within this range for best effi-
ciency. Pumps and power units are subject to wear, so
close attention to maintenance is required to sustain
desirable pumping efficiency.
High efficient electric motors are designed to operate

under a wide range of conditions (half to full load)
with less than 1 percent spread in nominal efficiency.
Typical nominal efficiency range is 94.5 to 95.0 per-
cent under half to full load of a 3,600 rpm, 50 hp, high
efficient electric motor. (See table 12–8.) Most manu-
factures are more than willing to provide performance
information on their engines and motors.

Irrigation Guide
(b) Increase irrigation efficiency reduce total energy requirements very little. Too often
pressure (and perhaps irrigation equipment) is
Irrigation efficiency can be increased in several ways. changed without an associated change in manage-
A well designed and managed irrigation system, should ment. This results in an even lower irrigation applica-
meet crop water design requirements, typically full tion efficiency. For example, installing LEPA sprinkler
crop ET across most of the field with minimum deep nozzles without making appropriate changes in soil,
percolation and runoff. Distribution across the field water, and plant management often reduces applica-
should be uniform. Conveyance losses can be mini- tion uniformity. Energy requirements typically stay the
mized by installing a ditch lining or pipelines. Leaks of same if a valve is used to reduce operating pressures
any kind should be promptly repaired. The delivery on the sprinkler system. The pressure upstream of the
system should be properly maintained to operate valve is the same as before; therefore, total pressure
according to original design. The water user should head is the same.
strive for application efficiencies in excess of 80
percent with all irrigation methods. Chapters 5, 9, and Modifying pipe size, changing from high friction loss
15 provide details on irrigation system evaluations. pipe to low friction loss pipe, changing field configura-
tion, and using valves and fittings that reduce friction
loss can reduce total pressure head requirements. This
(c) Proper irrigation scheduling cost can be weighed against the savings in energy,
(amount and timing) recognizing that energy costs will most likely increase
in future years.
Proper irrigation scheduling is applying water at the
right time and in the amount to meet water needs.
Needs can be for crop water needs or other uses, such (e) Conversion from pump to
as improved crop quality, crop heating or cooling, gravity
salinity management, or chemigation. Where the water
supply is not limited, the greatest waste of water (and Many opportunities occur to wholly, or in part, convert
energy) is usually over irrigation. Excess water appli- from pump to gravity supplied pressure for sprinkler
cation reduces plant yield or biomass, limits the ability systems. Ditches generally must be replaced with
of soil to grow crops, wastes nutrients, and increases pipelines; therefore, this is costly. However, long-term
the potential for surface or ground water pollution. savings with energy used for pumping can be substan-
tial. Each foot of elevation provides 0.433 pounds per
In some areas, irrigation water managers are using up square inch of pressure (or 1 lb/in2 = 2.31 ft of head).
to 5 times as much water as locally published crop ET In computing available head, pipeline friction loss
amounts indicate is adequate. Even a simple program must be subtracted from the elevation head. An addi-
of irrigation scheduling can greatly reduce this exces- tional benefit may be from the reduction of ditch
sive use. Chapter 9, Irrigation Water Management, seepage losses, improved water control, reduced
provides details on irrigation scheduling methods. labor, etc.
(d) Reduce pressure (energy) (f) Changing to another

requirements irrigation method or system
Low pressure sprinkler or spray heads are being used Changing the present irrigation method or system to
on most new center pivot installations. This saves another method or system can increase energy effi-
energy. Some older systems are being retro-fitted to ciency. An example is changing from a handmove
use low pressure heads. Conversion should be done sprinkler system to an automated furrow or border
with careful design to maintain overall efficiency. In system. With proper site conditions, design, and man-
many cases the pump must be modified or replaced to agement, surface systems can equal or exceed sprin-
assure optimum energy use; i.e., trim the impellers to kler system efficiencies. Detailed design and economic
reduce pressure head. If the water source is a deep analysis generally are required to compare irrigation
well, reducing pressure at the sprinkler nozzle may methods and systems.

Irrigation Guide
(b) Nebraska pumping plant

652.1202 Energy source performance criteria
Personnel at the University of Nebraska developed a
Most pumping plants use electric motors, diesel en- set of performance standards for pumping plants
gines, or natural gas engines as power sources. Occa- (table 12–2). Comparison to the Nebraska criteria
sionally liquid propane or gasoline engines are used. indicates how well the pumping plant is performing
Most of the following information deals with electric and can determine if excess energy is being used.
and diesel powered units. If adequate electric power Depending on the amount of energy used, a decision
sources are located at or within a reasonable distance can be made regarding adjustments, repairs or
from the water source, electric power generally is the replacement.
least costly form of energy. However, in rural areas
where electrical power is generated from local coal Nebraska pumping plant performance criteria repre-
fired, fuel oil or natural gas generators, natural gas sents the performance level that can be expected from
engines are typically less costly to operate. In South- a properly designed and maintained pumping system.
ern States, natural gas is readily available in most rural It is a compromise between the most efficient pump-
areas. ing plant possible and the average pumping plant.
Therefore, some pumping plants will exceed the
Electric phase converters are available that allow criteria.
three-phase motors over 10 horsepower to operate on
single-phase power supply. However, they are costly Nebraska criteria are expressed as the water horse-
to install and require some power to operate. The power (wHp) produced from a unit of fuel for 1 hour
company furnishing electric power should be con- and can be represented in the units wHp–hr/unit of
sulted before installation. Annual hours of use; i.e., fuel. The performance of any pumping plant is repre-
irrigating only part season or when supplementing sented by the same units. Performance is calculated by
precipitation, need to be considered. dividing the water horsepower produced by the fuel
consumption of the pumping plant.
(a) Energy use criteria Water horsepower is a function of water volume

output, pressure, lift or suction and pipe friction
Performance standards for an irrigation pumping plant losses. It is the true work being accomplished by the
can be expressed as performance standards or water pump. (More detail on horsepower calculations is
horsepower-hours (wHp-hr) per unit of energy. These contained in NEH, Part 623 (Section 15), Chapter 8,
standards can be used to compare the cost of energy, Irrigation Pumping Plants. Water horsepower, which
as used in an efficient irrigation pumping plant, by does not include pumping plant efficiency, can be
different energy sources. Dollars per wHp-hr can also calculated by:
be used. With both, the energy cost for pumping an
equal amount of water can be compared for various whp =
(flow, in gpm) × (TDS, in ft)
energy sources. For instance between a natural gas 3, 960
and an electric powered pump, if electric power is
available. where:
TDH (total dynamic head, in ft) = (lift, in ft) + (pipe
Other nonenergy performance units include acre friction loss, in ft) + (pressure head, in ft) +
inches of water per unit of crop produced (water use (velocity head, in ft)
efficiency), i.e., ac-in/ton of hay. Pumping cost per unit
of crop produced, i.e., $/bale of cotton, and cost per
water horsepower, i.e., $/wHp-hr, can also be used.

Irrigation Guide
Note: Pipe friction loss includes column or lift pipe Comparing this to the diesel criteria of 12.5 wHp-h/gal
losses in addition to friction losses from pipe and results in a rating of 100 percent:
fittings downstream from well head.
(12.5 whp – hr/gal from pumping plant) = 1.0 or 100%
( ) ( ) (
pressure head, ft = lb / in 2 × 2.31 ft / lb / in 2 ) (12.5 whp – hr/gal from criteria)
( ) (
pressure head, in ft = 231 × Pressure, in psi )
This pumping plant has met the criteria. On the other
velocity head, ft = ( ) V2
2g
hand if this plant had been consuming 8 gallons per
hour of diesel, its performance would be 9.4 wHp–h/
gal (75 wHp/8 gal/hr) and its performance rating would
where: be 75 percent, (9.4 wHp–h/gal) divided by (12.5 wHp–
V = velocity of flow in pipeline, ft/s h/gal). In this case the pumping plant would be per-
g = acceleration of gravity at 32.2 ft/s/s forming below the criteria, using unnecessary fuel
gpm = total pumping quantity, in gal/min (2 gal/hr).
3,960 = units conversion, where gpm units are used
(1) Criteria versus overall efficiency
By comparing the pumping plant's performance to the The performance rating should not be confused with
criteria, a percentage rating results. This is accom- the pumping plant’s overall efficiency. They are not
plished by dividing the performance of the pumping the same. Overall efficiency is the ratio of the energy
plant by the performance criteria. For example, a output of the pump (water horsepower) compared to
diesel producing 75 wHp and burning 6 gallons per the energy used; whereas, the performance rating is
hour would have a performance of 12.5 wHp–h/gal the ratio of the performance level of a pump compared
(75 wHp/6 gal/hr). to the standard performance criteria. The performance
rating from the criteria does, however, relate to overall
efficiency of the pump. For diesels, a pumping plant
with a performance rating of 100 percent equates to an
overall efficiency of 23 percent (table 12–3). The above
Table 12–2 Nebraska pumping plant performance criteria diesel pumping plant had a performance rating of 75
percent, however, it is not 75 percent efficient. Rather,
if one wishes to base the performance on overall
Energy bhp–h 1/ wHp–h 2/ Energy efficiency, the pumping plant would be considered 17
source per unit per unit units
of energy of energy 3/ percent efficient (0.75 x 23% = 17%).
Diesel 16.66 12.5 gallon Table 12–3 Nebraska performance criteria vs. overall
Gasoline 11.5 4/ 8.66 gallon efficiency 1/
Liquid Propane 9.20 4/ 6.89 gallon
Natural gas 82.2 5/ 61.7 1,000 cubic feet Energy Unit of wHp-h per Perform- Overall
type energy unit of ance rating efficiency
Electricity 1.18 6/ 0.885 7/ kilowatt-hour energy (%) (%)
1/ bhp–h (brake horsepower-hours) is the work being accomplished
by the power unit (engine or motor) with only drive losses
considered. Diesel gal 12.5 100 23
2/ wHp–h (water horsepower-hours) is the work being accom-
plished by the pumping plant, engine, or motor and pump. Propane gal 6.89 100 18
3/ Based on 75 percent pump efficiency. Natural Gas mcf 61.7 100 17
4/ Taken from Test D of Nebraska Tractor Test Reports. Drive
losses are accounted for in the data. Assumes no cooling fan. Electric kWh 0.885 100 66 2/
5/ Manufacturer’s data corrected for 5 percent gear head drive loss Gasoline gal 8.66 100 17
with no cooling fan. Assumes natural gas energy content of 925
Btu per cubic foot. At 1,000 Btu per cubic foot, energy content 1/ Efficiency given for electricity is wire to water efficiency, which
uses 88.9 Hp-h per 1,000 cubic feet for natural gas. Btu per cubic is calculated at the pump site. Liquid or gas fuel is based on
feet can vary from season to season and from winter to summer. average Btu values.
6/ Assumes 88 percent electric motor efficiency. 2/ Overall efficiencies vary from 55 percent for 5 horsepower to 67
7/ Direct connection, assumes no drive loss. percent for 100 horsepower.

Irrigation Guide
Remember, performance criteria are basically an Table 12–4 shows comparative fuel use at various
index so that pumping plants can be compared to one performance ratings. The criteria can also be used to
another. The performance rating can be used to rate determine what the fuel consumption would be for a
the pumping plant on a scale of 1 to 100 with 100 new pumping plant designed to meet the criteria.
meaning the criteria have been met. For those pump-
ing plants that exceed the criteria, the index goes Water horsepower of the pumping plant is simply
beyond 100. divided by the performance criteria to get the fuel
consumption per hour. For example, suppose a new
(2) Using criteria to determine excess fuel diesel-powered deep well turbine pumping plant is
consumption designed to meet the criteria and pump 1,000 gallons
Performance criteria are also useful for determining per minute from 150 feet with a discharge pressure of
excess fuel consumption of a pumping plant. The 80 pounds per square inch. The horsepower output
operational pump performance rating is simply sub- would be 85 water horsepower. The calculated fuel
tracted from 100, divided by 100, and multiplied by the use would be (85 wHp divided by 12.5 wHp-h/gal = 6.8
present fuel consumption. The result is the fuel being gal/hr). Fuel consumption can also be calculated for
used in excess of what the criteria recommend. For other design pressures to compare operating costs
example, the diesel pumping plant illustrated earlier between different irrigation systems, such as high or
had a performance rating of 75 percent and was con- low pressure center pivot. The criteria can even be
suming 8 gallons of fuel per hour. The excess fuel used to compare the operating costs between different
consumption per hour would be 2 gallons per hour. energy sources. Table 12–5 is a direct comparison,
using this example for fuel consumption and with
(100 - 75/100) x (8 gal/hr) = 2 gal/hr excess various fuels, of hourly costs for different energy
sources.
Table 12–4 Comparative fuel use Table 12–5 Comparison of energy sources
Performance Multiplier for fuel use Fuel costs Hourly cost

rating in excess of criteria ($) ($)
(%)
Diesel 1.00 / gal 6.80

100 1.0 Diesel 1.25 / gal 8.50
90 1.11
80 1.25 Natural Gas 2.70 / mcf 3.72
70 1.43 Natural Gas 3.00 / mcf 4.13
60 1.67 Natural Gas 3.50 / mcf 4.82
50 2.0 Natural Gas 4.00 / mcf 5.51
40 2.5
30 3.33 Electric .04 / kWh 3.84 1/
20 5.0 Electric .06 / kWh 5.76 1/
10 10.0 Electric .08 / kWh 7.68 1/
1/ Monthly demand charges may be in addition to direct electrical
energy use and will vary widely depending on electrical com-
pany.

Irrigation Guide
Figure 12–1 displays the energy requirements for an electric energy. A diesel engine would use 6.9 gallons
efficient irrigation pumping plant for flows above 250 of fuel per hour, a propane engine 10.8 gallons per
gallons per minute comparing various energy sources. hour, natural gas engine 112.5 cubic feet per hour, and
It is shown as an example that an efficient pumping a gasoline engine 8.6 gallons per hour. Local fuel unit
plant discharging 1,000 gallons per minute against a costs can then be applied to compare alternative
total lift of 300 feet requires about 85 kilowatt hours of energy uses.
Figure 12–1 Energy requirements for an efficient irrigation pumping plant (source: Bulletin 637, Cooperative Extension
Service, University of Wyoming)
3250
ift
ft l
3000
50
t
2750 lif
ft
75
t
2500 lif
ft
Pumping quantity - gallons per minute
0
10 t
2250 lif
5 ft
12
2000 ift
0 ft l
15
1750
ft
ft li
1500 200
1250
t lift
300 f
1000 ft
400 ft li
ft
750 500 li
ft
500
250
Electric: kWh/hr 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110

Diesel: gal/hr 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Propane: gal/hr 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Gasoline: gal/hr 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Natural gas: ft3/hr ft 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Energy source

Irrigation Guide
Figure 12–2 Electric power costs to pump an acre-foot of Figure 12–2 shows relationship of electric pumping
water against a head of 1 foot plant efficiency versus cost (cost per acre-foot per foot
of head in dollars or cents) of pumping for various
40 electrical rates. It vividly displays effect of a pumping
plant operating at poor efficiency. It does not include
38 surcharges, such as for demand charge, applied by
local electric companies.
36
34
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12 c/KWH
12
10 c/KWH
10
8 8c/KWH
6
6c KWH
4 3c/KWH
2 2c/KWH
1c/KWH
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Efficiency (percent)

Irrigation Guide
Figures 12–3 and 12–4 display effects of decreased mainlines, submains, and lateral) and fittings (i.e.,
horsepower requirements resulting from reducing elbows, reducers, enlargers, valves), or decreased
total pressure head requirements. This may be from operating pressure (i.e., conversion from high pressure
decreased pumping lift, reduced friction losses with to low pressure).
modifications to the pipelines (i.e., suction pipe,
Figure 12–3 Horsepower saved converted to dollars saved in a year using electrical energy (courtesy of Cornell Pump,
Portland, OR)
Hours per year

0 0 0 0
00 0 0 0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ,00 ,00 ,00 0,00
10 18 20 30 40 50 60 80 1 13 200 3 00 0
40 500 60 80 1,0 1,3 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 8,0 10 20 30 4
Ho
rs
ep
ow
er
1 sa
ve
d
Ho 3
rs 4
ep
ow 5
er 6
0.10 sa 7 0.10
ve
Dollars per kWh • electric

Dollars per kWh • electric
0.09 8
d 9 0.09
0.08 10 0.08
0.07 0.07
0.06 15 0.06
0.05 20 0.05
0.04 15
0.04
0.03 0.03
0.02 0.02
100 150 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 1500 2000 3000 5000 8000 10,000
Hours per year
Example:
Cost of electric power = $.04 / kWh
Hours of pumping, annually = 1,000 hr
Calculated horsepower saved = 10 hp
Therefore:
Savings of $300 per year would result in pumping plant operation.

Irrigation Guide
Figure 12–4 Horsepower saved converted to dollars saved in a year using diesel fuel (courtesy of Cornell Pump Company,
Portland, OR)
Dollars saved per year

0 0 0
0 0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ,00 ,00 ,00
40 50 60 80 10
0
20
0 30 400 50 700 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 8,0 10 20 30
1
2
H
o
3 rse
p
4 ow
e
5 rs
6 ave
7 d
8
10
15
20
2.00 2.00
1.90 1 1.90
1.80 1.80
Dollars per gallon (diesel)

Dollars per gallon (diesel)
1.70 1.70
1.60 1.60
H
1.50 or 2 1.50
1.40 se 1.40
p ow 3
1.30 1.30
1.20
er
sa 4 1.20
1.10
ve
d 5 1.10
6
1.00 7 1.00
0.90
8 0.90
10
0.80 0.80
15
108 150 200 300 400 500 700 20 1000 1500 2000 3000 4000 5000 10000
Hours per year
Example:
Diesel fuel cost = $1.00/gal
Hours of pumping, annually = 1,000 hr
Calculated horsepower saved = 5 HP
Therefore:
Savings of $380 per year would result in pumping plant operation

Irrigation Guide
(c) Reading watt-hour meters

652.1203 Irrigation pump-
A quick and easy way to determine energy input to an
electric pump is to use revolutions per unit time of the ing plant design consider-
small revolving disc on the watt-hour meter and calcu- ations
late horsepower usage. The formula at the bottom of
this page is used to convert meter readings to kilowatt
energy use and horsepower. These multipliers may Irrigation pumps are commonly used to lift water from
vary, depending on local application, and checking one elevation to a higher elevation or to add pressure
with local electric company is necessary. to the water. Handy information bulletins to determine
energy use, methods to reduce energy use from pump-
ing plants, selection of pumps, and pump performance
are readily available from pump manufacturers and
many university Cooperative Extension Services.
Pump and power unit should be carefully matched to

the irrigation system flow requirements and Total
Dynamic Head (TDH). Both characteristics should be
accurately determined. This may involve measuring
flows in an existing system. A detailed description of
pump characteristics and hydraulic calculation proce-
dures are contained in NEH Section 15, Chapter 8,
Irrigation Pumping Plants.
kW =
(3.6 ) × (meter disc revolutions) × (meter constant, Wh ) × (* )
(time, in seconds)
kW
hp =
0.746
where:
kW = kilowatts used by the electric motor
Wh = watthour meter constant, used to convert to kilowatt hours used
hp = horsepower
* = Where installations use a high rate of electrical energy, the electric company will install meters that only
put a small part of the energy used through the meter. Current Transformer Ratio (CTR) of 200:5 (40 multi-
plier), 400:5 (80 multiplier), 800:5 (160 multiplier), or 1,600:5 (320 multiplier) can be used. A Potential Trans-
former Ratio (PTR) of 5:1 (5 multiplier) can also be used. Note: Both CTR and PTR can be used at the same
installation. Ratios are multiplied by the observed kW calculation to determine the correct kW, as follows:
actual kW = (observed kW) x (CTR) x (PTR)

Irrigation Guide
Almost all pumps have moving parts that require some Performance of pumps changes with time. Since they
type of lubrication to prevent wear. In some instances are mechanical devices, they wear, and the rate of
the bearings are lubricated and sealed a the time of wear is dependent on the amount and kind of sedi-
manufacture. In others oil or grease must be added ment pumped. Replacement of the impeller, wear
periodically or continuously, and even water itself may rings, or even the entire bowl assembly may be re-
be used as the lubricant. Where water is pumped from quired when wear has become excessive. The best
wells using oil lubricated shafts, a layer of oil several way to evaluate an installed pump’s performance is to
inches thick often accumulates on the water surface. do a field pump test described in Chapter 9, Irrigation
Water Management. The field test should provide
Sediment in irrigation water causes wear of any pump. information needed for decisions on pump repair or
Propeller and centrifugal pumps handle a reasonable energy reduction.
amount of sediment, but require periodic replacement
of impellers and volute cases. Turbine pumps are more Performance curves are typically available for every
susceptible to damage because of the sediment in the make, model, and size pump commercially manufac-
water. Deep well turbine pumps can be costly to tured. However, it may be difficult to obtain perfor-
inspect for excessive wear. Positive displacement mance curves for older pumps and for pumps where
pumps must be used only with sediment-free liquids. the impellers are used in the same pump, a perfor-
Fertilizer and chemical injection pumps are typically mance curve is prepared for each size impeller. With
positive displacement pumps and can provide the multiple impellers (i.e., deep well turbine pumps),
required accurate control of injected chemicals. head developed by each impeller (stage) is accumu-
lated. Speed of rotation also affects impeller perfor-
mance.
(a) Pump characteristic curves
A prerequisite to selecting the right pump or analyzing
Pump characteristic curves, sometimes called pump an existing pump is knowing how to read pump char-
performance curves or head capacity curves, display acteristic curves. Each manufacturer’s curve looks a
the relationship between head (pressure) produced little different, and each type of pump has a slightly
and the water volume pumped. Because of their me- different set of curves. Most common characteristic
chanical nature, pumps have certain well defined curves provided by manufacturers and typically in-
operating properties. Pump characteristic or perfor- cluded on most pump performance curves are:
mance curves are available and essential for determin- • Total dynamic head (ft) versus discharge (gpm)
ing pumping plant requirements. • Efficiency (%) versus discharge (gpm)
• Input power (bhp) versus discharge (gpm)
Data for these curves are developed by testing a num- • Net positive suction head (ft) versus discharge
ber of pumps of a specific model. A set of curves or (gpm)
tables is prepared that represents the specific operat-
ing condition for each impeller and pump model. Field Normally, the NRCS technician only provides a head/
offices rarely have copies of all possible pump curves capacity requirement, i.e., 900 gpm at 150 foot head,
for all pumps used in their area. Generally, though, the for dealer and owner pump selection. More detailed
majority of pumps in an area are of few makes, types, information is provided for better understanding, and
and models that are handled by local dealers. An effort to allow specific pump evaluation.
should be made to obtain pump curves for these
pumps from suppliers or from the manufacturer. The following section illustrates how to read typical
Typically, they are readily available. pump performance curves for each major type pumps
used to pump irrigation water.

Irrigation Guide
(1) Single speed centrifugal pump Enter the left side with TDH of 150 feet and the bot-
Figure 12–5 illustrates a set of curves for a single tom at 900 gallons per minute. The intersection of
speed centrifugal pump. This type pump is driven by a these two is just above the 12 3/4-inch diameter impel-
1,760 rpm electric motor. Four factors, all related to ler curve. Therefore, the next larger impeller must be
discharge capacity in gallons per minute, are shown on used, which is 13 1/4-inch diameter. At a TDH of 150
the chart. They are: feet, this pump puts out about 1,040 gallons per
• total dynamic head minute. If pump discharge is limited with a valve to
• pump efficiency 900 gallons per minute, TDH raises to 170 feet of head,
• brake horsepower and efficiency is read at 900 gallons per minute on the
• net positive suction head efficiency curve as about 78 percent (read left effi-
ciency scale). If pump discharge is not limited with a
The first three curves display the effect of different valve, efficiency for 1,040 gallons per minute is read as
impeller diameters. For example, if a pump was re- 77 percent. Brake horsepower is about 50. Maximum
quired to deliver 900 gpm at 150 feet of TDH, read the allowable net positive suction head (NPSH) is about 6
chart as follows: feet. (Suction head exceeding this causes operation
problems and loss of efficiency.) If the increased TDH
is unacceptable, exact head/discharge can be obtained
by trimming the impeller diameter. Energy used will
reduce accordingly.
Figure 12–5 Single speed centrifugal pump (courtesy of Berkeley Pump Company)
Case: Material C.I. Palt no. H–809 Mach. No. H–3869 Dia 13 1/2" (full) Nominal rpm: 1800
Impeller: Material C.I. Plat No. L–5307 Mach. No. L06180 (20 HP) Based on fresh water @ 80° F.
Maximum working pressure: 165 psi L06181 (25 HP)
L06182 (30 HP) 30
NPSHR (feet)
L06183 (40 HP)
L06184 (50 HP) 20
10
Head NPSHR
60%
65%
70%
13 1/2" full diameter

75%
200 0
%
80
13 1/4" dia. 50 hp
175 Ef
12 3/8" dia. 40 hp fic
ie
%
nc
75
150 11 3/8" dia. 30 hp % y

70
%
10 3/4" dia. 25 hp
65
125
10 1/16" dia. 20 hp 60
bh
%
100
Total dynamic head (feet)
60
p
15
bh
50
75 p
bh
p
40
bh
50
p
30
25
bh
20
p
bh
25 bh
p
p
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Capacity (U.S. gallons per minute)
C–9013 based on T–3986 & T–3931 supercedes C–1013 Dated: 4/10/85 Date: 11/15/85 MODEL B4JPBH

Irrigation Guide
If the higher flow rate is selected, friction loss in the Enter the left side with TDH of 60 feet and the bottom
pipeline also increases. Recalculation of friction losses with 1,100 gpm. Read required shaft speed of pump as
is necessary. An Irrigation System Performance Curve slightly above 1,800 rpm, bhp as about 21 horsepower,
(friction loss vs. capacity) can be plotted or overlaid and efficiency as about 80 percent. Note that this
onto the pump characteristic curve. The pumping performance is based on a suction lift of 15 feet. Less
plant operates where the two curves cross (intersect). suction lift should be used at higher elevation to
maintain performance. Table 12–6 displays practical
Pumps shown in the curve are for standard 30-, 40-, static suction lift.
and 50-horsepower sizes. If the brake horsepower
require is slightly over a standard size motor, consult Total suction lift equals static lift plus friction loss in
the motor manufacturer to see if overload is accept- suction pipe, elbows, and foot valve plus velocity
able. Otherwise, use the next larger motor. head. The example is for 900 gallons per minute with
6-inch diameter welded steel suction pipe, elbow, foot
A flow of 1,040 gallons per minute is not the design valve; a 5,000-foot elevation, and maximum water
flow of 900 gallons per minute. You must now decide temperature of 80 °F.
to accept this or look at the alternatives. The alterna-
tives are: Given:
• Use the next size smaller pump and accept Static lift (water surface to eye of pump inlet) = 15.4 ft
lower flow. Friction loss (calculated) = 5.2 ft
• Look for another brand or model pump that Velocity head (calculated) = .6 ft
better fits the conditions. Total = 22.18 ft
• Reduce TDH to about 137 feet by increasing
pipe sizes or reducing output pressure, then go
to the smaller 40-horsepower pump.
• Increase the TDH by closing a valve slightly
until a discharge of 900 gallons per minute is Table 12–6 Practical static suction lift
reached. This action is not energy efficient;
however, it can be most practical where dis-
charge is to be limited. Elevation Maximum - - - - Practical static suction lift 2/ - - - -
theoretical at various water temperatures
suction lift 1/ 60 °F 70 °F 80 °F 90 °F
Pump selection is always a select, recalculate, and re- (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft)
try compromise to find the most efficient pump that
best fits the desired conditions.
Sea level 34.0 23.4 23.2 23.0 22.6
(2) Multispeed centrifugal pumps 500 33.4 23.0 22.8 22.5 22.2
Figure 12–6 illustrates a set of curves for a single 1,000 32.7 22.4 22.4 22.0 21.8
impeller size multispeed centrifugal pump. Multispeed
pumps are generally driven by an internal combustion 1,500 32.1 22.0 21.9 21.6 21.4
engines. Curves shown are head, brake horsepower, 2,000 31.5 21.6 21.5 21.2 20.9
and pump efficiency versus capacity curves. 3,000 30.3 20.8 20.6 20.4 20.1
4,000 29.2 20.0 19.9 19.6 19.3
Design head/discharge should be located to the right
of peak pump efficiency. As wear occurs, pump effi- 5,000 28.1 19.2 19.1 18.8 18.6
ciency increases giving a higher life span efficiency 6,000 27.0 18.5 18.3 18.1 17.8
than if designed for absolute peak efficiency initially.
1/ Maximum theoretical lift of water at 50 °F and lower.
For example, if a pump is to deliver 1,100 gallons per 2/ 70 percent of theoretical maximum.
minute at 60 feet TDH, find the rotations per minute
and horsepower required.

Irrigation Guide
Figure 12–6 Multispeed centrifugal pump (courtesy of Berkeley Pump Company)
Supersedes C–1150 Case: C B L–289 Full diameter 8" x 9"

Date: 7/25/51 Impeller: C B L–600
Performance is based on suction lift of 15 feet at sea level
100 2000 rpm
90
1800 rpm
Total dynamic head in feet
80
70
1600 rpm
60
25
bh
1400 rpm p
50
40 20
1200 rpm bh
p
15
bh
30 p
65%
70%
20 80%
81% 10
80% bh
p
10 70%
5 bh
p
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Capacity in gallons per minute Model
C–1150 based on T–874 Date: 9/5/51 ➮ 6YRE

Irrigation Guide
Reference to table 12–6 indicates maximum practical (3) Vertical turbine pump
suction lift for 5,000-foot elevation equals 18.8 feet. Figure 12–7 illustrates a set of three curves for a single
Therefore, the pump will probably not operate prop- stage of a single size enclosed impeller turbine. This
erly and cavitation would probably occur. Alternatives pump is driven by an electric vertical motor at 1,770
include: rpm. Total dynamic head, brake horsepower, and
• Lower pump to reduce static lift. pump efficiency are shown on the chart. Also shown is
• Enlarge suction pipe and improve configura- a chart giving factors to change efficiency as stages
tion of elbows and foot valve to reduce friction are added.
loss.
• Reduce discharge. Often, a single-stage pump does not produce enough
head to overcome the required lift or discharge pres-
Alternative considerations and procedures are similar sure of an irrigation system. Vertical turbine pump
to those described under single speed centrifugal stages (bowls) can be added in series. By doing this,
pump. the head capability is increased. The head-capacity
curves and horsepower capacity curves are additives
at a given discharge. Head and horsepower are
doubled if a second bowl is added to a first bowl; three
stages would triple the head produced and horse-
power required.
Figure 12–7 Vertical turbine pump (courtesy of Berkeley Pump Company)
Based on T– 3258, Test of 4 stage pump

Bowl Impeller Letter Impeller Diameter
2971–1 Performance for 1 Stage pump
Material C.I. Porc. Brz. A 8–3/4" x 10–7/8" Full
Adjust efficiency for stages used:
Part No. L–452 L–622 B 8–3/16" x 10–1/4"
Stages 4 3 2 1
Mach. No. L–2034 L–622 C 7–9/16" x 9–11/16"
Points 0 –1 –2 –5
Diameter 13–3/8" O.D. (see table)
40 M–2
100 30
N.P.S.H. (feet)
90 20
80 10
70 0
60
50
40
Brake horsepower
30 60
20 40
10 20
0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Issue date:
Capacity (gallons per minute)
C–7216 5/24/74 (Supersedes C–7216 Dated 7-2-73)
1770 RPM
MODEL 1403 HH

Irrigation Guide
Staging turbine pumps can change efficiency. Effi- The impeller (cross between propeller and turbine
ciency corrections are shown in a table on the curve. type) can be obtained in several configurations or
In figure 12–7 the peak efficiency of the pump is given pitches (7.5 to 24 degrees). Different pitches provide
as 82 percent. According to the correction chart, a different head/capacity characteristics. Generally, the
one-stage pump would be corrected by 5 percentage steeper the propeller pitch, the more brake horse-
points (82–5 = 77%), and a three-stage pump would power required. Pitches are shown as five TDH and
have –1 correction (82–1 = 81%). BHP curves.
Procedures for reading curves are otherwise the same Maintaining minimum pump intake submergence is
as for the centrifugal pumps. critical. Therefore, sump (pump well) characteristics
become critical with this pump. See figure 12-12 for
(4) Vertical mixed flow pumps recommended pump sump dimensions. Follow the
Figure 12–8 illustrates a curve for a 1,180-rpm electric manufacturer’s recommendations carefully when
motor driven, low-head, mixed-flow, pump. This pump designing the sump.
is often used for lifting water from a stream to a ditch,
one ditch to another, or boosting from a ditch into a Pump performance curves are read the same as cen-
surface system pipeline. Total dynamic head, brake trifugal pump curves.
horsepower, pump efficiency, and minimum submer-
gence curves are shown.
Figure 12–8 Vertical mixed flow pumps (courtesy of Berkeley Pump Company)
Supercedes: New Bowl: L–2156

Date: Propeller: M–3347 Dia: 10"
Pitch: Various Full Dia 10"
21 10'
Submergence
20 5'
18 0'
17° 20° 24°
12°
16
80%
71 75%
14 /2°
84%
30
12
25 80%
10
Brake hoursepower
75%
20
8
15
6 P 24°
10
BH 20°
17°
4
12°
5
2 7 1/2°
0
0
0 5000 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Capacity (gallons per minute) Model
C–4212 Based on T–1868 Date 4/6/60 M 10

Irrigation Guide
(b) Pumping plant installations pump sumps can provide pump shut-off should the
water source be interrupted. This device prevents
Pumps, motors, engines, and all appurtenances should pumps from operating with no water. Electric surge
be installed on a raised, firm foundation and be ad- protectors should be considered to help protect elec-
equately shaded. All electrical cable, fittings, and tric panels and motors from lightening
control panel should be tight and adequately
grounded, and the area should be free from standing
water. For gasoline, diesel, natural gas, and propane (c) Electric motors
powered engines, all hose connections should be tight
with zero leaks. Electric motors should be carefully matched between
load and electrical supply conditions. To do otherwise
For centrifugal pumps, installations should provide: results in wasted power and higher than required
• Concrete slab foundation for a solid support of initial installation and maintenance costs.
motor and pump and allow proper alignment of
drive shaft. Do not secure pump and motor to Table 12–7 lists standard electric motor sizes and
the foundation. Allow the unit to seek its own speeds available, and electric current phase used to
position. operate 10 horsepower or larger three-phase motors
• Supports for suction and discharge pipes close with single-phase current.
to the pump.
• Adequate size pipe and fittings to prevent
cavitation and minimize friction losses.
Table 12–7 Electric current phase required for standard
For vertical turbine pumps, installations should provide: electric motor sizes 1/
• Concrete slab foundation around the well head
and pump base to provide support for gear Motor 3,600 1,800 1,200 900 720 600
head, engine, or motor and allow proper align- hp rpm rpm rpm rpm rpm rpm
ment of pump drive shaft.
• Maintain proper lubricant levels in gear head
and pump shaft. 1 1,3 1,3 1,3
• Provide for adequate pump impeller submer- 1.5 1,3 1,3 1,3
gence. 2 1,3 1,3 1,3
• Adequate size discharge pipe in the well. 3 1,3 1,3 1,3
• Adequate well capacity 5 1,3 1,3 1,3 1,3
7.5 1,3 1,3 1,3 3
For submersible pumps, installations should provide: 10 1,3 1,3 3 3
• Corrosion resistant cable support for pump 15 3 3 3 3
motor, electric cable, and pipeline. 20 3 3 3 3
• Adequate size discharge pipe in the well. 25 3 3 3 3
• Adequate pump impeller submergence. 30 3 3 3 3
• Adequate well capacity. 40 3 3 3 3 3 3
• Proper size electric wire or cable from motor to 50 3 3 3 3 3 3
control box. 60 3 3 3 3 3 3
75 3 3 3 3 3 3
Safety control devices should be considered standard 100 3 3 3 3 3 3
installation items. Lightning protection devices are 125 3 3 3 3 3 3
considered and installed according to manufacturer’s 150 3 3 3 3 3
recommendations. Pressure control switches should 200 3 3
be provided to allow pumping plant shut-off should 250 3 3
sudden pressure drop at downstream side of pump 300 3 3
occur. Typical examples are a break in a pipeline or a 1/ 1 = single-phase electric current, 1φ
control valve failure. Water level control sensors in 3 = three-phase electric current, 3φ.

Irrigation Guide
(1) Maximum size An electric motor is not 100 percent efficient. Some
Motors are designed and constructed at either single- energy is lost in converting electrical energy into
or three-phase electric current. In most areas, a 10- mechanical energy. Electric motor efficiency is typi-
horsepower motor is the maximu size that can be cally 80 to 95 percent. Larger motors are more efficient
powered directly with single-phase current. Local than smaller motors. Also a small motor’s efficiency is
utility companies may further limit the maximum size highest at 3/4 load. Table 12–8 displays nominal effi-
to 7.5 horsepower. ciencies for standard and high efficient motors. To
avoid overloading, it may be advantageous to use the
(2) Phase converters next larger electric motor. Operating any electric
Single-phase motors can be used to operate larger motor below its rated load capacity decreases the
horsepower motors if a phase converter is used. Two electric to mecahnical energy efficiency.
most common types of converters are an auto trans-
former-capacitor converter (for horsepower to 100)
and a rotary converter (for up to 200 horsepower Table 12–8 Nominal efficiencies for standard and high
motors or groups of motors). Converters are expen- efficiency electric motors (courtesy of
sive, and a 2 percent or greater energy loss occurs Marathon Electric, Wausau, Wisconsin)
when using them.
Horse- Standard efficiency motor High efficiency motor
Rural electric power companies generally limit con- power nominal efficiency (%) nominal efficiency (%)
verter size because of the limited power line capacity full 3/4 1/2 full 3/4 1/2
the amount of current required during startup. Electric load load load load load load
motors require three to five times running amperage
for startup. Maximum motor size may be limited to 15
3,600 rpm, 460 volt
horsepower in some cases. A check with the local
electrical company will address these concerns.
5 84.0 86.0 84.5 89.5 89.5 88.5
10 84.0 85.0 82.0 91.7 92.4 91.7
(3) Three-phase electric motors
20 86.5 86.5 83.5 92.4 92.4 92.4
Electric motors are rated according to their brake
30 87.5 87.5 85.5 93.6 94.1 93.6
horsepower. Typically, this is the horsepower output
40 91.0 91.0 89.0 94.1 94.1 93.6
that can be continuously delivered, as rated by the
50 91.7 91.7 91.0 94.5 95.0 94.5
manufacturer. Electric motors can develop more
75 93.6 93.6 92.4 95.0 94.5 95.0
horsepower than shown on the nameplate; however,
100 94.1 94.1 93.0 95.4 95.4 95.0
loading above the nameplate horsepower can cause
150 93.6 93.0 91.7 95.4 95.4 95.0
excess motor heating. Heat reduces motor life because
heat accelerates the breakdown of motor insulation
and other components. Three-phase motors do not
1,800 rpm, 460 volt
require a starting mechanism; thus, they have fewer
moving parts than do single-phase motors.
5 85.5 83.5 81.5 — — —
10 87.5 88.5 87.5 — — —
Some motors have a service factor (SF). Most three-
20 89.5 90.2 89.0 92.4 93.0 93.0
phase motors used for irrigation have a service factor
30 89.5 88.5 80.5 94.1 94.1 94.1
of 1.15. The service factor allows short-term loading
40 90.2 89.5 88.0 94.5 94.5 94.5
above the brake horsepower rating without seriously
50 91.0 91.0 90.2 94.5 95.0 94.5
affecting motor life, as long as good heat dissipation is
75 93.0 93.0 91.7 95.4 95.8 95.8
maintained. Generally, service factor loading should
100 92.4 93.0 92.4 95.8 95.8 95.8
not be used for continuous power. It is intended to be
150 94.1 93.6 92.4 96.2 96.2 95.8
a safety factor.

Irrigation Guide
Motor speed (rpm) is rated at no load and full load. The ing from a downhill position to an uphill position. A flow
difference between no load and full load speeds for (rate and volume) meter can be of great value for mak-
three-phase motors is small. For example: 1,800 rpm at ing some water management decisions.
no load and 1,760 rpm at full load. Motor speed is con-
trolled by cycles per second of alternating current. Foot valves on suction pipelines prevent backflow
from occurring when the pump is shut off. Without a
foot valve, the suction pipe is drained each time the
(d) Internal combustion engines pump is shut off, allowing the pipe to be filled with air.
When air enters the suction side of the pipeline, gener-
Engines generally operate more efficiently when used ally due to improper installation, flow is restricted. Air
at 75 to 100 percent of their continuous rated horse- in the pump can also cause cavitation to accelerate
power. The manufacturer’s recommendation for pump wear. Higher velocities (3 to 5 ft/s) tend to move
loading should be followed. If internal combustion suspended air through the pipeline. Backflow preven-
engines are to operate efficiently, a good maintenance tion valves and air-vacuum release valves located just
program should also be followed. downstream of pump discharge should also be consid-
ered. They help prevent reverse flows through the
The horsepower rating applicable to a pump engine is pump and potential collapse of discharge pipelines,
the continuous horsepower available at the output especially where pumping uphill. All these devices just
shaft. It is common practice for engine manufacturers discussed should be considered a part of any pump
to list power ratings without cooling fans (and other installation.
required accessories), which can consume 5 to 8
percent of engine power. When a radiator cooled How a pump is installed can significantly affect overall
engine is used, this loss or extra power use must be operating efficiency. Unfortunatly many installations
taken into account. Attachments can be obtained that are not adequately installed. The following specific
circulate irrigation water to cool the engine and thus information relates to individual pump types.
eliminate fan energy loss. Engine efficiency can be
changed as much as 5 percent with some engine (1) Centrifugal pumps
modifications. Centrifugal pump suction pipeline must be free of air
leaks and must not have high points that can cause air
Altitude, humidity, and air temperature affect engine accumulation or restricted flow. Also pump priming is
power output. For naturally aspirated (nonturbo- difficult when suction pipline air leaks are excessive.
charged) engines, it is standard industry practice to Figure 12–9 illustrates pump installation consider-
derate engine power output by 3.5 percent for each ations. Figure 12–10 illustrates priming arrangements
1,000 feet above a 500-foot altitude and 1.0 percent for and foot valve needs for centrifugal pumps.
each 10 °F above 85 °F.
(e) Pump installation

A flow meter, or other water measuring device, and a
properly operating pressure gauge should be installed at
each pump site to monitor pump operation. This infor-
mation can be invaluable for determining when pump
efficiency is starting to drop so that corrective actions
can be taken. Typically a 5 percent drop in pressure or
volume output is a signal that pump (or well) mainte-
nance should be considered. A sudden drop in line
pressure could indicate a break in the pipeline or other
abrupt change in system. A position change of the
distribution or application system can also cause a
pressure variation at the pump; i.e., a pivot lateral mov-

Irrigation Guide
Figure 12–9 Installation considerations for centrifugal pumps (courtesy of Cornell Pump Company)
Discharge piping—Good practice
Discharge pressure gage with

stop cock two pipe diameters
Pressure gage with stop cock Air-vacuum from last obstruction (valve)
so gage can be removed release valve
(for increased durability). Tie rods to support Flow
hydraulic forces meter
,,
,,
,,
Pump
Discharge
taper Shut-off valve in
concentration large diameter pipe
Check Discharge pipe
valve larger than pump
Use a flexible joint which Pipe
permits some misalignment discharge size
velocity equal support
and axial movement. This also
resolves most thermal expansion to or less than
problems. 5 fps.
Note: A vacuum gage on the pump suction side can indicate whether the
intake screen is becoming plugged. A pressure gage will not work
since pressure on the pump suction side is negative.

Irrigation Guide
Figure 12–9 Installation considerations for centrifugal pumps—Continued
Discharge piping—Poor practice
Do not design a system to operate Do not use small discharge

with the discharge valve partly valves, piping and fittings. This
closed. adds to friction loss.
Valve on small diameter pipe Avoid discharging at a right angle

into a manifold flow. A Y connection
in the direction of flow is preferred.
Do not tighten bolts on misaligned

flanges. This can damage wear
surfaces, bearings, coupling, and
overload motor, and can create
other problems.

Irrigation Guide
Figure 12–9 Installation considerations for centrifugal pumps—Continued
Discharge and suction

Discharge fittings
fittings—Good practice
,,
,,
,, Tapered discharge
Concrete
pipe support before fittings and
valves
Suction fittings
This should be high

point on suction pipeline
,,
Use a long radius "L"
,,
D
Taper on
bottom
,,
40 in.
Use pipe
support

Irrigation Guide
Figure 12–10 Priming arrangements for centrifugal pumps (courtesy of Cornell Pump Company)
Vacuum priming
In a manually cycled system, the

discharge valve must be closed
before priming. Hand primer
Prime the pump

Pump discharge before start-up.
valve
Pump priming line to
vacuum on engine
,,,,,
,,
,,,,,
,,,,,
,,,,,
Pump
discharge Air
valve vent valve
important
,,,,, ,,,,,
,
,,,,,
Supply
valve
,,,,,
Foot valve
Use an auxiliary supply line to fill

the pump and suction pipe. The
,,,,,
system should have a foot valve.
If the discharge valve is closed, Priming
be sure the air is vented off during liquid
filling. Close vent and supply valves supply
before the pump is started.
,,,,,
,,,
,,,
Foot valve
and screen

Irrigation Guide
(i) Change of performance—Altering the speed or Example 12–1 Change of performance rules
impeller diameter of a centrifugal pump changes the
performance of the unit. Rules relating performance
with change in speed and for change in diameter apply Given:
for all types of centrifugal pumps. Example 12–1 A pump delivering 500 gpm at 1,150 rpm and 50 ft
illustrates these rules. head requires 10 hp.
A constant diameter impeller: Determine:

• Pump capacity varies directly as speed. Capacity, head, and power input of this unit if
• Head varies as the square of the speed. motor speed is increased to 1,750 rpm.
• Horsepower input varies as the cube of the
speed. Solution:
New capacity is in the same ratio as the speeds:
At constant speed:
1, 750
• Capacity varies directly with the impeller × 500 gpm = 760 gpm
diameter. 1, 150
• Head varies as the square of the impeller
diameter. New head is in the same ratio of the speeds
• Horsepower varies as the cube of the impeller squared:
diameter.
1, 750 2
× 50 ft = 116 ft
Rules for impeller diameter are used in a similar way. 1, 150 2
By computing the performance of the pump at a num-
ber of points along its characteristic curve, a new set
New horsepower is the ratio of the speeds cubed:
of curves can be plotted. These curves typically agree
fairly close with actual pump performance curves and 1, 750 3
can be sufficient for planning purposes.
× 10 hp = 35 hp
1, 150 3
Standard diameter impellers for centrifugal pumps can
be trimmed (reducing impeller diameter) to meet a
specific head requirement. Impellers are trimmed to
reduce operating pressure and energy requirements.
Trimming is more cost effective than replacing the
pump. However, the amount of impeller trim which
occur and still maintain good pump performance is
limited. Manufacturers can provide performance
curves for the newly trimmed impeller.
Although horizontal shaft centrifugal pumps are most

common, a vertical shaft, or vertical shaft and sub-
merged pump volute can be used. Submerged vertical
shaft centrifugals operate similar to vertical turbines.

Irrigation Guide
(2) Propeller/mixed flow pumps intake of the pump(s). Improperly designed or in-
The sump in which a propeller or mixed flow pump is stalled sumps (pump wells) can seriously affect pump
installed must be a part of the pumping plant design performance. Improper sump design can result in the
and installation. Figure 12–11 displays important sump formation of vortexes, turbulence, and high or misdi-
dimensions versus flow. Figure 12–12 displays sump rected velocities—any of which can seriously affect
dimensions nomenclature and pump arrangement. performance. Vibration, excessive noise, surging,
cavitation, excessive wear on shaft and bearings,
The sump entrance must be large enough to pass the reduced capacity, and excessive load on the pump
design discharge to the pump(s) without restrictions. motor can result. See NEH, Part 623 (Section 15,
Velocities within the sump from the entrance toward Irrigation), Chapter 7, Irrigation Pumps, for additional
the pump should be less than 1 foot per second. The information and example layouts including sump
shape and dimensions of the sump should be such to dimensions versus flow for single and multiple pump
supply an even distribution of flow to the suction installations.
Figure 12–11 Sump dimensions versus flow for vertical propeller pump installation
1000
800
600 A =Distance from inlet to first pump

500 B =Distance between rear wall and pump
centerline
400
C =Height of intake bell above sump floor
300 cond) H =Submergence depth or head
Recommended sump dimensions in inches
e r se
250
fe et p S =Space between pumps or pumps and wall
=2 Y =Distance from straightening vane to pump
200 Vc
A( centerline
150
Y
100 H
80 S
70
60
50
40 B
Reference: Reprinted from
30 Hydraulic Institute Standards 12th edition.
25 Copyright 1969 by the Hydraulic Institute,
122 East 42 nd St. New York, NY 10017
20 Standard DWG No. ES–730
C Sheet: 1 of 3
15 Date: February 1971
10 U.S. Department of Agriculture

8 Natural Resources Conservation Service
7 (formally Soil Conservation Service)
6
5 Engineering Division—Drainage Section
3 4 5 6 7 8 910 15 20 30 40 50 60 80 100
Gallons (in thousands) per minute per pump

Irrigation Guide
Figure 12–12 Nomenclature for sump dimensions and

pump arrangement for vertical propeller
pump installation 652.1204 Pipeline
efficiency
Multiple sump
S Energy is required to offset friction loss in a pipeline.
S S
2 Friction loss in a pipeline increases approximately in
proportion to the square of the pipeline water velocity.
B
Flow rate and pipe size both affect velocity. Pipe
material also affects friction loss. Energy required can
be reduced by increasing pipe size, reducing flow rate,
changing pipe material, or any combination of these.
S
2
Y Single Table 12–9 displays estimated friction loss for various
S sump
combinations of pipe sizes (4- to 12-inch diameter),
flow rates (100 to 2,000 gpm), and pipe material (steel,
aluminum, and plastic). If a more accurate friction loss
is necessary, use tables that provide for varying inside
diameters, wall thickness and varying friction coeffi-
cients.
A Single
pump
illustration
Muliple
pump
illustration
Stream flow
V
C
Min W.L.

Irrigation Guide
Table 12–9 Pipe friction loss comparison table for welded steel, aluminum, and plastic pipe
Gallons Pipe (ft/100-ft of pipe)

per - - - - - - - 4-inch - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6-inch - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8-inch - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10-inch - - - - - - - - - - - - 12-inch - - - - - -
minute steel alum. plas. steel alum. plas. steel alum. plas. steel alum. plas. steel alum. plas.
100 1.25 .81 .55 .17 .11 .08

150 3.00 1.73 1.18 .36 .23 .16 .09 .06
200 4.39 3.65 2.01 .62 .42 .28 .15 .10 .07 .05
300 9.47 6.35 4.27 1.32 .92 .60 .32 .21 .14 .11 .07 .05 .05 .05
350 8.32 5.43 1.73 1.16 .79 .43 .28 .19 .14 .09 .06 .06
400 10.74 7.39 2.31 1.50 1.02 .55 .37 .25 .18 .12 .09 .08 .05
450 9.24 2.77 1.85 1.27 .69 .45 .32 .23 .15 .11 .10 .06
500 11.55 3.47 2.31 1.55 .83 .55 .39 .28 .18 .13 .12 .08 .05
550 4.11 2.66 1.85 .99 .66 .46 .33 .22 .16 .13 .09 .06
600 4.85 3.19 2.19 1.18 .79 .54 .39 .25 .18 .17 .11 .07
650 5.54 3.70 2.54 1.39 .90 .63 .46 .30 .21 .19 .13 .09
700 6.47 4.27 2.89 1.62 1.04 .72 .53 .35 .24 .22 .15 .10
750 7.39 4.85 3.35 1.80 1.16 .82 .60 .39 .28 .25 .16 .11
800 8.32 5.54 3.70 2.02 1.27 .89 .68 .42 .31 .28 .18 .13
850 9.24 6.12 4.16 2.31 1.50 1.03 .76 .51 .35 .32 .21 .15
900 10.16 6.93 4.62 2.54 1.67 1.16 .84 .55 .39 .35 .23 .16
950 11.55 7.39 5.20 2.82 1.85 1.35 .95 .61 .43 .39 .25 .18
1000 8.32 5.66 3.07 2.02 1.40 1.06 .65 .48 .43 .28 .19
1050 9.01 6.24 3.35 2.25 1.50 1.12 .74 .51 .46 .31 .21
1100 9.93 6.93 3.70 2.54 1.65 1.24 .81 .56 .51 .33 .23
1200 11.55 8.09 4.39 2.72 1.96 1.46 .95 .66 .60 .39 .27
1300 9.24 5.08 3.44 2.28 1.69 1.11 .76 .71 .46 .31
1400 10.51 5.89 3.81 2.59 1.96 1.25 .88 .81 .52 .37
1500 6.58 4.39 2.93 2.19 1.47 1.00 .92 .60 .42
1600 7.39 4.97 3.29 2.54 1.60 1.12 1.04 .67 .46
1700 8.32 5.54 3.70 2.77 1.85 1.27 1.16 .76 .52
1800 9.24 6.12 4.13 3.10 2.08 1.39 1.29 .84 .57
1900 10.16 6.81 4.62 3.47 2.31 1.55 1.46 .95 .65
2000 11.32 7.39 5.08 3.80 2.54 1.70 1.59 1.04 .69

Irrigation Guide
ambient air temperature is maintained between 14 and

652.1205 Alternative 122 degrees Fahrenheit, humidity is maintained below
90 percent, and the elevation is below 3,300 feet.
energy reduction devices
Variable frequency drives can also affect the efficiency
of the pumping plant. The lower the rpm, the less
(This section was from information in Irrigation efficient the motor and the variable frequency drive.
Pumping Plants, University of California, Davis, Down to about 50 percent of the maximum rpm, the
CA, 1994.) drive efficiency may decrease only slightly, but at
lower rpm’s the efficiency of the drive falls dramati-
When it is desirable to reduce total dynamic head and cally. Manufacturers can supply characteristic curves
pump discharge, using the existing motor and pump, for specific diameter and width impellers at reduced
variable or adjustable frequency drives for electric rpm’s.
motors are available. These devices allow the rotations
per minute (rpm), or speed, of the motor to be re- Variable speed drives eliminate energy waste caused
duced. Horsepower is also reduced. The drive consists by a throttled pump by producing a discharge similar
of a converter that changes AC power to DC power to that of a throttled pump, but at a lower horsepower.
and an inverter that changes DC power into adjustable The economic affect of these devices depends on the
frequency AC power. As the frequency of the power is decrease in horsepower demand, operating time,
decreased, the power to the motor and the motor rpm electric energy costs, and cost (purchase, installation
are both reduced. This decrease in motor rpm can and maintenance) of the variable speed drive. The
substantially reduce the pump horsepower demand benefit of the variable speed drive is the savings in
since the pump horsepower demand is proportional to annual electric energy cost, which amounts to the
the pump rpm cubed. A small change in rpm then difference in energy costs between the constant rpm
causes a significant change in pump horsepower operation and the reduced speed operation. Perma-
demand. Figure 12–13 shows that reducing the rpm by nent required pressure (energy) is less costly and
about 20 percent reduces horsepower demand by preferred.
about 50 percent. Reducing the rpm from 1,770 down
to 1,400, for example, decreases the horsepower
demand of a 100-horsepower pump to 50 horsepower.
The pump output, capacity, and the total dynamic Figure 12–13 Ratio of pump characteristics to pump rpm
head, is also determined by the rpm. The capacity is
proportional to the rpm, while the total head is propor-
tional to the rpm squared. Figure 12–13 also illustrates 100
these relationships. For example, a 20 percent reduc-
Percent of maximum pump characteristic
90 Pump horsepower
tion in rpm decreases the pump capacity by 20 percent Pump total head
and the total head by nearly 38 percent. 80 Pump capacity
70
Because of these relationships, adjusting the pump
rpm may not yield the same total dynamic head and 60
discharge capacity obtained under a throttled (partly 50
closed valve downstream of pump) condition. The
actual total head and capacity at a particular rpm 40
depend on the impeller design, which defines the 30
relationship between total head and pump capacity.
20
Variable frequency drives must be protected from 10
adverse environmental conditions, including damp-
ness, dust, and extremes in temperature and altitude. 0
One manufacturer recommends installations where 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent of maximum RPM

Irrigation Guide
652.1206 Other energy 652.1207 State supplement

sources for pumping water
Wind has been widely used for many years as a power

source to provide domestic and livestock water. It can
also be used for direct pumping of irrigation water or
to generate electric energy to power electric motors
for pumping. Where wind is intermittent, water can be
pumped to storage reservoirs where it can then be
available for irrigation when needed. Area and crops
irrigated should be balanced against total water supply
available including conveyance and storage losses.
Solar energy using photoelectric cells can be used to

charge batteries for electric motor operation or can be
used to directly operate electric motors. The size of
the energy generation system for both wind and solar
power can vary widely depending on requirements for
water capacity and operating head.
Hydraulic rams (sometimes called hydro-ram pumps)

are devices for pumping water using the water’s ki-
netic energy. Typically, a smaller flow rate (delivery) is
raised to a higher elevation by using kinetic energy
from a higher flow rate (supply). Maintenance is
generally low, and the useful life is long. However,
only a few manufacturers produce these devices.
Air pumps can be used to raise water. Intermittent

bubbles of air are released at the inlet of a vertical
small diameter pipeline. As the bubble raises to the
surface, a small quantity of water is carried above the
bubble.

Chapter 13 Quality of Water Supply Part 652
Chapter 13 Quality of Water Supply National Irrigation Guide
652.1301 Effect of water quality on irrigation system, soil, and crops 13–2
(a) Salinity and sodicity ................................................................................... 13–2
(b) Infiltration and permeability ................................................................... 13–11
(c) Toxicity ...................................................................................................... 13–11
(d) Sediment .................................................................................................... 13–12
(e) Agricultural, industrial, and municipal wastes ..................................... 13–12
(g) Miscellaneous ............................................................................................ 13–15
Tables Table 13–1 Irrigation water quality guidelines 13–3
Table 13–2 Determinations normally required to evaluate 13–4

irrigation water quality problems
Table 13–3 Salt tolerance of selected crops 13–6
Table 13–4 High salt-tolerant plants 13–17
Figures Figure 13–1 Divisions for classifying crop tolerance to salinity 13–5
Figure 13–2 Threshold values of sodium adsorption ratio 13–11

of topsoil and electrical conductivity of infiltrating
water associated with the likelihood of substantial
losses in permeability

13–i
Chapter 13 Part 652
Quality of Water Supply
Chapter 13 Quality of Water Supply
National Irrigation Guide
into public surface water. However, high quality water

652.1300 General may be required for irrigating certain specialty crops
because of required crop quality or soil contaminant
standards or to meet interstate transportation and
When determining water availability for irrigation, marketing requirements. Nursery potted plants is one
information is required on its quality. Water quality example.
must be evaluated on its suitability for the intended
use. Often water (and effluent) use is based on the Typically lesser quality water can be used to irrigate
desires of the decisionmaker and not the crop. Spe- growing crops than is required for germination and
cific uses can have different water quality needs. The sprouting. Generally poor quality water should not be
irrigator must know the quality of water used for mixed with high quality water. On the surface, mixing
irrigation. If contaminants are present, the type and high quality water with low quality water may seem to
concentration must be determined. improve the low water quality. In reality a poor water
quality still exists, and using it can allow contaminants
Irrigation water used for agriculture can contain (i.e., salts) to accumulate in the soil profile throughout
undesirable contaminants, such as dissolved salts the irrigation season. As an example, with proper
(salinity and sodicity), suspended sediment, gypsum, salinity management, poorer quality water can be used
naturally occurring toxic elements, nematodes, and to grow many crops during most of the growing sea-
water borne diseases. Tailwater (runoff) from surface son. The high quality water is then available for germi-
irrigation systems can be reused as a water supply, but nation, sprouting, and leaching of accumulated salts,
can also contain contaminants, such as sediment, as well as meeting plant water needs for low salt-
agricultural fertilizers, pesticides, and organic mate- tolerant crops.
rial. Discharge from subsurface drainage systems,
treated municipal sewage, industrial wastes, agricul- Annual leaching can be eliminated by growing crops
tural food processing, and wastes from confined less tolerant to toxic elements early in the crop rota-
livestock and fish feeding operations can also be used tion following leaching. As toxic elements accumulate
to supplement existing supplies. (usually in the soil profile), more salt-tolerant crops
are grown. Leaching is performed following the last
Disposal of wastes on cropland as plant nutrients and crop in the rotation. Crop rotation examples are:
soil amendments is encouraged by regulatory agen- • beans, corn, wheat, and barley
cies. Naturally occurring microbial activity helps break • lettuce, cantaloupe, sorghum, and cotton
down (metabolize) organic solids and contaminants. • beans, cauliflower, cucumber, broccoli, and
Caution must be exersized, however, when applying squash
treated municipal sewage and industrial wastes to
cropland. Depending on treatment level, these sources Physical contaminants and organic particles can
can contain pathogens, viruses, coliforms, salts, toxic adversely affect some irrigation systems. They also
metals, or acids. Geothermal (hot) water can also be present challenges for design of screening devices that
used for irrigation, but generally must be cooled by will satisfactorily remove contaminates. Physical
sprinkling or storage before being applied to crops. It contaminants include suspended debris, moss, and
can also contain elements toxic to soils and plants submersed aquatic plants. Algae and bacterial slimes
(i.e., boron, chloride, sodium, sulfur, and toxic met- are organic particles.
als). Cold water can retard plant growth for short
periods of time. Particulates, including small aquatic organisms, can plug
nozzles and orifices in sprinkle and micro irrigation
Good quality water promotes maximum yield if good systems. Floating trash and debris may cause trouble in
soil and water management practices are used. With systems that discharge water through larger gates or
lesser quality water, soil and cropping problems can openings. Small aquatic organisms including snails,
be expected, unless appropriate management prac- freshwater clams, and other invertebrates can plug
tices are adopted. It may be desirable to use low pump screens if large numbers congregate at the intake.
quality water for irrigation of specific crops in specific Different sizes and types of screening and filtration
areas rather than allow low quality water to discharge devices are required to prevent these problems.

Suspended and floating debris in irrigation water can

cause malfunction of flow meters, measuring devices, 652.1301 Effect of water
plugging of siphon tubes, and gates in gated pipe.
Debris can also accumulate within and potentially plug quality on irrigation
almost any water control structure. Good irrigation system, soil, and crops
water management requires complete control of water
delivery.
Suitability of water for irrigation depends on the total
Water suitability for irrigation is determined by the amount and kind of salts, ions and other toxic ele-
potential to cause soil, plant, or management prob- ments in the water. Suitability must also consider
lems. Appropriate management practices should be crops grown, irrigation water management, cultural
selected to avoid unacceptable levels of biomass or practices, and climate factors. Guidelines for evaluat-
yield reduction. Suitability must be evaluated at the ing water quality for irrigation are given in table 13–1.
farm level for specific use and potential hazard to These guidelines are limited to water quality param-
crops and personal health. Available farm manage- eters that are normally encountered and that materi-
ment and the farm situation must be considered. ally affect crop production. Laboratory determinations
Removing larger sized floating debris by irrigation and calculations needed to use the guidelines are
organization facilities (trash racks, rotating screens) displayed in table 13–2.
may be desirable.
Additional information and details on effects of spe-
Water quality is a major consideration when selecting cific ions are provided in the National Engineering
irrigation method. Adequate data on water quality is Handbook (NEH), Part 623, Chapter 2, Irrigation Water
essential in the selection process. All irrigation water Requirements. Also see American Society of Civil
contains some dissolved solids (salts). Significant Engineers (ASCE) Report 71, Agricultural Salinity
build-up of these salts can occur without proper irriga- Assessment and Management.
tion method selection, operation, and management.
The leaching capability of the irrigation method is a
consideration. It becomes increasingly important as (a) Salinity and sodicity
salt content of the irrigation water increases.
Salinity or sodicity relates to water quality if the total
quantity of salts in the irrigation water is high enough
that salts accumulate in the crop root zone or on the
plant and to the extent that crop growth and yield are
affected. Where excessive soluble salts accumulate in
the root zone, plants have increasing difficulty in
extracting water from the soil profile. Reduced water
uptake by the plant can result in slow or reduced
growth. This can cause the appearance of a drought
condition (i.e., plant wilting) even with relative high
soil moisture conditions. Crops have different salinity
and sodicity tolerance levels, plus effects of salinity
and sodicity can vary with growth stage. Tolerance to
salinity or sodicity can be very low at germination and
small seedling stage, but usually increases as the plant
grows and matures.

Table 13–1 Irrigation water quality guidelines 1/
Potential irrigation water quality problem Describing parameter - - - - - Degree of restriction on use - - - - -
None Slight to moderate Severe
Salinity
(affects crop water availability) ECi 2/, mmho/cm < 0.7 0.7 – 3.0 > 3.0
or TDS 3/, mg/L < 450 450 – 2,000 > 2,000
Infiltration
(affects water infiltration rate— SAR ECi, mmho/cm
evaluated by using ECi and
SAR together) 4/ 0–3 > 0.7 0.7 – 0.2 < 0.2
3–6 > 1.2 1.2 – 0.3 < 0.3
6 – 12 > 1.9 1.9 – 0.5 < 0.5
12 – 20 > 2.9 2.9 – 1.3 < 1.3
20 – 40 > 5.0 5.0 – 2.9 < 2.9
Specific ion toxicity

(affects sensitive crops)
Sodium (Na) 5/
surface irrigation SAR <3 3–9 >9
sprinkler irrigation meq/L <3 >3
Chloride (Cl) 5/
surface irrigation meq/L <4 4 – 10 > 10
sprinkler irrigation meq/L <3 >3
Boron (B) 6/ meq/L < 0.7 0.7 – 3.0 > 3.0
Miscellaneous effects
(affects susceptible crops)
Bicarbonate (HCO3)
(overhead sprinkling only) meq/L < 1.5 1.5 – 8.5 > 8.5
1/ Adapted from Ayers and Westcot (1985), FAO 29, revision 1.

2/ ECi means electrical conductivity of the irrigation water reported in mmho/cm at 77 °F (25 °C).
3/ TDS means total dissolved solids reported in mg/L.
4/ SAR means sodium adsorption ratio. At a given SAR, infiltration rate increases as water salinity increases.
5/ For surface irrigation—Most tree crops and woody plants are sensitive to sodium and chloride, so the values shown should be used.
Because most annual crops are not sensitive, the salinity tolerance values in table 2–34 should be used. For chloride tolerance of selected
fruit crops, see table 2–35 in NEH, Part 623, Chapter 2, Irrigation Water Requirements. With overhead sprinkler irrigation and low humidity
(<30%), sodium and chloride may be absorbed through the leaves of sensitive crops. For crop sensitivity to absorption, see table 2–36 in
NEH, part 623, chapter 2.
6/ For boron tolerances see tables 2–37 and 2–38 in NEH, Part 623, Chapter 2, Irrigation Water Requirements.

Electrical conductivity of the irrigation water (ECi) is SAR is used as a measure of sodium affected water
used as a measure of salinity. Electrical conductivity and soil. A permeability problem occurs when the soil
of the saturated soil extract (ECe) is a measure of soil or water is relatively high in sodium, and low in cal-
water salinity which affects the availability of water cium. Where exchangeable sodium is excessive, soil
for plant growth. The electrical conductivity of irriga- permeability is reduced for a given salinity level of the
tion water plus infiltrated precipitation water (ECaw) infiltrating water and soil pH. Low salinity and high pH
affects the saturated soil extract. Figure 13–1 displays also decrease soil permeability as much as sodium.
divisions for classifying crop tolerance to salinity.
Table 13–3 displays salinity tolerance of selected crops
and projected yield decline. See discussion of salinity,
sodicity, and leaching in NEH, Part 623, Chapter 2,
Irrigation Water Requirements.
Table 13–2 Determinations normally required to evaluate irrigation water quality problems 1/
Determination Symbol Valence Unit of Atomic Usual range in

measure 2/ weight irrigation water
Total salt content

Electrical conductivity EC — mmho/cm — 0-3
Concentration or total dissolved solids TDS — mg/L — 0-2000
Sodium hazard
Sodium adsorption ratio 3/ SAR — — — 0-15
Constituents
Cations: Calcium Ca +2 meq/L 40.1 0-20
Magnesium Mg +2 meq/L 24.3 0-5
Sodium Na +1 meq/L 23.0 0-40
Anions: Bicarbonate HCO3 -1 meq/L 61.0 0-10

Sulfate SO4 -2 meq/L 96.1 0-20
Chloride Cl -1 meq/L 35.3 0-30
Trace elements
Boron B — mg/L 10.8 0-2
Acid/basic pH — 1-14 — 6.0-8.5
1/ Adapted from Ayers and Westcot (1985).

2/ Millimhos/cm (1 mmho/cm) referenced to 77 °F (25 °C).
mg/L = milligram per liter ≈ parts per million (ppm).
meq/L = milliequivalent per liter (mg/L ÷ equivalent weight = meq/L).
3/ SAR is calculated by the following equation, with each concentration reported in meq/L.
Na
SAR =
(Ca + Mg )
2

Figure 13–1 Divisions for classifying crop tolerance to salinity
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
100
EC e = Electrical conductivity
of the saturated-soil
extract, mmho/cm
80
Relative crop yield, %
60
40
Yields unacceptable
for most crops
20
Moderately Moderately
Sensitive sensitive tolerant Tolerant
(S) (MS) (MT) (T)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Electrical conductivity of the saturation extract, EC e , mmho/cm

Table 13–3 Salt tolerance of selected crops 1/
Common name Botanical name Salt Yield Qualitative

tolerance decline 3/ salt
threshold 2/ tolerance
rating 4/
(ECt) (Yd)
mmho/cm % per mmho/cm

Field crops
Barley Hordeum vulgare 8.0 5.0 T
Bean Phaseolus vulgaris 1.0 19 S
Broad bean Vicia faba 1.6 9.6 MS
Corn Zea Mays 1.7 12 MS
Cotton Gossypium hirsutum 7.7 5.2 T
Cowpea Vigna unguiculata 4.9 12 MT
Flax Linum usitatissimum 1.7 12 MS
Guar Cyamopsis tetragonoloba 8.8 17.0 T
Millet, foxtail Setaria italica — — MS
Oats Avena sativa — — MT
Peanut Arachis hypogaea 3.2 29 MS
Rice, paddy 5/ Oryza sativa 3.0 12 S
Rye Secale cereale 11.4 10.8 T
Safflower Carthamus tinctorius — — MT
Sesame Sesamum indicum — — S
Sorghum Sorghum bicolor 6.8 16 MT
Soybean Glycine max 5.0 20 MT
Sugar beet Beta vulgaris 7.0 5.9 T
Sugarcane Saccharum officinarum 1.7 5.9 MS
Sunflower Helianthus annuus — — MS
Triticale x Triticosecale 6.1 2.5 T
Wheat Triticum aestivum 6.0 7.1 MT
Wheat (semidwarf) T. aestivum 8.6 3.0 T
Wheat, durum T. turgidum 5.9 3.8 T
Grasses and forage crops

Alfalfa Medicago sativa 2.0 7.3 MS
Alkaligrass, nuttall Puccinellia airoides — — T
Alkali sacaton Sporobolus airoides — — T
Barley (forage) Hordeum vulgare 6.0 7.1 MT
Bentgrass Agrostis stolonifera palustris — — MS
Bermudagrass Cynodon dactylon 6.9 6.4 T
Bluestem, angleton Dichanthium aristatum — — MS
Brome, mountain Bromus marginatus — — MT
Brome, smooth B. inermis — — MS
Buffelgrass Cenchrus ciliaris — — MS
Burnet Poterium sanguisorba — — MS
Canarygrass, reed Phalaris arundinacea — — MT
See footnotes at end of table.

Table 13–3 Salt tolerance of selected crops1/—Continued

rating 4/
(ECt) (Yd)

Grasses and forage crops (continued)
Clover, alsike Trifolium hybridum 1.5 12 MS
Clover, berseem T. alexandrinum 1.5 5.7 MS
Clover, hubam Melilotus alba — — MT
Clover, ladino Trifolium repens 1.5 12 MS
Clover, red T. pratense 1.5 12 MS
Clover, strawberry T. fragiferum 1.5 12 MS
Clover, sweet Melilotus — — MT
Clover, white Dutch Trifolium repens — — MS
Corn (forage) Zea mays 1.8 7.4 MS
Cowpea (forage) Vigna unguiculata 2.5 11 MS
Dallisgrass Paspalum dilatatum — — MS
Fescue, tall Festuca elatior 3.9 5.3 MT
Fescue, meadow F. pratensis — — MT
Foxtail, meadow Alopecurus pratensis 1.5 9.6 MS
Grama, blue Bouteloua gracilis — — MS
Hardinggrass Phalaris tuberosa 4.6 7.6 MT
Kallar grass Diplachne fusca — — T
Lovegrass Eragrostis sp. 2.0 8.4 MS
Milkvetch, cicer Astragalus cicer — — MS
Oatgrass, tall Arrhenatherum, Danthonia — — MS
Oats (forage) Avena sativa — — MS
Orchardgrass Dactylis glomerata 1.5 6.2 MS
Panicgrass, blue Panicum antidotale — — MT
Rape Brassica napus — — MT
Rescuegrass Bromus unioloides — — MT
Rhodesgrass Chloris gayana — — MT
Rye (forage) Secale cereale — — MS
Ryegrass, Italian Lolium italicum multiflorum — — MT
Ryegrass, perennial L. perenne 5.6 7.6 MT
Saltgrass, desert Distichlis stricta — — T
Sesbania Sesbania exaltata 2.3 7.0 MS
Siratro Macroptilium atropurpureum — — MS
Sphaerophysa Sphaerophysa salsula 2.2 7.0 MS
Sudangrass Sorghum sudanense 2.8 4.3 MT
Timothy Phleum pratense — — MS
Trefoil, big Lotus uliginosus 2.3 19 MS
Trefoil, narrowleaf birdsfoot L. corniculatus tenuifolium 5.0 10 MT
Trefoil, broadleaf birdsfoot L. corniculatus arvenis — — MT


rating 4/
(ECt) (Yd)

Grasses and forage crops (continued)
Vetch, common Vicia angustifolia 3.0 11 MS
Wheat (forage) Triticum aestivum 4.5 2.6 MT
Wheat, durum (forage) T. turgidum 2.1 2.5 MT
Wheatgrass, standard crested Agropyron sibiricum 3.5 4.0 MT
Wheatgrass, fairway crested A. cristatum 7.5 6.9 T
Wheatgrass, intermediate A. intermedium — — MT
Wheatgrass, slender A. trachycaulum — — MT
Wheatgrass, tall A. elongatum 7.5 4.2 T
Wheatgrass, western A. smithii — — MT
Wildrye, Altai Elymus angustus — — T
Wildrye, beardless E. triticoides 2.7 6.0 MT
Wildrye, Canadian E. canadensis — — MT
Wildrye, Russian E. junceus — — T
Vegetable and fruit crops

Artichoke Helianthus tuberosus — — MT
Asparagus Asparagus officinalis 4.1 2.0 T
Bean Phaseolus vulgaris 1.0 19 S
Beet, red Beta vulgaris 4.0 9.0 MT
Broccoli Brassica oleracea botrytis 2.8 9.2 MS
Brussels sprouts B. oleracea gemmifera — — MS
Cabbage B. oleracea capitata 1.8 9.7 MS
Carrot Daucus carota 1.0 14 S
Cauliflower B. oleracea botrytis — — MS
Celery Apium graveolens 1.8 6.2 MS
Corn, sweet Zea mays 1.7 12 MS
Cucumber Cucumis sativus 2.5 13 MS
Eggplant Solanum melongena esculentum 1.1 6.9 MS
Kale B. oleracea acephala — — MS
Kohlrabi B. oleracea gongylodes — — MS
Lettuce Lactuca sativa 1.3 13 MS
Muskmelon Cucumis melo — — MS
Okra Abelmoschus esculentus — — S
Onion Allium cepa 1.2 16 S
Parsnip Pastinaca sativa — — S
Pea Pisum sativum — — S
Pepper Capsicum annuum 1.5 14 MS
Potato Solanum tuberosum 1.7 12 MS


rating 4/
(ECt) (Yd)

Vegetable and fruit crops (continued)
Pumpkin Cucurbita pepo pepo — — MS
Radish Raphanus sativus 1.2 13 MS
Spinach Spinacia oleracea 2.0 7.6 MS
Squash, scallop Cucurbita pepo melopepo 3.2 16 MS
Squash, zucchini C. pepo melopepo 4.7 9.4 MT
Strawberry Fragaria sp. 1.0 33 S
Sweet potato Ipomoea batatas 1.5 11 MS
Tomato Lycopersicon lycopersicum 2.5 9.9 MS
Turnip Brassica rapa 0.9 9.0 MS
Watermelon Citrullus lanatus — — MS
Woody crops
Almond Prunus dulcis 1.5 19 S
Apple Malus sylvestris — — S
Apricot P. armeniaca 1.6 24 S
Avocado Persea americana — — S
Blackberry Rubus sp. 1.5 22 S
Boysenberry Rubus ursinus 1.5 22 S
Castor bean Ricinus communis — — MS
Cherimoya Annona cherimola — — S
Cherry, sweet Prunus avium — — S
Cherry, sand P. besseyi — — S
Currant Ribes sp. — — S
Date palm Phoenix dactylifera 4.0 3.6 T
Fig Ficus carica — — MT
Gooseberry Ribes sp. — — S
Grape Vitis sp. 1.5 9.6 MS
Grapefruit Citrus paradisi 1.8 16 S
Guayule Parthenium argentatum 8.7 11.6 T
Jojoba Simmondsia chinensis — — T
Jujube Ziziphus jujuba — — MT
Lemon C. limon — — S
Lime C aurantiifolia — — S
Loquat Eriobotrya japonica — — S
Mango Mangifera indica — — S
Olive Olea europaea — — MT
Orange C. sinensis 1.7 16 S
Papaya Carica papaya — — MT


rating 4/
(ECt) (Yd)

Woody crops (continued)
Passion fruit Passiflora edulis — — S
Peach Prunus persica 1.7 21 S
Pear Pyrus communis — — S
Persimmon Diospyros virginiana — — S
Pineapple Ananas comosus — — MT
Plum; prune Prunus domestica 1.5 18 S
Pomegranate Punica granatum — — MT
Pummelo Citrus maxima — — S
Raspberry Rubus idaeus — — S
Rose apple Syzygium jambos — — S
Sapote, white Casimiroa edulis — — S
Tangerine Citrus reticulata — — S
1/ Adapted from Maas and Hoffman (1977) and Maas (1990). Data serve as a guide to relative tolerances. Absolute tolerances depend upon
climate, soil conditions, and cultural practices. Note: 1 mmho/cm = 1 dS/m.
2/ Salt tolerance threshold (ECt) is the mean soil salinity at initial yield decline. Salinity expressed as ECe in mmho/cm referenced to 77 °F
(25 °C).
3/ Percent yield decline (Yd) is the rate of yield reduction per unit increase in salinity beyond the threshold.
4/ Qualitative salt tolerance ratings are sensitive (S), moderately sensitive (MS), moderately tolerant (MT), and tolerant (T) as shown in
figure 2–32.
5/ Values are for soil-water while plants are submerged. Less tolerant during seedling stage.

(b) Infiltration and permeability (c) Toxicity

Permeability problems occur when the soil or the Crop toxicity problems occur when certain elements
irrigation water is relatively high in sodium and low in are available in the soil-water solution and taken up by
calcium. Infiltration rate can decrease to the point that the plants. Toxic elements can accumulate in amounts
sufficient water cannot infiltrate to adequately supply that result in reduced crop yield or quality. Toxicity
the crop. Sodium causes soil particles to disperse, normally results when certain ions are absorbed by the
resulting in a massive soil structure with low perme- plant with soil water, move with the plant transpira-
ability. Where exchangeable sodium is excessive, soil tion stream, and accumulate in the leaves at concen-
permeability is reduced in low calcium level soils. Low trations that cause plant damage. This is usually re-
salinity and high pH can also decrease soil permeabil- lated to one or more specific ions available in irriga-
ity as much as sodium. Sodium Adsorption Ratio tion water, i.e., boron, chloride, and sodium. Not all
(SAR) is most often used to define infiltration and crops are sensitive to these ions. White deposits on
permeability problems; however, a combination of leaves or other plant parts may indicate the presence
SAR and ECi may be more indicative of problems. See of salt. White deposits can occur on fruit or leaves as a
figure 13–2 for threshold values of a combination of result of sprinkler irrigation where water with high
SAR and ECi for potential infiltration and permeability bicarbonate concentration is used. Toxicity often
hazards. Adjusted SAR is used where bicarbonates are accompanies or complicates a salinity or infiltration
present. Often, gypsum (calcium) is added to the soil problem. It may appear even when salinity is low.
to improve infiltration and permeability.
Certain other highly toxic elements occur in irrigation
water, especially drainage system discharge in some
soils. Most of these elements, i.e., selenium, arsenic,
and mercury, are not necessarily toxic to plants, but
in small concentrations are toxic to animal life.
Figure 13–2 Threshold values of sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) of topsoil and electrical conductivity of infiltrating water
(eci) associated with the likelihood of substantial losses in permeability
30
Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) in topsoil
25
Area of likely
permeability hazard
20
15
Area of unlikely
permeability hazard
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Electrical conductivity of infiltrating water, (ECi) or (ECaw)

(d) Sediment (e) Agricultural, industrial, and

municipal wastes
Suspended sediment and bedload material in an irriga-
tion water supply can be a problem. Bedload material Land application of municipal, industrial, and agricul-
settles when transport energy is reduced. Sediment tural wastes requires careful planning. The goal should
can plug water control structures in open and closed be to recycle nutrients in waste material as fertilizer,
conveyance systems. Suspended sediment can be in amounts than can be used by the crop, and as a soil
beneficial, however, for sealing coarse soils in open amendment that will not degrade soil, water, plant,
channel conveyance systems, on-farm ponds, and and air resources. In addition, the soil in the upper
some irrigated soils. As sediment is deposited with part of the profile is an ideal environment for micro-
each irrigation and as tillage takes place, additional biological activity to breakdown many undesirable
fines accumulate in the tillage depth. Soil available contaminants.
water capacity (AWC) also increases in the surface
layer within the tillage depth. Because elements and nutrients can occur in high
concentrations, it is advisable to use these wastes as
Suspended sediment that reduces soil intake rates on supplemental irrigation water in a total water manage-
coarse textured soils improves distribution uniformity ment program. Adequate plant biomass and water
with surface irrigation systems (i.e., furrows and must be present to use applied nutrients. The irriga-
borders). Intake rates can be reduced under sprinkler tion decisionmaker should know the total chemical
systems, causing surface water translocation and and nutrient content of applied wastes and know the
runoff. Sediment in the water supply can cause wear amount being applied with each application. For
on pump impellers and sprinkler nozzles. In some example, most organic and agricultural wastes contain
extreme cases, sprinkler nozzles and bearings must be nitrates (NO3), phosphates (P2O5), potash (K2O), and,
replaced annually, or more often. Increased nozzle in the case of agricultural wastes, high amounts of
discharge resulting from wear and abrasion must be organic material. All these nutrients are essential for
considered when making water management deci- good crop growth. However, when applying agricul-
sions. A twist drill shank can be used to check nozzle tural wastes from dairy and other livestock operations
wear. A nozzle is considered worn when a twist drill to crops that don’t use all of these nutrients annually,
shank 1/64-inch larger than the stamped size on the accumulation in the soil profile can occur. This accu-
nozzle can be inserted. mulation of excess nutrients can be a potential source
of surface and ground water contamination especially
When irrigation water containssuspended sediment, when excess irrigation water is applied or when ex-
additional settling, screening, and filtering is neces- cess precipitation occurs. Waste from food processing
sary for most micro irrigation systems, perhaps to the operations can contain high volumes of salt, organic
point that makes management of micro irrigation material, and other chemicals used in processing and
impractical. Settling basins of substantial size and bacteria control. Waste from confined livestock feed-
cyclone sand separators can be used to reduce the ing also contains salts from urine.
size and cost of filtering systems, especially when
using sand media filters. See Chapter 6, Irrigation A properly designed and operated sprinkler irrigation
System Design, for additional information on filtration system can provide uniform waste application; how-
and treatment requirements for micro systems. ever, to achieve proper irrigation water management, a
separate application system may be required for
irrigation. The type of application system depends
upon the consistency of the waste and physical site
conditions. Size of solids contained in waste affects
application patterns for each type of system. During
pumping, the concentration of solids may change with
time. In some cases, agitation or dilution of wastes
before or during pumping may be required.

Manure and wastewater effluents containing less than when pumping clean water. The overall effect is simi-
5 percent solids are considered liquids. With proper lar to a throttling valve on the inlet pipeline at the
screening these wastes can be applied with almost any pump. For centrifugal pumps designed for water, the
sprinkler or surface irrigation system. Application motor will not overload because the decrease in flow
uniformity is a prime consideration. Pump intake rate tends to decrease horsepower requirement. How-
screens should be sized with openings no larger than ever, with an increase in viscosity, cavitation is more
the smallest sprinkler orifice. Slurries containing 5 to likely to occur because of the higher required net
15 percent solids require special pumping equipment positive suction head (NPSH). Cavitation occurs when
and sprinklers with large nozzles (gun types). Slurries NPSH available is less than required, leading to the
can be transported by either tank wagon or pump and formation of vapor pockets in the liquid, typically near
pipeline. The viscosity and specific gravity of a slurry the eye of an impeller or around sharp obstructions in
or liquid are dependent on the type and amount of the suction pipeline. The collapse of these pockets
solids in suspension. Effects by variations in specific causes the noise associated with cavitation (sounds
gravity should be evaluated on an individual basis. like gravel moving through a pump or steel pipeline).
Waste containing trash, abrasives, bedding, or stringy Cavitation can damage the pump. The damaged area
material is not suitable for sprinkle application unless appears as corrosion.
it is preconditioned by chopping or grinding.
Generally, where fluid velocities are greater than 3.5
Where practical and suitable for soil conditions, it is feet per second and solids content less than 7 percent,
recommended slurries be diluted to a liquid consis- pipe friction can be assumed to be the same as that for
tency before application. Consult NEH, Part 651, water. Any increase in fluid viscosity, however, creates
Agricultural Waste Management Field Handbook a higher required NPSH than for water. For pumping
(AWMFH), for quantities of water required to achieve slurries, the pump dealer must be provided the percent
specific dilution requirements. Waste with 10 to 22 solids as well as the desired flow rate and pumping
percent solids content (semi-solid) can be transported head. NPSH should be evaluated for the most viscous
and spread using box type spreaders and dump trucks. fluid condition encountered during the pumping op-
Manure with more than 20 percent solids must be eration. Pipe friction can be evaluated for the average
handled as a solid waste. Separators can be used to condition. Appropriate specialty pumping handbooks
remove solids from the liquid fraction. The liquids can are recommended as a design aid to estimate pipe
then be applied through most sprinkler systems. The friction for slurry flow and to calculate available
amount of water applied needs to be considered as a NPSH.
part of the total water budget. This is specially the
case with liquids and slurries. For more information If the same pump is used for pumping clean water and
see the AWMFH. water containing solids, the pump will operate at a
different efficiency for each liquid. Selecting the most
Organic solids in liquid waste cause a decrease in efficient pump for dual application depends on deter-
specific gravity, but a higher viscosity relative to that mining: total volume of clean water, total volume of
for clean water. Changes in these fluid properties wastewater, solids content of the wastewater, desired
require net additional energy to overcome the effects flow rate, and total dynamic head. Knowing these
of turbulence, velocity head, and pipe friction. The factors allows the pump engineer or dealer to select a
result is an increase in friction head and horsepower pump that has the highest average efficiency for the
requirements. However, pipe friction typically reduces two conditions.
with time. For liquid waste, AWMFH recommends
using the same friction factors as those for water, but (1) Application rates and amounts
to increase the power requirement by at least 10 To avoid excessive runoff or ponding, application
percent. rates cannot exceed the soil intake rate and soil sur-
face storage. Under sprinkler systems, exceeding the
The effects of viscosity are most pronounced in pipe- soil intake rate and soil surface storage decreases
lines when velocities are slow, solids content is high, application uniformity resulting from translocation of
or long pipelines are involved. Under these conditions, water on the ground surface. The result is low areas
a higher total dynamic head (TDH) is required than receive disproportionate amounts of water and nutri-

ents, and deep percolation probably occurs in these recommended for waste application because of the
areas. Design application rates should be guided by physical contact with effluent. Pipelines should be
local experience and the maximum clean water appli- drained or protected from freezing during cold
cation rate values displayed in chapter 2 of this guide. weather.
Soil intake characteristics for clean water and water
containing waste are different. (ii) Surface irrigation systems—Surface irriga-
tion systems, typically furrows and borders, can be
Application of organic solids, contained in municipal, used to apply waste if good application uniformity of
industrial, and agricultural wastes reduces soil infiltra- both waste and water is obtained. Runoff and ponding
tion rates. Appropriate management and associated must be prevented. Runoff containing waste can
cultural practices should be used to offset this effect contaminate surface and ground water.
on most soils.
(iii) Micro irrigation systems—Screening and
Maximum quantities of waste application should be filtration requirements typically render micro irriga-
based upon the seasonal crop nutrient requirement. In tion systems unsuitable for most waste applications.
addition, waste applications should be timed such that
the applied nutrients are available when needed by the (2) Major management concerns
crop. When the field receiving waste is irrigated, total Waste should be applied uniformily and in a manner
water applied (wastewater + effective precipitation + that prevents runoff or excessive deep percolation.
irrigation) should not exceed available soil-water Nutrients in applied waste should not exceed crop
storage in the crop root zone. This avoids excess usage with allowance for application losses; i.e.,
leaching and runoff. denitrification. Proper application rates and timing are
essential to meet these considerations. These con-
Water and nutrient budgets can be used as planning cerns should be addressed in the selection and design
tools in evaluating this aspect. Crop evapotranspira- of the irrigation application system and in the opera-
tion and net irrigation requirements for various crops tion and maintenance plan.
are displayed in chapter 3. A nutrient analysis of the
waste and the knowledge of how much of each nutri- Where the goal is to maximize the utilization of nitro-
ent is being applied are highly recommended to the gen, applying the waste in the first half of the irrigation
irrigator. How the waste is handled, stored, and ap- application period helps to incorporate the nitrogen
plied somewhat dictates the availability of nitrates. and decrease denitrification losses. Where the goal is
Nitrates can be easily lost to volatilization and denitri- to protect ground water or surface water supplies
fication, whereas through careful handling and appli- from excess nitrogen, applying clean irrigation water
cation, more of the nitrates can be made available for before the waste increases volatilization losses and
crop use. maintains nitrogen in the upper part of the plant root
zone. Both cases require good water management.
(i) Sprinkle irrigation systems—Both gun types Apply only the amount of water the soil can hold
and conventional sprinkler heads can be used for within the plant root zone. Allow for expected precipi-
application of liquid agricultural wastes. Large nozzle tation.
gun types are also well suited to application of waste
slurries. Slurry application uniformity can be a prob- Odors from animal waste (manure) and some munici-
lem. Application systems can be continuous or peri- pal or industrial waste being applied through sprinkler
odic move. Screening is necessary when using conven- systems can be a major problem. Where possible,
tional set type sprinkler systems, generally because select locations downwind from neighbors or heavily
the nozzles used are smaller. With any system, lower traveled roadways. Avoid application on hot or humid
flow rates (slower velocities) near the ends of laterals days or when the wind direction is toward these areas.
can lead to the settling of solids. Pumping clean water Visiting with the neighbors regarding the least offen-
for 10 to 15 minutes following waste application helps sive time for applications is a good management
to minimize this problem. Handmove systems are not practice.

Sprinkler applications of manure and wastewater See NEH, Part 651, Agricultural Waste Management
should be followed with at least a 10- to 15-minute Field Handbook, Chapter 11, Land Utilization, for land
flush of clean water to clear solids from the pipelines. application of agricultural wastes through irrigation
Deposited solids can reduce flow capacity and acceler- systems.
ate corrosion of aluminum and steel pipelines. Depos-
ited solids can also dislodge during subsequent appli- For planning and design of land application of munici-
cations to cause clogging of even the largest sprinkler pal wastewater through irrigation systems, see the
nozzles. Clean water flushing also washes solids off United States Environmental Protection Agency’s
plant leaves, preventing ammonia burn during hot (USEPA) publication, Process Design Manual, Land
weather. Treatment of Municipal Wastewater. October 1981
(including Supplement on Rapid Infiltration and Over-
The following management strategies may be appro- land Flow, October 1984), EPA 625/1-81-013 and 013a.
priate for protection of ground water from excess Additional local design procedures and regulations
deep percolation of nitrates: may also apply.
(i) Deficit irrigation—During the irrigation in

which waste is applied, deficit irrigation (not com- (g) Miscellaneous
pletely filling the plant root zone) is a good manage-
ment practice. This reduces opportunity for deep Other water quality problems that may arise in specific
percolation because of application nonuniformity. To locations need to be considered when planning irriga-
use this strategy, the operational flexibility of the tion systems. They can include:
irrigation system must accommodate a shorter time • Extreme temperature water
between irrigation applications. The amount of deficit • Tailwater
irrigation should be based upon local precipitation • Drainage effluent
patterns, crop rooting depth, and water holding capac- • Pesticides
ity of the soil. • Toxic ions (i.e., salts), heavy metals, and other
elements not normally found in waste effluent
(ii) Reduced application—Apply only part of the
waste allowed for a single application, reserving the (1) Extreme temperature (hot or cold) water
rest for a later application, but within the period in Geothermal water can generally be used without
which the plants take up nitrogen and other nutrients. cooling when using a moderate to high pressure
The sum of nitrates and other nutrients for all the sprinkle irrigation system. Water that is sprayed
applications should not exceed the crop uptake after through the air will be close to or below ambient air
losses are considered. temperature when it strikes the ground surface or crop
canopy. When applying hot water through a low pres-
(iii) Irrigation water before wastewater—Apply sure sprinkler, micro, or surface irrigation system, the
irrigation water before wastewater, reserving enough hot water generally must be cooled so that the plant
clean water for a 10- to 15-minute flush of pipelines. crown and tubers close to ground surface are not
This helps keep nitrates in the upper part of the plant cooked. Pump design should consider water tempera-
root zone. ture where it is above 90 degrees Fahrenheit.
(3) Other management considerations Geothermal water may also contain undesirable chemi-
Provide timely and correct maintenance of equipment is cals, such as boron, chloride, sodium, sulfur, and heavy
a good management practice. Application of wastewater metals. Therefore, a water quality test is necessary
is frequently done during the non-irrigation season. before using it for irrigation purposes. Some of these
Winter storage and maintenance are crucial factors in chemicals can be toxic to a wide variety of plants,
assuring that the system functions throughout the next animals, and humans.
season. Rodents nesting in open pipes or control boxes,
plugged pipelines, and undrained pipes that have frozen Irrigating soils with extreme cold water (or excess
and burst are common problems. amounts of water) can delay soil warm-up, thereby
retarding plant growth. In some areas glacier melt or

snow melt is available during most of the growing (3) Drainage effluent
season. A 4 to 8 degree Fahrenheit decrease in soil Internal drainage and removal of drainage water used
temperature in the upper 6 to 8 inches of the soil for leaching (for salinity control) are essential. How-
profile have been measured after applying 3 inches of ever, disposal of effluent can be a problem. Disposal
54 degree Fahrenheit water with surface systems. This alternatives include:
temporary drop in soil temperature may be short (4 to • Discharge into salt sinks (ocean, salt basins,
16 hours), but it can retard plant growth during the underground saline aquifers)
cool down period. Sprinkle irrigation can help warm • Discharge into a waste disposal operation.
cold water if ambient air temperature is higher than • Reuse on cropland by irrigating high salt-
the temperature of the water. Applying too much tolerant plants.
irrigation water early in the growing season (or for • Discharge into an onfarm evaporation pond
frost protection when the ground surface is bare) can • Reclaim salt(s) for use in the United States salt
retard plant growth because of excess soil surface market (livestock feed, food processing for
evaporation and excessive water in the plant root human consumption, industrial).
zone.
By far the best solution is good onsite water manage-
(2) Tailwater (surface runoff) ment to minimize the amount of effluent to be dis-
Where the opportunity exists and is legal, tailwater posed, but yet maintain proper soil salinity control in
from irrigated fields can be reused as a water supply the plant root zone. Drainage effluent can contain
or to supplement existing supplies. Runoff water from naturally occurring soil elements. Some of these
irrigation can contain nutrients, sediment, pesticides, elements (i.e., boron, selenium) can be toxic to wild-
and in some areas nematodes. Use of water containing life.
these contaminants may be restricted. For example,
runoff from a field irrigation system used to apply Drainage effluent from salinity control irrigation
fertilizers and pesticides cannot be used on fresh management can contain high concentrations of salts
vegetables, but can be used on many field crops. It is and is unsuitable for reuse on most common crops. It
preferred to reuse this water for irrigation of field has been demonstrated, however, that drainage efflu-
crops rather than allow it to return to public water. ent from fields with intensive salinity control can be
Tailwater reuse can improve onfarm irrigation effi- used for irrigation of very high salt-tolerant plants
ciency and reduce use of high quality water. (agroforestry). Incorporating crop residue containing
salt returns the salt to the soil, perhaps with very little,
Sediment in tailwater, often resulting from irrigation if any, net salt removal. Some of these plants are
induced erosion on highly erosive soils, can degrade commercially useful and can be grown economically
downstream surface water for public recreation, and irrigated with very high salt concentration drain-
municipal water supply, wildlife, and fishery uses. It age effluent. When irrigating high salt-tolerant plants,
may also be undesirable for irrigation purposes be- good internal drainage and removal of excess water
cause of sediment deposition problems in conveyance used for leaching for salinity management are also
systems. Technically, tailwater reuse on the same or essential. The final, smaller volume of drainage efflu-
downslope field should be a part of every surface ent with a very high salt concentration is typically
irrigation system. Except for closed level basin, bor- discharged into an onfarm evaporation pond. The
der, or furrow systems, runoff is necessary for best remaining salts can then be mined. High salt-tolerant
irrigation uniformity. Blocked ends can improve plants are listed in table 13–4.
application uniformity on nearly level fields where
ponded water covers the lower fourth to third of the
field. On steeper fields, blocking furrows and borders
to limit runoff generally increases deep percolation.
Level furrows and basins in arid areas typically have
no runoff.

Research has also demonstrated that certain trees and Table 13–4 High salt-tolerant plants
halophytes are useful in the uptake of selenium from
the soil water. The trees include:
Plant Notes
• Eucalyptus
• Casuarina
• Athel Tolerance level: ECi = 8 to 10 mmho/cm
The halophytes include: Eucalyptus trees Used as biomass for organic fuel
• Quail bush (atriplex) fired power generating plants.
• Iodinebush Casuarina trees Is not frost tolerant.
• Fivehook bassia Athel Used in windbreak plantings.
• Jose tall wheatgrass
(4) Pesticides Tolerance level: ECi = 20 to 35 mmho/cm

Pesticides and their metabolites can be highly toxic to
humans and wildlife. Some are persistent and mobile Fivehook bassia
in water. Excessive irrigation water application and Saltgrass Useful as ground cover in wind-
precipitation that leaches below the plant root zone breaks or for erosion control.
can carry these contaminants into ground water. Jose tall wheatgrass
Tailwater (surface runoff) containing these contami- Cordgrass
nants may be suitable for reuse to irrigate many crops, Fat-hen
but even small concentrations may be hazardous to Red sage
fish, water fowl, wildlife, domestic animals, and hu-
mans. Operating irrigation systems is difficult without
coming in physical contact with the irrigation water or Tolerance level: ECi = > 40 mmho/cm
without having small areas of standing water within or
near irrigation operations. Surface water attracts Iodinebush
wildlife in a wide range of species and sizes. Quail bush (atriplex)


Chapter 14 Environmental Concerns Part 652
Chapter 14 Environmental Concerns National Irrigation Guide
652.1401 Environmental impacts 14–1

(a) Transport of chemicals .............................................................................. 14–1
(b) Consumptive use by plants ........................................................................ 14–2
(c) Pollution hazards by chemicals ................................................................ 14–2
(d) Impacts to wildlife ...................................................................................... 14–2
652.1402 Irrigation water management 14–3
652.1403 Pollution delivery process 14–3

(a) Availability ................................................................................................... 14–3
(b) Detachment ................................................................................................. 14–4
(c) Transport ..................................................................................................... 14–4
652.1404 Type of pollutants 14–7
652.1405 Conservation practices for pollution control and reduction 14–8

(a) Pollution control ......................................................................................... 14–8
652.1406 Conservation management plan development 14–11
652.1407 Benefits 14–11
652.1408 Costs and benefits 14–14

14–i
Table Table 14–1 Common pollutants 14–7
Figure Figure 14–1 Pathways for transportation of substances 14–6

to receiving water
Exhibits Exhibit 14–1 Factors affecting chemical pollutant availability, 14–5

detachment, and transport
Exhibit 14–2 Example of identified concerns 14–12
14–18
Chapter 14 Part 652
Environmental Concerns
Chapter 14 Environmental Concerns
652.1400 General 652.1401 Environmental

impacts
Irrigation brings many benefits to individuals, commu-
nities, and regions, but it also brings environmental Negative and positive environmental impacts are
concerns. Many environmental concerns are local. caused by irrigation. These impacts include:
Some are larger in scope; such as coastal zones, river • Transport of chemicals
basins, and regional and even international. Irrigation • Consumptive use by plants
planners and decisionmakers need to have a basic • Pollution hazards by fertilizers, pesticides,
understanding of the general processes by which fuels, and other contaminants
irrigation water can affect soil, water, air, plant, and • Obstructed wildlife migration patterns
animal resources. Human considerations (social,
cultural, and economic) should involve both present Negative irrigation impacts to the environment can be
and future conditions. insignificant or large. Water pollution problems from
individual irrigated farms may appear small, but when
Most farmers are good environmentalists. They are combined with adjacent farms, the problem can be
faithful stewards of soil, water, air, plant, and animal large. With new project development or major changes
resources, and truly desire to help maintain a good to existing systems, mitigation may be necessary.
overall environment and quality of life. Others, many Providing an environmental assessment as part of the
of whom recognize only one or a few specific re- irrigation system planning process can identify both
sources, should have concerns for environmental negative and positive impacts. Farmer’s irrigation
quality and long-term farm production. decisions should be based on knowing potential im-
pacts and how much they affect the environment. See
chapter 15 for planning tools including environmental
assessment aids.
(a) Transport of chemicals

Water can transport chemicals through the soil and off
the field. Inefficient and nonuniform onfarm irrigation
can provide excess surface water runoff (tailwater)
and deep percolation. For best uniformity, some deep
percolation is generally required.
Runoff water from irrigation can carry sediment from

soil erosion, nutrients, pesticides, animal waste, and
other soil surface pollutants into surface water. Runoff
from irrigation can augment surface water flows to
provide water for fish, wildlife, irrigated areas, and
other downslope land uses, such as wetlands. How-
ever, in most cases quality of water from irrigation
runoff is lower than that of the original supply. Pollut-
ants can result in damages to other downslope irri-
gated areas, to fish, wildlife habitat, cities, and indus-
tries.

Proper soil, water, and plant management can mini- (d) Impacts to wildlife
mize these effects. Runoff from irrigated cropland is
designated by EPA as a nonpoint source pollutant; Some open channel irrigation water conveyance
therefore, discharges do not require a discharge per- systems can obstruct normal wildlife migration pat-
mit. Deep percolation can carry nutrients and pesti- terns. Large concrete lined canals are hazardous to
cides that have become a part of the soil-water solu- some wildlife (also humans and domestic pets) unless
tion to local ground water aquifers. Certain chemicals precautions are planned and incorporated so that they
contained in ground water can become hazardous can exit once they have entered (by choice or acciden-
when consumed by humans and livestock. Irrigation tally). This is a concern in arid areas where the canal
water can help metabolize wastes applied to land into water may be the only water available for some dis-
plant usable nutrients and soil amendments. tance.
In some areas, canal seepage and deep percolation in

(b) Consumptive use by plants fields can dissolve naturally occurring toxic soil ele-
ments, such as salts and selenium. The toxic elements
Water consumptively used by plants is not available in the soil-water solution can then move into ground
for other instream uses. To understand the impacts on and surface water.
instream flows, ground water, and springs, consump-
tive use, nonconsumptive use, and local water right
laws must be understood as they apply to mining and
to agricultural, municipal, and industrial uses.
(c) Pollution hazards by chemicals

Care in handling and storage of fertilizers, pesticides,
fuels, lubricants, and solvents is necessary to avoid
polluting ground and surface water. This applies to
both commercial and on-farm operations. Care must
be taken to prevent chemical and fuel spills at chemi-
cal and fuel storage facilities, chemical mixing areas,
chemical application equipment wash areas, and
especially at the irrigation pumping plant site. Spills of
these materials onto the ground surface can infiltrate
the soil or be flushed off the surface with irrigation
water or precipitation.

652.1402 Irrigation water 652.1403 Pollution deliv-

management ery process
Proper irrigation water management is essential to The process by which a pollutant is detached and
minimize negative irrigation caused impacts to the delivered to ground or surface water (and into air)
environment. Even the best irrigation system can be takes place in three basic stages: availability, detach-
mismanaged. Well planned and fully implemented ment, and transport. A water pollution hazard exists
irrigation water, animal waste, pest, and nutrient only when a pollutant is available in some form at
management plans reduce or help prevent ground the field site, becomes detached, and is transported
water and surface water quality pollution problems to a receiving water body.
associated with irrigation. Proper irrigation water
management includes: Pollution concerns from irrigation activities result
• An irrigation system that is suitable to the site. from using an unsuitable irrigation system, using poor
• Good irrigation system operation techniques operation techniques, or making poor irrigation water
that optimize distribution uniformity. management decisions, especially when matching
• Proper irrigation scheduling and adequate irrigation applications to pesticide and fertilizer appli-
irrigation system maintenance. cations. However, if excess fertilizers and persistent
pesticides are available, a potential pollution opportu-
nity exists even when good irrigation water manage-
ment is practiced.
(a) Availability
Pollutant materials must be available in a form that
has the potential to become a concern. The quantity
and nature of the material influence its availability.
For example, soil is usually available to provide sedi-
ment downstream, either as deposition or suspended
particles. Chemicals, fertilizers, and pesticides vary
not only in quantity, but in degree of their availability.
Availability is often measured in half life (half life is
when 50 percent of the original chemical is still avail-
able).
The amount and placement of chemicals (availability)

at the time a runoff or deep percolation event occurs
are significant. The partitioning of a chemical between
water and soil determines its availability to be carried
by soil erosion, by deep percolation, or by some other
pathway.
Phosphate placed on the soil surface can be present in

surface runoff. If placed below the soil surface, phos-
phates are typically not available except when severe
soil erosion takes place. Nitrates that have leached
below the plant root zone are available for deep perco-
lation. Manure left on the soil surface is available as a

downstream pollutant when surface runoff occurs. (c) Transport

Pesticides with a short half-life are available for a
shorter time than more persistent (longer half-life) With respect to irrigation, agricultural pollutants are
compounds, such as chlorinated hydrocarbons. typically transported in water as surface runoff or
deep percolation. However, some substances are lost
through wind drift and volatilization when using
(b) Detachment sprinkle irrigation systems for chemigation or applica-
tion of liquid waste or manure slurry. Manure on the
Pollutant materials must be detached from their origi- soil surface can be transported in field runoff as solid
nal location (or made mobile) before they can become particles in suspension or as part of the water solution.
a pollutant in receiving water. The detachment process The particular pathway by which a pollutant leaves the
is either physical or chemical. Chemical pollutants are field depends on the soil, hydrology of the field, irriga-
grouped into three basic categories based on their tion system used, and level of irrigation water manage-
sorption characteristics: strongly sorbed, moderately ment. Timing and rates of fertilizer and pesticide
sorbed, nonsorbed. Sorption refers to absorbed and application (including the relationship to irrigation
adsorbed chemicals. applications) and the interaction of the applied chemi-
cal with water and soil are also important.
Absorption, dissolving and detachment of chemicals in
the soil mass and water, is dependent on: Pollutants are generally transported to receiving water
• Type of chemical and concentration in soil by surface runoff and deep percolation. Practicing
water solution good water management provides little opportunity for
• Strength of ionic bonding to soil particles applied and naturally occurring chemical and organic
• Quality of irrigation water and soil-water solu- wastes to move with surface runoff or through the soil
tion as to type and concentration of chemicals profile to ground water. Some runoff from graded
(salinity, pH), soil texture, organic matter furrow and border irrigation systems is necessary to
content, soil erodibility, temperature, biological make the most uniform application of irrigation water
activity, pesticide persistence to all parts of the field.
The negative impact of applying chemicals (and water) In practice, deep percolation and lateral translocation
can be minimized by using a suitable irrigation system can occur with all irrigation methods and systems
with good operation techniques and proper irrigation except subirrigation where water movement is prima-
water management. Suitability generally refers to how rily upward. Where operation and management of the
uniform a planned amount of water can be applied system are poor, excess deep percolation and runoff
across a field. probably have the best opportunity to occur with
surface irrigation methods. However, it should be
Highly soluble chemicals are easily detached (by strongly emphasized that when adequately designed,
dissolving or being released) by surface runoff and by operated, maintained and managed, surface irrigation
water percolating through the soil. Because of strong systems can provide good uniformity and low pollu-
ionic bonding to soil particles, phosphorus moves tion potential. A poorly designed, operated, main-
primarily with soil particles in surface runoff. The tained, and managed micro or sprinkle irrigation
quantities and kinds of chemicals adsorbed to sedi- system also has high potential for providing excess
ment are affected by soil chemistry, amount and deep percolation and runoff.
availability of chemical(s), and amount of soil erosion
that occurs. Solid particles are physically detached by Deep percolation carries dissolved substances, such as
sprinkler droplets (and raindrops) and by surface nitrates or pesticides in original form or in a metabo-
runoff (shear stress). Coarse soil materials are easily lized form. The metabolized form of some chemicals
detached, but do not transport readily except on can have a much longer half-life than the original
steeper slopes. Manure on the soil surface is easily chemical and may be either less or more toxic or
detached. Fine soil materials are more resistant to mobile in the soil-water solution.
detachment, but once detached are readily trans-
ported.

Exhibit 14–1 displays the factors affecting chemical

pollutant availability, detachment, and transport.
Figure 14–1 displays the pathways through which
substances are transported from irrigated cropland to
become water pollutants
Exhibit 14–1 Factors affecting chemical pollutant availability, detachment, and transport
Availability Soil, land use, substance input, management practices.
Detachment Irrigation application rate, furrow and border inflow stream rates, soil erodibility,
soil bonding of chemicals, and surface condition (cover, residue, clodiness, surface
depressions).
Transport Runoff energy, runoff volume, sediment particle size and specific gravity, organic
matter of surface soil, water holding capacity of upper soil profile and vadose zone,
infiltration of soil surface, hydraulic conductivity characteristics of soil profile and
vadose zone, and chemical properties of soil profile and vadose zone.
Site Undulating topography, vegetation in flow path, distance of flow path to surface
stream and/or depth to water table, concentration in water of particulate, organic
and inorganic materials.

Figure 14–1 Pathways for transportation of substances to receiving water
Irrigation applications
Precipitation
Chemical d
r ift a nd volat
ilizatio
n
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
Infiltration
,,,
,, Dire
ct ru
noff

, ,, , , , , ,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ,
,

Deep Percolation
Interflow
,,,,,,,,
,,
Groundwater table
Base flow
Stream

At a soil-water nitrogen concentration of 20 ppm (20

652.1404 Type of pollut- mg/L), each acre-inch of deep percolation represents
about 5 pounds of nitrate-nitrogen lost per acre. Apply-
ants ing fertilizer in excess of plant needs, along with over
irrigation on all or parts of a field, is perhaps the
greatest cause of ground water and surface water
Pollutants can be put into three basic categories— pollution. Where ground water is used as an irrigation
particulates, organics, and inorganics. Table 14–1 watet source, it can also be a valuable source for
displays examples of the more common pollutants. All supplying nitrate needs for crop growth. With an
can be transported by water, and a few can be trans- annual irrigation application rate of 24 inches per acre,
ported by air. Odors associated with organic and and 20 ppm, this resource can provide approximately
inorganics are definitely problems to people, and 120 pounds of nitrate-nitrogen per acre. Water should
irrigation activities (both water and air) can be the not be used for human consumption at nitrate concen-
carrier. Examples include sprinkle application of trations of more than 10 ppm (10 mg/L).
animal waste, sprinkle and aerial application of pesti-
cides, volatilization of nitrogen in urea, and ammonia
forms from animal waste and fertilizers.
Table 14–1 Common pollutants
Particulates Organics Inorganics
Sediment Livestock waste Chemicals

sand manure fertilizers—nitrates, phosphorus, potassium
silt bedding and litter material pesticides—herbicides, insecticides, fungicides,
clays spilled and undigested feed miticides, nematicides
fecal coliform
Salts
Plant residue sodium, calcium, magnesium, potassium,
carbonates, bicarbonates, sulfates, chlorides
Other
boron, arsenic, selenium, heavy metals, engine
fuel, lubricants, pumping engine exhausts

Field scouting techniques and proper pesticide appli-

652.1405 Conservation cation timing and rates based on pest threshold levels
can reduce potential for leaching and runoff.
practices for pollution
control and reduction Using SCS SCHEDULER software, or some other
technique, to calculate growing degree days can re-
duce the amount of pesticide applied by more accu-
Potential pollutants can be controlled or eliminated rately predicting insect hatch and propagation.
by:
• Reducing or eliminating the source (2) Reduction of availability
• Reducing availability The irrigation decisionmaker can optimize nutrient
• Decreasing detachment or transport process availability by:
• Managing fertilizer through proper rates and
The role irrigation water management plays in the timing
movement of contaminates by excess deep percolation • Monitoring the buildup of available nutrients in
and surface runoff on irrigated cropland cannot be the crop root zone
overstressed. An adequately designed, operated, • Incorporating fertilizers
maintained, and managed irrigation system is essential • Using proper irrigation water management
for minimizing pollution potential. Applying the cor-
rect amount of water according to crop needs is a Where excess nitrates have accumulated in the soil
necessary part of proper irrigation water management profile below normal rooting depths for shallow
for controlling pollution. rooted crops normally grown, then salvage crops with
deep rooting characteristics should be grown until the
accumulation of nitrates is consumed. Minimization of
(a) Pollution control deep percolation losses is essential.
(1) Reduction of source (3) Reduction in detachment

Source reduction is reducing availability of chemicals The loss of nutrients and pesticides by detachment of
through proper nutrient and pest management. soil particles (i.e., erosion) is important for inorganic
chemicals whose major environmental chemical forms
(i) Nutrient management—Less fertilizer is gener- are strongly or weakly held by soil particles. Phospho-
ally applied if a nutrient management plan is followed. rus is tightly bonded to soil particles; therefore, it is
A soil testing program can show residual amounts of not readily detachable except where soil is detached
fertilizer available, thereby avoiding overapplication. by water erosion. Phosphorus becomes part of the
This reduces the extra that was historically applied to surface water pollution process mostly as a result of
account for losses and helps balance the total fertilizer precipitation, runoff, irrigation related soil erosion,
needs and availability (including residual amounts in sediment deposition, and suspended sediment in
the soil profile) for average crop yield, not maximum surface water.
yield.
Increased soil organic matter decreases the potention
(ii) Pest management—Less pesticide is generally for detachment of nutrients and pesticides. Decreasing
applied if a pest management plan is followed. Evalua- deep percolation losses can decrease nitrate move-
tion of soil, site conditions, application methods, and ment. Inorganic forms of nitrogen are not tightly
the choice of pesticide is stressed to reduce hazards of bonded to soil particles. They dissolve easily and
potential pollution. Application of pesticides should be readily become part of the soil-water solution. Nitrates
coordinated with irrigation applications to allow are very mobile and move readily with deep percola-
necessary time to be effective in controlling pests tion as part of the soil-water solution.
without being washed from the surface of leaves by
spray. Better control and timing of application typi- Erosion control is an essential component of a re-
cally results in less pesticide use with chemigation. source plan. If quality criteria are met for erosion
control, irrigation induced erosion, sediment trans-

port, and water leaving the field should be at accept- prove soil condition. Vegetative cover and water
able levels to prevent significant loss of nutrients or management practices can reduce or eliminate irri-
pesticides. gated related soil erosion. Plant and maintain vegeta-
tive filter strips at lower end of irrigated fields to
(4) Reduction in transport reduce water velocity and to filter sediment. Also
The importance of the transport process in the loss of consider using sediment collection basins at lower end
pollutants (including salts) from irrigated cropland is a of fields as a best management practice.
function of the affinity of the chemical form of the
nutrient or pesticide for soil particles. Chemicals that (5) Controlling pollution from animal waste
dissolve readily are transported easily with excess Animal waste (manure) is a valuable resource for crop
irrigation water. Reducing deep percolation by using production. It contains not only nutrients, but also
adequately designed, operated, maintained, and man- organic material. A basic principle is that if animal
aged irrigation systems is essential to reducing trans- waste is used to the maximum extent possible, few
port potential. Chemigation near the end of an irriga- pollutants are discharged to receiving water. Animal
tion application helps keep chemicals near the soil waste is applied as liquids, slurries, or solids.
surface.
A properly designed, operated, maintained, and man-
Phosphorus typically is transported with detached and aged waste management system reduces or eliminates
transported soil particles in surface runoff because of deep percolation and surface runoff of applied nutri-
strong bonding with soil particles. Reduced irrigation ents. A properly designed, operated, maintained, and
induced soil erosion on the field and opportunity for managed irrigation system is often a part of waste
off-field transport of sediment are essential. Onfield management systems. In some cases. two separate
soil erosion with furrow irrigation systems can be systems may be necessary.
controlled by:
• Using proper furrow inflow streams, reducing Runoff from waste application should be nonexistent.
irrigation grades Vegetative filters at the lower end of fields efficiently
• Maintaining crop residue on the soil surface trap water transported waste particles with attached
with adequate crop rotations and conservation nutrients and allow more time for infiltration of runoff.
tillage methods and equipment Filter strips must be used in combination with other
• Reducing tillage operations applied practices.
Where onsite erosion control practices are adequate, Little (if any) reduction in water soluble nutrients and
off-field sediment movement can be reduced with chemicals is experienced by surface water passing
vegetative filter strips at the lower end of fields and by through and leaving a filter strip. Water quality prob-
installing and maintaining sediment collection basins. lems related to animal waste application sites can be
On highly erosive soil, often the only solution to elimi- effectively solved by using water management prac-
nate irrigation induced erosion and resulting pollution tices that reduce the availability of pollutants for
may be changing to permanent vegetative crops (grass, transport during runoff events. These practices in-
alfalfa-grass, and clover-grass) or collecting and redis- clude:
tributing sediment. Almost all soils contain some clay • Providing a suitable site (crop, soils, and slope)
particles. Colloidal clays stay in suspension much • Applying waste with a suitable irrigation system
longer than do silts and sands; therefore, overflow • Not exceeding soil intake rate(s)
from sediment ponds can contribute to downstream • Providing proper timing of waste application
suspended sediment pollution. • Providing uniform waste and water applications
Maintaining ground cover to filter potential pollutants (i) Application rates—The rate at which animal
and prevent soil erosion can provide a reduction of waste is applied should be based on soil nutrient
chemical availability, detachment, and transport. levels, nutrient needs of the crop, and available nutri-
Implementing necessary component practices identi- ents in the waste. Both nitrate and phosphorous re-
fied in resource plans, such as conservation tillage quirements should be considered in determining
helps maintain crop residue on soil surface and improper application rates.

Soil infiltration rates using effluents are generally less (6) Tools for planning and followup
than the infiltration rate for clean water. Waste efflu- Portable state-of-art test kits and instruments for field
ent should be applied at a rate less than that of the soil use are readily available. They can be extremely useful
infiltration (plus surface storage) rate for the effluent as planning and application tools that provide almost
being applied. Split application also helps. instantaneous information. Examples of field instru-
ments and uses are:
(ii) Timing of waste applications—To maximize • Determining soil and irrigation water salinity
plant use and reduce potential for deep percolation levels; i.e. electrical conductivity of soil-water
and runoff losses, applications of animal waste should extract (ECe) and irrigation water (ECi).
coincide as nearly as possible with crop needs. Suffi- • Determining nitrogen content of animal waste.
cient water must be available to optimize plant use of • Quick readings of in situ soil moisture; i.e.,
applied waste. neutron moisture gauges (probes), tensiom-
eters, TDR probes, electrical resistance blocks,
Rate and timing of waste applications with an irriga- feel and appearance of soil, and Speedy Mois-
tion system can be controlled by the kind and amount ture Meter.
of nutrients in the waste or by the amount of water • Determining sediment concentration in surface
applied. Typically waste application should occur near runoff using Imhoff cones.
the end of the irrigation set. Waste applications during • Quickly and easily determining stream flow
nongrowing seasons should be controlled by the using digital current meters.
capacity of the soil profile containing plant roots to • Measuring stream flow depth using resistance
store both the applied nutrients and water. Surface tapes or pressure transducers.
incorporation of wastes also helps. • Collecting, storing, and transferring field data
using data loggers.
(iii) Frequency of waste application—The fre- • Providing on-the-spot analysis and information
quency of waste applications can vary considerably. using laptop computers and portable printers.
During the irrigation season, waste applications
should coincide with planned irrigations. Liquid waste
high in phosphates should be applied in the first part
of the irrigation application period to allow infiltration.
Animal waste high in nitrates should be applied near
the end of the irrigation set. Clear water should pass
through the system for 5 to 15 minutes following waste
application to purge the irrigation system of waste
material and to wash off plants. In either case, the
amount of applied water should not exceed the capac-
ity of the soil to store applied water within the plant
root zone.

652.1406 Consrvation 652.1407 Benefits

management plan develop-
ment Environmental and socioeconomic benefits from
irrigation can include contributions to:
• Local and national economies
The objective of conservation management planning is • Livestock capacity
to assist farmers in protecting the soil, water, air, • Alternative use of potential pollutants
plant, animal, and human resource base. The irrigation • Utilization of agricultural and municipal wastes
planner must consider resource interrelationships • Activities involving small farm ponds
when planning irrigation systems, and as part of the • Activities involving large storage reservoirs
environment. A broader planning scheme is particu- • Ground water and wet areas
larly important with water quality concerns. Impacts • Local climate and aesthetics
of irrigation activities can be either onsite or offsite. • Wind erosion prevention
The NRCS National Planning Policy and National
Planning Procedures Handbook provide direction for Irrigated cropland contributes much to local and
all planning activities. national economies and the well being of people.
Irrigation water and the resulting area of irrigated
Development of alternatives, selection of practices, cropland provide a basis for development of communi-
and consideration of all costs associated with those ties, businesses, industry, and export. In semiarid,
practices must be weighed against benefits received. subhumid, and humid areas, supplemental irrigation
helps assure an economic crop yield and quality dur-
An evaluation tool, such as the example in exhibit ing periods of less than adequate precipitation. In arid
14–2, can be used to identify and assess concerns and areas, most crops cannot be economically grown
their level of significance during the scoping process. without irrigation water. Irrigation can reduce the
Intensity of the scoping of environmental concerns potential for pollution in subhumid and humid areas
varies with location, problems involved, people in- by maintaining plant growth during periods of less
volved, and size of planning unit (individual farm, than adequate precipitation.
group of farms, watershed). The scoping process
should involve multidiscipline professionals. Ranch livestock capacity and associated economic
operations are often controlled by quantity and quality
For project level planning, the scoping process should of feed harvested from irrigated fields.
involve landowners, public, community leaders, agen-
cies at all government levels, and interested technical Irrigation of high salt tolerant plants with high saline
people. Concerns having less importance can be (or sodic) subsurface drainage effluent provides a
scoped out early. Institutionalized concerns should be wise alternative use of an otherwise potential pollut-
addressed. Scoping helps to determine the level of ant. Irrigation systems can transport and apply agricul-
information needed. The scoping process also helps tural and municipal wastes for disposal on irrigated
identify significant problems or concerns on which to cropland, landscaping, or turf. A larger volume of
focus. wastes can be used by irrigated crops than
nonirrigated crops because of the higher use of nutri-
ents. A better microbiological environment is provided
in the upper part of the soil profile as a result of ap-
plied irrigation water.

Exhibit 14–2 Example of identified concerns
Environmental concerns Concern Significance Remarks
Water quality in streams Very high Very high Poor water quality results in several
negative impacts.
Sedimentation Medium Medium High rates of sedimentation in streams
are noted.
Streambank erosion Medium Medium 75 percent of streambanks are unstable
and eroding.
Seasonal peak flows High High High peak flows prevent riparian
restoration.
Low summer flows High High Insufficient to allow fish to migrate.
High summer water temps High High High temperatures are lethal to trout (cold
water fish).
Lack of streamside vegetation High High Shading of stream decreases water
temperature.
Lack of wildlife & fish High High Fish population is lowest on record.
Threatened and endangered species Medium Medium No known threatened and endangered
species are in the area.
Water rights Very high Very high Pending in-stream water needs, water
right holders are concerned about options
to use existing available water or to
develop additional water.
Watershed condition High High Concern as to continued deterioration.
Weeds Medium Medium Certain weeds are multiplying at an
alarming rate.
Cropland erosion Medium Medium Conservation practices are essential to
maintain long–term productivity.
Cultural resources Medium High Significant buildings and sites in upper
watershed.
Private property rights Very high Very high Landowners fear loss of property rights.
Wetlands Low Low Limited amount in watershed and adjacent
areas.
Human health and safety Low Low Resource problems do not impact human
health and safety.
Important agricultural lands Low Low Local zoning laws protect important farm
lands.
Highly erodible lands Low Low Erodible lands are currently protected by
CRP.
CRP contract expiration High High Cropland erosion rates could increase
upon expiration of contracts if annual
farming is again commenced.
Other items Include all necessary items that need
scoped.

On-farm irrigation systems often incorporate collec- Adequate plant growth can reduce or prevent wind
tion and regulation ponds either at the upper or lower erosion during high wind periods on erosion prone
end of the farm. These ponds can provide water for soils. Irrigation aids plant growth during high wind
many other uses including family recreation, stock periods, but only during the plant growing season.
water, wildlife use, fishing, and fish production. On- Applying water for preventing wind erosion, as a
farm ponds are valuable assets when fighting fires in single practice to provide a wet surface to increase
rural areas. erosion resistance, is short lived. Soil at the surface
dries rapidly under windy conditions. With an erodible
Large multiple purpose storage reservoirs that provide soil and warm, windy conditions, a continuously
for irrigation storage can also provide many other moving center pivot irrigation system cannot keep the
public benefits. Benefits include water-based recre- surface wet enough to prevent wind erosion.
ation (boating, swimming, fishing, bird watching,
water fowl hunting,), water for wildlife, habitat for
waterfowl, flood protection, hydro power, fire protec-
tion, waterway transportation, and municipal and
industrial water supply. However, large reservoirs can
also prevent historical normal migration patterns of
wildlife and anadramous fish and can impact cultural
resources. These effects should be considered during
the planning process.
Irrigation water conveyance systems (open channels)

provide open water and adjacent habitat for wildlife.
Canals and laterals with high seepage rates help to
develop and maintain ground water and wet areas.
Where water sources to ground water and wet areas
are eliminated by canal linings, mitigation may be
necessary. Irrigation pipelines and lined channels can
reduce water lost to deep percolation.
Many irrigation organizations that deliver water in

open channels also use regulating reservoirs to facili-
tate delivery rates, amounts, and schedules. Regulating
reservoirs can provide water for many benefits besides
irrigation purposes.
Large areas of irrigated cropland in arid areas can

affect local climate, such as increased humidity.
Higher humidity can be good to the human body. It
can also be uncomfortable, especially during high crop
water use periods. Air movement influences the de-
gree of comfort relating to humidity. Irrigated crop-
land creates a green oasis in an otherwise barren
desert. Green irrigated areas attract people and wild-
life in both an urban and rural environment.

Irrigation system improvements, improved irrigation

652.1408 Costs and water management, and proper nutrient and pesticide
management can typically relate to:
benefits • Decreased water requirement, which equates to
reduced diversion requirements reduced pump-
ing costs, reduced water purchased, and re-
Economic and environmental guidelines should be duced system capacity requirement.
used in the evaluation and selection of ecosystem • Decreased use of fertilizers.
based resource management systems for conservation • Decreased use of pesticides.
and pollution control. An analysis of expected costs • Increased yield or higher product quality, or
and benefits of irrigation and waste management both.
system and associated conservation practices are
frequently sufficient for the decisionmaking effort. See Decreased irrigation induced soil erosion relates to:
Chapter 11, Economics, for discussion of terms and
• Maintaining long-term soil productivity.
principles used in cost analysis. Costs consist of: • Decreased maintenance costs for removal of
• Actual cost of installing irrigation and waste deposited sediment in runoff collection drains,
management systems and associated conserva- ponds, roadside ditches, and in water convey-
tion practices ance systems.
• Cost of operation and maintenance of systems • Decreased use of fertilizer.
and practices. • Decreased use of pre-emergence herbicides.
• Cost of capitol (money used) used to purchase,
install, and operate systems. Interest on bor-
rowed money or money diverted from other
investments is a project cost.
The number of years each system will be effective

with reasonable maintenance and the rate of interest
to be used are required to express the total costs in
average annual terms. Typically, borrowed money for
system installation is for a much shorter period than
the estimated life of the system or system compo-
nents. The two should not be confused.
The monetary value of benefits derived from reduction

of irrigation related pollutants and improved water
quality is generally difficult to determine. Cost effec-
tiveness of each practice or a combination of practices
can be used. Monetary value of cumulative effects is
typically more difficult to determine.



Chapter 15 Resource Planning and Evaluation Part 652
Chapter 15 Resource Planning and
Tools and Worksheets Irrigation Guide
Evaluation Tools and

Worksheets
652.1501 Water quality, water management, and irrigation evaluation tools 15–1
652.1502 Irrigation system selection, design, costs, and evaluation tools 15–2
652.1503 Irrigation system planning, design, and evaluation worksheets 15–3
652.1504 Blank worksheets 15–5

Irrigation Planning Worksheet .......................................................................... 15–7
Irrigation System Inventory Worksheet .......................................................... 15–9
Sprinkler Irrigation System Planning/Design Worksheet ............................ 15–15
Irrigation Water Management Plan–Sprinkler Irrigation System ............... 15–21
Soil Water Holding Worksheet ........................................................................ 15–25
Worksheet, Soil-Water Content ...................................................................... 15–26
Determination of Soil Moisture and Bulk Density (dry) Using Eley .......... 15–27
Volumeter and Carbide Moisture Tester
Typical Water Balance Irrigation Scheduling Worksheet ........................... 15–28
Surface Irrigation System Detailed Evaluation Graded Border ................. 15–29
Worksheet
Profile and Cross Section ................................................................................ 15–37
Cylinder Infiltrometer Curves ......................................................................... 15–38
Cylinder Infiltrometer Test Data .................................................................... 15–39
Advance and recession curves ........................................................................ 15–40
Cylinder Infiltrometer Curves ......................................................................... 15–41
Depth infiltrated curve ..................................................................................... 15–42
Surface Irrigation System Detailed Evaluation Level Border ..................... 15–43
and Basins Worksheet
Soil Water Intake Curves ................................................................................. 15–49
Surface Irrigation System Detailed Evaluation Graded .............................. 15–51
Furrow Worksheet
Surface Irrigation System Detailed Evaluation Furrow Worksheet .......... 15–57
Advance and recession curves ........................................................................ 15–61
Flow volume curves ......................................................................................... 15–62
Soil water intake curves .................................................................................. 15–63
Surface Irrigation System Detailed Evaluation Contour Ditch .................. 15–65
Irrigation System Worksheet

15–i
Soil Water Intake Curves ................................................................................. 15–71

Cylinder Infiltrometer Test Data .................................................................... 15–72
Sprinkler Irrigation System Detailed Evaluation Periodic Move and ........ 15–73
Fixed Set Sprinkler System
Lateral move system catch can data .............................................................. 15–79
Sprinkler Irrigation System Detailed Evaluation Center Pivot ................... 15–81
Lateral Worksheet
Center pivot lateral evaluation, distribution profile of catch ..................... 15–88
Sprinkler Irrigation System Detailed Evaluation Contonuous Move, ........ 15–89
Large Sprinkler Gun Type
Micro Irrigation System Detailed Evaluation Worksheet ............................ 15–95
Pumping Plant Detailed Evaluation Worksheet ........................................... 15–99
Pump performance curve .............................................................................. 15–104
Soil Description .............................................................................................. 15–105
Cylinder Infiltrometer Test Data .................................................................. 15–106
Soil water intake curves ................................................................................ 15–107
Intake curve overlay ....................................................................................... 15–108
Accumulated intake vs. time ......................................................................... 15–109
Intake families as used with furrow irrigation ........................................... 15–110
652.1505 Estimating Soil Moisture by Feel and Appearance 15–111
15–112
Chapter 15 Part 652
Resource Planning and Evaluation
IrrigationEvaluation
Tools and Worksheets Guide
Tools and Worksheets
652.1500 General 652.1501 Water quality,

water management, and
Chapter 15 lists and describes resource planning and irrigation evaluation tools
evaluation tools and worksheets commonly used by
the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS).
These tools and worksheets can assist the irrigation Computer software programs and models include:
planner in:
• Addressing irrigation related environmental NRCS (SCS) Scheduler—NRCS Scheduler is a
concerns relating to soil, water, air, plants, and computer assisted method to predict up to 10 days
animals. ahead when irrigation will be needed. Predictions are
• Providing technical assistance to the farmer and based on daily climatic data from a weather station
irrigation decisionmaker in irrigation system— and calculated plant water use. Periodic calibration to
planning, design, cost analysis, actual soil moisture is used to maintain accuracy.
evaluation, and management. Developed by Michigan State University with support
• Providing technical assistance for evaluating and from NRCS.
planning river basin, watershed, and project
activities. FIRI—Farm Irrigation Rating Index is used to evalu-
ate effects of existing irrigation systems and manage-
ment, and to evaluate changes. Changes can be im-
provements or reversals in management techniques
and system condition. Developed by NRCS West
National Technical Center.
SIDESIGN—Subsurface Irrigation Design program

involves an analysis of providing water table control
for irrigation through buried conduits. Developed by
Michigan State University with support from NRCS.
NLEAP—Nitrate Leaching and Economic Analysis

Package. The model provides site specific estimates of
nitrate leaching potential under agricultural crops and
impacts on associated aquifers. Irrigations are in-
cluded as precipitation events. This model is generally
used as a planning tool. Developed by the Agricultural
Research Service (ARS), Water Management Research
Laboratory, Fort Collins, Colorado.
CREAMS—A field scale model for Chemical, Runoff,

and Erosion from Agricultural Management Systems.
This mathematical model evaluates nonpoint source
pollution from field-size areas. Developed by ARS
laboratories in Chickasha, OK, West Lafayette, IN, and
Athens, Georgia.

GLEAMS—Groundwater Loading Effects of Agricul-

tural Management Systems. GLEAMS uses CREAMS 652.1502 Irrigation system
technology to evaluate surface chemical response,
hydrology, and erosion. It provides a water budget of selection, design, costs,
precipitation, crop evapotranspiration, runoff, deep and evaluation tools
percolation, soil moisture, and irrigation applications.
Crop evapotranspiration is checked and adjusted for Many programs are available from commercial sources
localized conditions. Developed by University of and Universities. Most need to be purchased, but some
Georgia in cooperation with ARS, Southeast Water- are available as cooperative agency programs. A few
shed Laboratory, Tifton, Georgia. require site licenses to use multiple program copies at
several locations at one time. Several irrigation pro-
WEPP—Water Erosion Prediction Program is programs are available from ARS, universities, and the
posed to provide an analysis of precipitation and U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. Some of the more com-
irrigation related erosion and sediment deposition. mon programs available include:
When complete, WEPP will include furrow and border • REF-ET—Reference crop Evapotranspiration
surface irrigation and periodic move, fixed, and con- model, from Utah State University.
tinuous move sprinkle irrigation systems. The FUSED, • SIRMOD—Surface Irrigation Model includes
RUSLE, and SPER programs are available for field use surge and conventional analysis for furrow
until WEPP is validated and available. Being developed irrigation, from Utah State University.
by ARS, National Erosion Laboratory, (Purdue Univer- • CPNOZZLE—Center Pivot Nozzling and surface
sity), West Lafayette, Indiana; and (University of storage program, from University of Nebraska.
Nebraska), Lincoln, Nebraska. • SPACE—Sprinkler Profile And Coverage Evalua-
tion program evaluates all sprinkler heads manu-
SWRRB—This basin scale water quality model pro- factured and currently available, from California
cess considers surface runoff, return flow percolation, Agricultural Technology Institute, California
evapotranspiration, transmission losses, pond storage, State University.
sedimentation, and crop growth. Crop evapotranspira- • SRFR—Surface irrigation simulation program
tion must be checked and may need to be localized. uses zero inertia and kinematic wave relation-
Developed by ARS, Temple, Texas. ships to model surface irrigation, from ARS,
Phoenix, Arizona.
EPIC—Process considers climate factors, hydrology, • AGWATER—Surface irrigation system (furrow,
soil temperature, erosion, sedimentation, nutrient border) model using measured advance time and
cycling, tillage, management, crop growth, pesticide field specific information for management im-
and nutrient movement with water and sediment, and provements (inflow, time of set, length of run),
field scale costs and returns. Crop evapotranspiration from California Polytechnic State University.
is checked and adjusted for local conditions. Devel- • PUMP—Centrifugal pump selection program,
oped by ARS, Temple, Texas. from Cornell Pump Company, Portland, Oregon.
• CATCH3D—Sprinkler pattern overlap evaluation
DRAINMOD—An evaluation tool for analysis of water and 3D plot program, from Utah State University.
table control for subsurface drainage systems. In- • Water Management Utilities, Interactive Simula-
cluded is an estimated value for upward water move- tion of One-Dimensional Water Movement in
ment (upflux) based upon specific soil series. Devel- Soils, IRRIGATE—An irrigation decision aid,
oped by North Carolina State University with support potential evapotranspiration, citrus irrigation
from NRCS. scheduling.
• CMLS—Chemical Movement in Layered Soils,
Instream Water Temperature Model—The model from University of Florida.
provides a process to predict instream water tempera- • Flowmaster—Open channel flow and pressure
ture based on either historical or synthetic hydrologi- pipeline design program, from Haestad Methods,
cal, meteorological parameters, streamside vegetation, Inc., Waterbury, Connecticut.
and stream channel geometry. • KYPIPE2—Pipe network flow analysis program,
from Haestad Methods, Inc., Waterbury, Con-
necticut.

652.1503 Irrigation sys-

tem planning, design, and
evaluation worksheets
Example evaluations and blank worksheets are in-

cluded at the back of this chapter. They may be copied
and used as needed. They include:
Irrigation Planning
Irrigation Planning
Irrigation System Inventory
Irrigation System Design

Sprinkler Irrigation System Planning/Design
Irrigation System Evaluation

Walk Through Sprinkler Irrigation System Analysis
Sprinkler Irrigation Systems Evaluation

Periodic Move Sprinkler—Side Wheel-roll,
Lateral Tow, Hand Move and Fixed (Solid)
Set Systems
Continuous/Self Move Sprinkler—Pivot
System
Pumping Plant Evaluation

Electric Motor Powered
Natural Gas Engine Powered
Micro Irrigation Systems Evaluation
Surface Irrigation Systems Evaluation

Graded Borders
Basins, Level Border
Graded Furrows
Level furrows

Irrigation Water Management Plan
Soil Moisture—Feel and Appearance Method,
Speedy Moisture Meter and Eley Volumeter
Crop and Soil Data for Irrigation Water
Management
Checkbook Method of Irrigation Scheduling
Pan Evaporation Method of Irrigation Scheduling


652.1504 Blank worksheets


Chapter 15
U.S. Department of Agriculture Resource Planning and Evaluation Part 652 Page 1 of 2
Natural Resources Conservation Service Irrigation Guide
Irrigation Planning Worksheet
JOB DESCRIPTION ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
LOCATION ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
ASSISTED BY _____________________________________________________________ DATE _____________________________________________________
Soil—Data for limiting soil

Percent Cumulative AWC
Depth to Intake
Soil series of area 1 ft 4 ft 5 ft restrictive fam., grp.
2 ft 3 ft
(%) (in) (in) (in) (in) (in) layer 1 max. rate
1Actual observed depth in the field
Maximum time between irrigations for any method/system based on peak crop ET
Maximum net replacement Maximum
Management Total Peak daily
MAD irrigation
Crop root zone AWC
percent crop ET frequency
(ft) (in) (in/d) (days) (in/d)
(in) (days)
Minimum system flow requirement for irrigation system

Depth of irrigation application Minimum system flow requirement
Peak daily Max. irrig.
System description total flow
Net Efficiency Gross crop ET frequency
(Fn) (in) (%) (Fg) (in) (in/d) (days) (gpm) (ft3/s)
Minimum dependable flow available to system _________________________ gpm, ft3/s, inches, etc.
Total irrigated area ________________ acres. Total operating hours per day __________________ .

Natural 15
Chapter Resources Conservation Service Resource Planning and Evaluation Part 652
Irrigation Planning Worksheet—ContinuedIrrigation Guide
Weighted monthly crop evapotranspiration

The following process is used where more than one one crop is grown under the same irrigation system; i.e., several fields, farm group, district.
Monthly crop evapotranspiration - ETc

Acres
Crop
(ac) Depth1 Volume 2 Depth1 Volume 2 Depth1 Volume 2 Depth1 Volume 2
(in) (ac-in) (in) (ac-in) (in) (ac-in) (in) (ac-in)
Total
Weighted average crop ET3
Computed peak daily crop evapotranspiration 4
Net irrigation Highest weighted Peak period
depth applied monthly average average daily
(fn) (in) crop ET crop ET

(in) (in)
1 Calculated monthly crop ET, inches.

2 Calculated volume of water needed monthly crop ET = ac x ETc = ________________ acre-inches.
3 Calculated weighted monthly crop ET = Total Volume/ Total Area = _____________ inches.
4 Determined from table 2-55, Part 623, Chapter 2, Irrigation Water Requirements, or from formula:
ETd = 0.034 ETm1.09 Fn-0.09, Where: ETd = average daily peak crop ET
ETm = average crop ET for peak month
Fn = net depth of water application per irrigation

Natural
Chapter Resources
15 Conservation ServiceResource Planning and Evaluation Part 652
Irrigation System Inventory Worksheet Irrigation Guide
JOB DESCRIPTION ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
LOCATION ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
ASSISTED BY _____________________________________________________________ DATE _____________________________________________________
(Collect and fill out only portions of this form that apply and are needed)
Area irrigated _______________ acres
Crops
Crops now grown
Typical planting date
Typical harvest date
Typical yield (unit) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Age of planting
Cultivation and other cultural practices
Water
Water source(s)
irrigation organization
Water available (ft3/sec, gpm, miners inches, mg/da)
Seasonal total water available (ac-ft, million gal)
Water availability continuous demand rotation fixed schedule
Typical water availability times (schedule and ordering procedure)
Method of determining when and how much to irrigate:
Is flow measuring device maintained and used?
Method of measuring water flow rate
Water quality: Sediment Debris, moss
Electrical conductivity mmhos/cm SAR
Comments

Example Irrigation System
Tools Inventory Worksheet—Continued
and Worksheets Irrigation Guide
Soils (principal soil in field)

Soil # 1


Comments
Soil # 2


Comments
Soil # 3


Comments
1 If restrictive for root development or water movement

Natural Resources Conservation Service Tools and Worksheets Irrigation Guide
Water supply and distribution system

Supply system to field (earth ditch, lined ditch, plastic pipeline, etc.):
Type
Size
Capacity (ft3/sec, gpm, miners inches, mgal/day)
Pressure/Elevation at head of field or turnout (lb/in2) (ft)
System condition
Estimated conveyance efficiency of supply system (%)
In-field distribution system (earth or lined ditch, buried pipe, surface portable pipe, lay flat tubing):
Type
Size
Capacity
Total available static head (gravity) (ft)
System condition
Estimated efflciency of delivery system (%)
Comments
Water application system

Existing sprinkler system (attach design and/or system evaluation. if available):
Type system (center pivot, sidewheel-roll, hand move, traveler, big gun)
Manufacturer name and model

Tower spacing (pivot or linear) (ft) End gun (pivot)?
Wheel size (sidewheel-roll) diameter
Type of drive
Pressure at lateral entrance (first head) (lb/in2)
Mainline diameter/length
Lateral diameter/length
Lateral spacing (S1) Sprinkler head spacing (Sm)
Sprinkler make/model
Nozzle size(s) by type
Design nozzle pressure (lb/in2) Wetted diameter (ft)
(Attach sprinkler head data for pivot)
Maximum elevation difference: Along lateral
Between sets
Application efficiency low 1/4 (Eq) (%) (Estimated or attach evaluation)

Wind - Prevailing direction and velocity
Comments

Natural 15
Chapter Resources Conservation Service Resource Planning and Evaluation Part 652
Tools and
Irrigation System Worksheets
Inventory Irrigation Guide
Worksheet—Continued
Existing surface system (attach system evaluation if available)

Type of system (graded border, level border, graded furrow, level furrow, contour levee, contour ditch, wild flooding)
Leveled fields: Field slope: In direction of irrigation ft/ft
Cross slope ft/ft
Smoothness: Rough Smooth Very smooth Laser equipment used yes no
Border or levee width ft Furrow/corrugation/rill spacing in
Length of run: Minimum ft Maximum ft Average ft
Number of furrows or borders per set
Border or levee dike heights
Application efficiency, low 1/4 (Eq) % (Estimated or attach evaluation)
General maintenance of system
Drainage, tail water reuse facilitv

Method for collection and disposal of field runoff (tailwater, precipitation)
Final destination of runoff water

Surface/subsurface drainage system
Environmental impacts of existing drainage system
Existing micro irrigation system (Attach design or system evaluation if available)

Type of system: Drip emitters Mini spray/sprinklers Line source
Spacing between discharge devices along distribution laterals (ft, in)
Laterals - diameter, length
Main lines and submains - diameter, length, etc.
Spacing between distribution laterals (ft, in)

Average application device discharge pressure (lbs/in2)
Are pressure compensating devices required? yes no
Are pressure compensating devices used? yes no
Average application device discharge (gph, gpm)
Area irrigated by one irrigation set (acres)
Typical irrigation set time (hr, min)
Maximum elevation difference with one irrigation set (ft)
Type and number of filters used
Irrigation is initiated by: manual control programmed timer clock timer soil moisture sensing device
Comments:

Natural Resources
Chapter 15 Conservation Service Resource Planning and Evaluation Part 652
Tools and
Irrigation System Worksheets
Inventory Irrigation Guide
Worksheet—Continued
Existing subsurface irrigation system

Water table control type and number of system or segments
Water table control devices flashboard float
Buried laterals diameter spacing depths
Water table elevation(s): Existing Planned
Month Elevation Depth below surface
Pumping plant
Pump
(Attach pump characteristic curves and/or pump system analysis if available)

Pump elevation above mean sea level (approx) (ft)
Pump type: centrifulgal turbine submersible Propeller axial flow
Make Model
Electric motor RPM Engine operating RPM
Pump design discharge gpm @ ft or lb/in2
Impeller size Impeller diameter Number of impellers
Pressure at outlet of pump or inlet to pipeline lb/in2 date
Discharge gpm How measured date
Valves, fittings
Power unit
Rated HP at RPM
Gear or belt drive mechanism

Type (direct, gear, belt)
RPM at driver RPM at pump
Energy (A pump evaluation is required to get this data)
Energy input (from evaluation) (KW) (gal/hr) (mcf)
Pumping plant efficiency (from evaluation) ( %)
Energy cost per acre foot (from evaluation)
General condition of equipment, problems

Chapter 15
Irrigation management
Irrigation scheduling method(s)
Typical number of irrigations per season
Typical time between irrigations
Set times or time per revolution
Method of determining soil moisture
Typical water application per (set, revolution, pass)
Source, availability and skill of irrigation labor
Comments about management of the existing system and reasons for improvement. What are the objectives of the irrigation decisionmaker?
What management level is planned?
Other observations and comments

Chapter 15
Sprinkler Irrigation System Planning/Design Worksheet
Inventory
Water source ______________ Amount available ____________ ft3/sec ___________ gpm ____________ acre-ft Seasonal variation ____________________
Power source: Electric ____________ volts, ____________ phase; Internal combustion engine ____________ fuel type; Other ____________________________
Soils Data
Available water capacity, AWC Depth to 1 Sprinkler intake rate

Design (in/ft depth) (in/hr)
Soil Series
Inhibiting layer Water table
0-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5
(ft) (ft)
1 Actual observed depth in the field.
Crop Evapotranspiration (Monthly)
Month Month Month
Crops Acres Depth Volume Depth Depth

Volume Volume
(in) (ac-in) (in) (ac-in) (in) (ac-in)
Totals (1) (2) (3) (4)
Crop Weighted Evaportranspiration (Monthly) (Note: Maximum Monthly Total ET is greatest of nos. 2, 3, or 4 above)
Maximum Total Monthly ET, ac-in/mo

ET, depth = __________________________________ = ______________________ = _________________________ in /mo
Total Acres, A (1)
Irrigation Requirements
Root Management Peak Max freq

zone Total allowed Max Net daily @ peak E T
Crops
depth 2 AWC depletion replacement ET @ max net
(ft) (in) (%) (in) (in) (days)
2
Use weighted peak monthly ET and net irrigation to determine weighted peak daily E T.

U.S. Department
Chapter 15 of Agriculture Resource Planning and Evaluation Part 652 Page 2 of 5
Design Data — (Based on weighted crop ET, _____________ % irrigation efficiency)
Application Weighted 2 System requirements

Frequency, F
peak daily
Net, D Gross Fg (days)
crop ET (in) Total gpm, Q gpm/ac
(in) (in)
2 Use weighted peak monthly ET and net irrigation to determine weighted peak daily E T.
Q = system requirements–gpm
H = Total operating hours/day
(suggest using 23 hours for one move per day)
453 A D
Q = ___________ = _________________ gpm = ___________________ gpm (suggest using 22 hours for two moves per day)
F H Eff/100
Sprinkler head spacing, (SL) _______________ ft, Lateral spacing on mainline (SM) _________________ ft, Minimum Required wetted diameter = _____________ft
Sprinkler head: make ______________; model _____________; nozzle size ___________; lb/in2 __________ gpm ___________; wetted dia ________________ ft
Application rate _________ in/hr, Application time ___________ hr/set. Net application = ( ________ in/hr) ( _________ eff) ( _________ hr/set) = __________ in
Maximum irrigation cycle = Net applcation __________ in/peak ET in/d = __________ days
number of lateral sites ___________

Minimum number of laterals = __________________________________________________________
(irrigation frequency, _________ days) (moves/day, ______________ )
Designed laterals: Number ________________, Diameter _____________ in, Type _______________ , Moves/day ______________
Total number of sprinkler heads = (number of laterals) (number of heads/lateral) = ______________
System capacity = (Total number of sprinkler heads ___________ ) (gpm/head _______________) = _______________ gpm
Lateral design
Allowable pressure difference along lateral = 0.2 (sprinkler head operating pressure in lb/in2) = ___________________ lb/in2
Actual head loss (worst condition) ______________ lb/in2
Pressure required at mainline: P = (sprinkler head lb/in2 ___________) + (0.75) (Lateral friction lb/in2 __________) +/- ( ft elev) / (2) (2.31) = __________ lb/in2
(plus for uphill flow in lateral, minus for downhill flow). Use sprinkler head lb/in2 only if elevation difference along lateral is = or > 0.75 (lateral friction loss lb/in2)
(2.31). Under this condition, flow regulation may be required at some sprinkler heads to maintain proper sprinkler head operating near the mainline.

Chapter 15
Mainline Design
Mainline material ____________________________ (IPS, PIP, SDR, CLASS) lb/in2 rating _________________________, other description, ____________________
Friction factor used ___________. Formula (check one) Hazen-Williams Manning's Darcy-Weibach Other (name) _________________________
Friction Accumulated
Station Diameter Friction loss this friction
Flow Velocity Remarks
pipe Distance loss section loss
From (in) (gpm) (fps) (ft) (ft/100 ft) (ft) (ft)
To
NOTE: desirable velocities–5 ft/sec or less in mainlines, 7 ft/sec or less in sprinkler laterals.
Determination of Total Dynamic Head (TDH)
Pressure required at main ______________ lb/in2 ________________ft
Friction loss in main ______________ lb/in2 ________________ft
Elevation raise/fall in main ______________ lb/in2 ________________ft (2.31 feet = 1 psi pressure)
Lift (water surface to pump) ______________ lb/in2 ________________ft
Column friction loss ______________ lb/in2 ________________ft
Miscellaneous loss ______________ lb/in2 ________________ft
Total (TDH) ______________ lb/in2 ________________ft (NOTE; TDH must be in feet for horsepower equation)
TDH (ft) X Q (gpm) _________________ ft X ____________gpm

Approximate brake horsepower = ____________________ = ____________________________________________ = _______________ HP
3960 X Eff / 100 3960 X ____________ % / 100
Mean sea level elevation of pump ________________ ft (NOTE: check required versus available NPSL for centrifugal pumps)
Pump curve data attached yes no , If not, pumping plant efficiency assumed = ___________% (recommended using 65-75%)
Bill of materials attached yes no

U.S. Department
Other Design Considerations
Evaluation
Item NOT needed Location Size
performed
Measuring device
Expansion couplers
Reducers
Enlargers (expanders)
Manifolds
Bends & elbows
Tees
Valved outlets
Surge facilities (valves, chambers)
Control valves
Check non-return flow valves
Pressure relief valves
Air-vacuum valves
Drain facilities
Thrust blocks
Anchors
Pipe supports
Other
Remarks
Special drawing(s) attached
Irrigation system design by Date
Reviewed and approved by Date

Chapter 15
Irrigation System Location and Layout Map
SHOW:
Area irrigated with sprinklers
Direction of prevailing wind
Elevations, contours
High and low points
Water source and pump location
Mainline and submain locations
Layout: lateral(s), travelers, guns
Direction of move
North arrow
Scale Community Section Township Range


U.S. Department
Irrigation Water Management Plan—Sprinkler Irrigation System
Crop information
Field number(s)
Crop irrigated
Acres Irrigated (acres)
Normal rooting depth (feet, inches)
Management allowable depletion (MAD) (percent, inches)
Peak daily crop requirements (ac-in/day)
Average annual net irrigation requirements (ac-in/ year)
Soil Information
Soils series and surface texture
Capability class
Allowable soil loss (T=tons per-acre per year)
Wind Erodibility Group (WEG)
Actual on-site (observed and measured) average root zone depth
Total available water capacity (AWC) of soil plant root zone
Soil intake (Maximum application rate for sprinkler system)
Available water capacity (AWC) for crop rooting depth: Depth AWC
(inches) (inch/inch) (total inches)
Irrigation system management information
Irrigation system
Source of water
Delivery schedule
Estimated overall irrigation efficiency
Management allowable depletion for pasture
Irrigation set time to apply full irrigation and replace full MAD
Gross application
Net application
Actual gross sprinkler application rate
Irrigation system flow capacity requirement for full time irrigation, Q (gpm)

Chapter 15
Irrigation Water Management Plan— Sprinkler Irrigation System—Continued
Irrigation scheduling Information

Monthly net1 Crop evapo- Irrigation Average2
Month irrigation transpiration frequency number of
requirement use rate needed Irrigations
(inches) (in/day) (days) needed
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
Total
1 Net irrigation requirement (NIR) represents crop evapotranspiration less effective rainfall.
2 Assuming a full soil profile at start of season. Check soil moisture before irrigating. Account for rainfall that can replace soil moisture
depletion. If soil moisture depletion is less than 50% wait for a few days and check it again.
Warmer than “average” months will typically require additional irrigation water; cooler than “average months will typically require less
irrigation water; months with more than “average” effective rainfall will typically require less irrigation water.
Only operate the system when needed to furnish water for crop needs. The preceding irrigation schedule can be used as a guide to
determine when to irrigate. It is a guide only for average month and year conditions. Optimizing use of rainfall to reduce unnecessary
irrigations during the growing season is a good management practice. In semi-humid and humid areas, it is recommended to not replace
100 percent of the soil moisture depletion each irrigation. Leave room in the plant root zone for containing water infiltration from rainfall
events. This will vary with location, frequency, and amount of rainfall occurring during the growing season. It should be approximately
0.5 to 1.0 inches.
Maintaining to a higher soil moisture level (MAD) typically does not require more irrigation water for the season, just more frequent
smaller irrigations. This is especially true with crops such as root vegetables, potatoes, onions, garlic, mint, and sweet corn.
The attached chart for evaluating soil moisture by the feel and appearance method can be used to help determine when to irrigate.
Other common methods to monitor crop water use and soil moisture include: plant signs (crop critical moisture stress periods),
atmometer, evaporation pan (applying appropriate factors), tensiometers, electrical resistance blocks (moisture blocks), and crop water
stress index (CWSI gm).
NRCS (SCS) - SCHEDULER computer software is available to provide calculations of daily crop evapotranspiration when used with
local daily weather station values. On-site rainfall data is necessary to determine effective rainfall, whereas local weather station rainfall
data is not sufficiently accurate due to spatial variability. Current rainfall and soil moisture data can be input manually or electronically to
assist in predicting when irrigation is needed.

U.S. Department
Irrigation Water Management Plan—Sprinkler Irrigation System—Continued
NAME DATE PREPARED BY _________________________

A properly operated, maintained, and managed sprinkle irrigation system is an asset to your farm. Your system was designed
and installed to apply irrigation water to meet the needs of the crop without causing erosion, runoff, and losses to deep
percolation. The estimated life span of your system is 15 years. The life of the system can be assured and usually increased
by developing and carrying out a good operation and maintenance program.
Pollution hazards to ground and surface water can be minimized when good irrigation water management practices are
followed. Losses of irrigation water to deep percolation and runoff should be minimized. Deep percolation and runoff from
irrigation can carry nutrients and pesticides into ground and surface water. Avoiding spills from agricultural chemicals, fuels,
and lubricants. will also minimize potential pollution hazards to ground and surface water.
Leaching for salinity control may be required if electrical conductivity of the irrigation water or soil water exceeds plant toler-
ance for your yield and quality objectives. If this condition exists on your field(s), a salinity management plan should be
developed.
The following are system design information and recommendations to help you develop an operation and maintenance plan
(see irrigation system map for layout):
• average operating pressure = lb/in2 (use a pressure gage to check operating pressure)
• nozzle size = inch (use shank end of high speed drill bit to check nozzle wear)
• average sprinkler head discharge gpm
• sprinkler head rotation speed should be 1 - 2 revolutions per minute
• sprinkler head spacing on lateral = ft; outlet valve spacing on main line ft
• lateral, number(s) , ft, inch diameter ______________________
• main line = ft inch diameter, type , class _______________
• pump = , gpm @ ft Total Dynamic Head (TDH)
Make sure that all measuring devices, valves, sprinkler heads, surface pipeline, and other mechanical parts of the system are
checked periodically and worn or damaged parts are replaced as needed. Always replace a worn or improperly functioning
nozzle with design size and type. Sprinkler heads operate efficiently and provide uniform application when they are plumb, in
good operating condition, and operate at planned pressure. Maintain all pumps, piping, valves, electrical and mechanical
equipment in accordance with manufacturer recommendations. Check and clean screens and filters as necessary to prevent
unnecessary hydraulic friction loss and to maintain water flow necessary for efficient pump operation.
Protect pumping plant and all associated electrical and mechanical controls from damage by livestock, rodents, insects, heat,
water, lightning, sudden power failure, and sudden water source loss. Provide and maintain good surface drainage to prevent
water pounding around pump and electrical equipment. Assure all electrical/gas fittings are secure and safe. Always replace
worn or excessively weathered electric cables and wires and gas tubing and fittings when first noticed. Check periodically for
undesirable stray currents and leaks. Display appropriate bilingual operating instructions and warning signs as necessary.
During non-seasonal use, drain pipelines and valves, secure and protect all movable equipment (i.e. wheel lines).
If you need help developing your operation and maintenance plan, contact your local USDA Natural Resources Conservation
Service office for assistance.


U.S. Department
Chapter 15 of Agriculture Resource Planning and Evaluation Part 652
Soil Water Holding Worksheet
Natural Resources Conservation ServiceTools and Worksheets Irrigation Guide
Field ________________________________ Location in field _____________________________________

Year _________________________ By ___________________________________
Crop ___________________________________________________________________________________
Planting data _________________________________ Emergence data _________________________
Soil name if available ______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Season
Factor 1st 30 days Remainder of season
Root zone depth or max soil depth - ft
Available water capacity AWC - in
Management allowed deficit MAD - %
Management allowed deficit MAD - in
(Note: Irrigate prior to the time that SWD is equal to or greater than MAD - in)
Estimated irrigation system application efficiency ____________________ percent
Data obtained during first field check Data obtained each check
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
Soil Available AWC Field Soil Soil
Depth layer Soil water in check water water
range thickness texture capacity soil number deficit deficit
(AWC) layer (SWD) (SWD)
(in) (in) (in/in) (in) (%) (in)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Total AWC for root zone depth of ________ ft= ________ SWD summary
Total AWC for root zone depth of ________ ft= Check Check SWD
number date totals
1
2
AWC(5) = layer thickness(2) x AWC(4) 3
4
5
SWD(8) = AWC(5) x SWD(7) 6
100 7
8

15–26
Chapter 15
U.S. Department of Agriculture Worksheet
Natural Resources Conservation Service Soil-Water Content
(Gravimetric Method)
Land user____________________________________________________ Date ___________________ Field office ___________________________________________________

Taken by _____________________________________________ Field name/number ____________________________________________________________________________
Soil name (if available) ____________________________________________________ Crop _____________________________ Maximum effective root depth ______________ ft
Soil Sample Net Volume Moisture Soil- Layer

layer Wet Dry Water Tare dry of per- Bulk water water
Depth thickness weight weight loss weight weight sample centage density content content
range inches Soil g g g g g cc % g/cc in/in inches
inches d texture WW DW Ww Tw Dw Vol Pd Dbd SWC TSWC

Irrigation Guide
Part 652
Dry weight (Dw) of soil = DW - TW = ________g Weight of water lost (Ww) = WW - DW = ________g Bulk density (Dbd) = Dw(g) = ________g/cc
Vol (cc)
Percent water content, dry weight Pd = Ww x 100 = ________% Soil-water content (SWC) = Dbd x Pd = ________in/in
Dw 100 x 1
Total soil-water content in the layer (TSWC) = SWC x d = ________inches

Chapter 15
U.S. Department of Agriculture Determination of Soil Moisture and Bulk Density (dry)
Natural Resources Conservation Service Using Eley Volumeter and Carbide Moisture Tester
Farm ____________________________________________ Location ________________________________ SWCD ________________________________________________

Crop _____________________________________________ Soil type ______________________ Date _____________ Tested by _____________________________________
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13)
Volumeter
Texture Thickness Bulk Soil- Soil- Soil-
of Reading Reading Volume % % % % density water water water
layer before after (cc) Wet Dry Wilting Soil- (g/cc) content content deficit
(cc) (cc) wt. wt. point water (in) at (in)

field
capacity
d V Wp Pd Pw SWCp Dbd SWC AWC SWD
Irrigation Guide
Part 652
Wet weight of all samples in grams unless otherwise shown. Totals
Dbd = 26 SWC = Dbd x SWCp x d SWCp = Pd - Pw

V(1 + Pd) 100 x 1
100
15–27
Chapter 15
U.S. Department of Agriculture Resource Planning and Evaluation Part 652
Typical Water Balance Irrigation

Scheduling Worksheet
Grower ______________________________________ Field ID ___________________________ Crop ______________________________

Planting date _________________________________ Full cover date ______________________ Harvest date ________________________
Soil water holding capacity (in/ft) _________; _________; _________; __________ Rooting depth ___________________________________
Management allowable depletion ______________________________ Minimum soil-water content __________________________________
Date Daily Forecast Cum Rainfall Irrigation Cumulative Allowable Soil- Predicted
crop crop total applied total depletion water irrigation
ET ET ET irrigation balance content date
(in) (in) (in) (in) (in) (in) (in) (in)

U.S. Department
Chapter 15 of Agriculture Resource Planning and Evaluation Part 652 Sheet 1 of 6


Field area ____________________________ acres
Border number ________________________ as counted from the __________________________ side of field
Crop ________________________________ Root zone depth ____________________ ft MAD ________________________%
Stage of crop _____________________________________________________________________________________________

Station ____________________________ Moisture determination method __________________________________________
Soil series name ________________________________________________________________________________________

____________ ______________________________ _________________ _________________ _________________
____________ ______________________________ _________________ _________________ _________________
____________ ______________________________ _________________ _________________ _________________
____________ ______________________________ _________________ _________________ _________________
____________ ______________________________ _________________ _________________ _________________
Total _________________ _________________
MAD, in = MAD, % x total AWC, in = __________________________________________________________ = ______________ in

100

________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Typical irrigation duration __________________ hr, irrigation frequency ___________________ days

________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Border spacing ________________, Strip width __________________, Wetted width ________________, Length _____________
Field Observations:
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Crop uniformity ____________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

U.S. Department

Data: Inflow __________ Outflow ___________
Type of measuring device __________________________________________________________________________________

time time (min) H rate flow rate volume
(min) (ft) (gpm) (gpm) (ac-in) (ac-in)
Turn on
Turn off
Total volume (ac-in) __________________
Average flow rate =
Total irrigation volume (ac-in) x 60.5 = ________________________ = _______ ft3/s Inflow time (min)
Unit flow:
qu = Average flow rate = ____________________________ = __________ ft3/s/ft

Border strip spacing
1/ Use a 24-hour clock reading; i.e., 1:30 p.m. should be recorded as 1330 hours.
Find volume using ft3/s: Volume (ac-in) = .01653 x time (min) x flow (ft3/s)
Find volume using gpm: Volume (ac-in) = .00003683 x time (min) x flow (gpm)

Chapter 15
U.S. Department of Agriculture Resource Planning and Evaluation Part 652 Sheet 3 of 8

Graded border advance recession data

Station Clock* Elapsed Clock* Elapsed Opportunity
(ft) time ∆T time time T time 1/ time (To)
(min) (min) (min) (min)
Use a 24 -hour clock reading; i.e., 1:30 p.m. would be recorded as 1330 hours.
1/ Time since water was turned on.

2/ Inflow time = turn off time - turn on time.

Chapter 15
U.S. Department of Agriculture Resource Planning and Evaluation
Sheet 4 of 8 Part 652

Evaluation Graded Border Worksheet
Depth infiltrated
Typical intake curve Adjusted intake curve
Station Opportunity Depth 2/ Ave. depth Depth 3/ Ave. depth
time 1/ infiltrated infiltrated infiltrated infiltrated
TQ (in) (in) (in) (in)
(min)
Sum of ave. depths
1/ Difference in time between advance and recession curve.

Average depth infiltrated (typical)

= Sum of depths (typical) = ___________________ = ________ in
Length (hundreds of feet-extended)

= Extended border length x wetted width = ___________________ = ________ acres
43,560 43,560
Actual average depth applied to extended border length

= Ave inflow (ft3/s) x duration (hr) = ______________________ = __________ in
Average depth infiltrated (adjusted)

= Sum of depths (adjusted) = ______________________ = __________ in
Length (hundreds of feet - extended)
Note: Should be close to actual depth applied.

Chapter 15
Surface Irrigation System Detailed Evaluation

Average depth infiltrated low 1/4 (LQ):
Low 1/4 strip length = Actual strip length = _____________________________________ = _________________ ft

4 4
LQ = (Depth infiltrated at begin of L1/4 strip) + (Depth infiltrated at the end of L1/4 strip)
2
= _____________________________________ = _______________ in
2
Areas under depth curve:
1. Whole curve ______________sq in

2. Runoff ______________sq in
3. Deep percolation ______________sq in
4. Low quarter infiltration ______________sq in
Actual border strip area:
= (Actual border length, ft) x (Wetted width, ft) = ______________________________ = ______________ acres
43,560 43,560
DU = Low quarter infiltration area x 100 = _______________________________ = _____________%

(Whole curve area - runoff area)
Runoff (RO):
RO, % = Runoff area x 100 = _________________________________________ = _____________ %

Whole curve area
RO = Total irrigation volume, ac-in x RO, % = _____________________________ = _____________ in

Actual strip area, ac x 100
Deep percolation, DP:
DP = Deep percolation area x 100 = ___________________________________ = ______________ %
DP = Total irrigation volume, ac-in x DP, % = _____________________________ = ______________ in


U.S. Department
Chapter 15 of Agriculture Resource Planning and Evaluation Sheet 6 of 8
Part 652

Evaluation computations, cont:
Gross application, Fg:
Fg = Total irrigation volume, ac-in = _________________________________________ = _______________ in

Actual strip area, ac
Application efficiency, Ea:
(Average depth stored in root zone = Soil water deficit (SWD) if entire root zone depth will be filled to
field capacity by this irrigation, otherwise use Fg, in - RO, in)
Ea = Average depth stored in root zone x 100 = _________________________________ = _______________ %

Gross application, in
Application efficiency low 1/4, Eq:
Eq = DU x Ea, % = _____________________________________________________ = ________________ %

100 100
Average net application, Fn
Fn = Total irrigated volume, ac-in x Ea, % = _________________________________ = ________________ %

Time factors:
Required opportunity time to infiltrate soil water deficit of ______________________ in
To = __________________ min (________________ hr - _____________________ min)
Estimated required irrigation inflow time from adv.-recession curves;
Tin = _________________ min (________________ hr - _____________________ min)
At inflow rate of:
Q = ______________________ ft3/s per border strip

Chapter 15
Sheet 7 of 8

Present management:
Estimated present average net application per irrigation _____________________ inches
Present gross applied per year = Net applied per irrigation x number of irrigations x 100
Application efficiency (Ea)1/
= _______________________________________ = ______________ in
1/ Use the best estimate of what the application efficiency of a typical irrigation during the season may be.
The application efficiency from irrigation to irrigation can vary depending on the SWD, set times, etc. If the
irrigator measures flow during the season, use that information.
Annual net irrigation requirement _________________ inches, for ______________________________ (crop)
Potential application efficiency (Epa) _______________________ percent (from irrigation guide, NEH or
other source)
Potential annual gross applied = Annual net irrigation requirement x 100

Potential application efficiency (Epa)
= _______________________________________ = _____________ in
= (Present gross applied - potential gross applied) x area irrigation (ac)

12
= ________________________________________________________ = ________________ acre feet

12
Annual cost savings:
Pumping plant efficiency _________________________ Kind of fuel _________________________________
Cost per unit of fuel _____________________________ Fuel cost per acre foot $ ______________________
Cost savings = Fuel cost per acre foot x acre feet conserved per year
= __________________________________ = $ ________________

Chapter 15

Potential water and cost savings, cont.
Water purchase cost
= Cost per acre foot x acre feet saved per year = ____________________________
= $ _______________________
Cost savings = pumping cost + water cost = __________________________________ = $ _______________________
Recommendations
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________

Profile and Cross Section Land user ____________________
Date _________________________
Field office ____________________
Chapter 15
Cross Section at sta. __________
Distance - feet
Profile
Rod Reading or elevation - feet


Part 652
Irrigation Guide
15–37
Cylinder Infiltrometer Curves Land user ____________________
15–38
Date _________________________
Field office ____________________
Chapter 15
10.0
8.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0

1.0
0.8

0.6
0.5
5 10 20 30 50 100 200 300 500 1,000 2,000
Part 652
Irrigation Guide
Chapter 15
Cylinder Infiltrometer Test Data -322

02-96
SOIL MAPPING SYMBOL SOIL TYPE SOIL MOISTURE:
GENERAL COMMENTS
Elapsed time
Average accum.
intake
Irrigation Guide
Part 652
15–39
Land user ____________________
15–40
Advance and recession curves Date ________________________
Field office ___________________
Chapter 15
250
200
150
100

50

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Part 652
Irrigation Guide
Cylinder infiltrometer Curves Land user ____________________
Date _________________________
Field office ____________________
Chapter 15
10.0
8.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0

1.0
0.8

0.6
0.5
5 10 20 30 50 100 200 300 500 1,000 2,000
Part 652
Irrigation Guide
15–41
Land user ____________________
15–42
Depth infiltrated curve Date ________________________
Field office ___________________
Chapter 15
Depth infiltrated - inches


6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Part 652
Irrigation Guide
Chapter 15



Field area ____________________________ acres
Border number ________________________ as counted from the __________________________ side of field
Crop ________________________________ Root zone depth ____________________ ft MAD ________________________%
Stage of crop _____________________________________________________________________________________________

Station ____________________________ Moisture determination method __________________________________________
Soil series name ________________________________________________________________________________________

____________ ______________________________ _________________ _________________ _________________
____________ ______________________________ _________________ _________________ _________________
____________ ______________________________ _________________ _________________ _________________
____________ ______________________________ _________________ _________________ _________________
____________ ______________________________ _________________ _________________ _________________
Total _________________ _________________
MAD, in = MAD, % x total AWC, in = __________________________________________________________ = ______________ in

100

________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Typical irrigation duration __________________ hr, irrigation frequency ___________________ days

________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Border spacing ________________, Strip width __________________, Wetted width ________________, Length _____________
Field Observations:
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Crop uniformity ____________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Chapter 15
U.S. Department of Agriculture Resource Planning and Evaluation Part 652Sheet 2 of 6

1. Basin area (A):
A = Length x Width = __________________ x _________________ = ______________ acres

43,560 46,560
2. Gross application, Fg, in inches:
Fg = Total irrigation volume, in ac-in = _______________________________ = _________ in

A, ac
3. Amount infiltrated during water inflow, Vi:
Vi = Gross application - Depth infiltrated after turnoff = ________________= ____________ in
4. Deep percolation, DP, in inches:
DP = Gross application - Soil water deficit, SWD = ___________________ = ____________ in
DP, in % = (Soil water depletion, DP in inches) x 100 = __________________ = ___________ %

Gross application, Fg
5. Application efficiency, Ea:
Average depth of water stored in root zone = Soil water deficit, SWD, if the entire root zone average
depth will be filled to field capacity by this irrigation.
Ea = (Average depth stored in root zone, Fn) x 100 = ___________________ = ____________ %

6. Distribution uniformity, DU:
Depth infiltrated low 1/4 = (max intake - min intake) + min intake
8
= _____________________ + __________ = ____________
8
DU = Depth infiltrated low 1/4 = ____________________________ = __________________

7. Application efficiency, low 1/4, Eq:
Eq = DU x Ea = ______________________ = ____________ %
100

Chapter 15

1. Present management
Estimated present average net application per irrigation = _________________________ inches
Present annual gross applied = (net applied per irrigation) x (number of irrigations) x 100
Application efficiency, low 1/4, Eq
= ________________________________ x 100 = _________ inches
2. Potential management
Recommended overall irrigation efficiency, Edes _________________________
Potential annual gross applied = Annual net irrigation requirements x 100

Edes
= ________________________________ = _________ inches
3. Total annual water conserved:

= (resent gross applied, in - potential gross applied, in) x area irrigated, acres
12
+ ____________________________________________ = ______________ ac-ft
4. Annual potential cost savings

From pumping plant evaluation:
Pumping plant efficiency _____________________ Kind of fuel _______________________________

Cost per unit of fuel _________________________ Fuel cost per acre-foot $ ____________________
Cost savings = (fuel cost per acre foot) x (water conserved per year, in ac-ft)
= _________________________ x ________________________ = $ ________________
Water purchase cost per acre-foot, per irrigation season __________________________
Water purchase cost savings = (Cost per acre-foot) x (water saved per year, in acre-feet)
= ________________________________________ = $ ________________
Potential cost savings = pumping cost + water purchase cost = __________________ = $ _____________

U.S. Department

Recommendations:
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________________________________________

Chapter 15

Inflow Data
Clock 1/ Elapsed ∆T Gage Flow Average Volume Cum.

(min) (min) (ft3/s) (ft3/s) (ft3/s) (ac-in)2/ (ac-in)
Turn on
Turn off
Average flow:
Average flow = (Total irrigation volume, in ac-in) x 60.5 = ___________________________ = _______________ ft3/s
Inflow time, in minutes
Unit:
qu= Average inflow rate, in ft3/s = ___________________ = ____________________ ft3/s/ft

Border spacing
To find volume using ft3/s: volume (ac-in) = .01653 x time (min) x flow (ft3/s)
To find volume using gpm: volume (ac-in) = .00003683 x time (min) x flow (gpm)

Chapter 15
Sheet 6 of 6
Surface System
Advance - Recession Data
Station Elevation Advance Recession Opportunity Intake 2/ Minimum

(ft) (ft) time 1/ time 1/ time (in) maximum
(hr: min) (hr: min) To intake
(min) (in)
Total
Water surface elevation at water turnoff _________________ ft 3/
Average field elevation = elevation total = ____________________ = _______________ ft

no. of elevations
Depth infiltrated after water turnoff

= (water surface at turnoff - average field elev) x 12
= (__________________ - _______________ x 12 = _________________ in
Average opportunity time = total opportunity time = ___________________ = ______________ min

no. of sample locations
1/ Use 24-hour clock time. As a minimum, record times at upper end, mid point.
2/ Obtain intake from plotted intake curve.
3/ Water surface elevation should be read to nearest 0.01 ft.

Chapter 15
Land user ____________________
Date ________________________
Soil Water Intake Curves Field office ___________________
4 5 6 7 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 1,000

10.0 10.0
8.0 8.0
6.0 6.0
5.0 5.0
4.0 4.0
3.0 3.0

2.0 2.0
1.0 1.0
.8 .8
.6 .6
.4 .4
Irrigation Guide
Part 652
.3 .3
.2 .2
4 5 6 7 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 1,000
Time in minutes
15–49

Chapter 15


Show location on evaluation furrows on sketch or photo of field.
Crop ________________________ Actual root zone depth _______________ MAD 1/ _______ % MAD _______ in
Stage of crop ________________________________ Planting date (or age of planting) _____________________
Field acres _______________________
Soil-water data:
(Show location of sample on soil map or sketch of field)
Soil mapping unit ______________________________________________ Surface texture ________________
Depth Texture AWC (in)1/ SWD (%)1/ SWD (in)1/

____________ ____________________ ______________ ____________ ______________
____________ ____________________ ______________ ____________ ______________
____________ ____________________ ______________ _____________ ______________
____________ ____________________ ______________ ____________ ______________
____________ ____________________ ______________ ____________ ______________
Total ______________ ______________

___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
Typical irrigation duration __________________ hours, Irrigation frequency ___________________ days

Typical number of irrigations per year ____________________________________________________________
Crop rotation ________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
Field uniformity condition (smoothed, leveled, laser leveled, etc., and when) ________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
1/ MAD = Management allowable depletion AWC = Available water capacity SWD = Soil water deficit

U.S. Department

Cultivation no. Date Crop stage Irrigate?

1 _________ ________________ _________
2 _________ ________________ _________
3 _________ ________________ _________
4 _________ ________________ _________
5 _________ ________________ _________
Delivery system size (pipe diameters, gate spacing, siphon tube size, etc.) __________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Field observations
Evenness of advance across field ______________________________________________________________
Crop uniformity _____________________________________________________________________________
Soil condition _______________________________________________________________________________
Soil compaction (surface, layers, etc.) __________________________________________________________
Furrow condition _____________________________________________________________________________
Erosion and/or sedimentation: in furrows ________________________________________________________
head or end of field _________________________________________________
Other observations (OM, cloddiness, residue, plant row spacing, problems noted, etc.) _____________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Furrow spacing __________ inches

Furrow length ___________ feet
Irrigations since last cultivation ____________________________
Furrow profile (rod readings or elevations at each 100 foot. station):
Furrow cross section:

Station: ______ Station: ______

Chapter 15

Furrow data summary:
Evaluation length ____________________ Slope ____________________________ Average ____________
Section through plant root zone:
Furrow area, A = (furrow evaluation length, L, ft) x (furrow spacing, W, ft)
43,560 ft2/acre
A = _____________________________________________________ = ________ acre

43,560
Present gross depth applied, Fg = Total inflow volume, gal. x .0000368 (Total inflow from worksheet 7)
Furrow area, A, in acres
Fg = ___________________________________________________ = _________ inches
Minimum opportunity time, Tox = ________ min at station ___________ (from field worksheet 10)
Minimum depth infiltrated, Fmin = ________ inches (from worksheet 10)
Average depth infiltrated, F(0-1) = _________ (from calculations on worksheet 10)
Distribution uniformity, DU = Minimum depth infiltrated, inches x 100 = F min x 100

Average depth infiltrated, inches F ave
= ______________________________________ = _________________%

U.S. Department

Runoff, RO% = Total outflow volume, gal x 100 = _____________________ = __________ % (Total outflow, worksheet 8)
Total inflow volume, gal (Total inflow, worksheet 7)
RO, in = Total outflow volume, gal x .0000368 = ______________ x 0.0000368 = ________ in (Furrow area, worksheet 3)
Evaluation furrow area, A, in acres
Deep percolation, DP, in = Average depth infiltrated - Soil moisture deficit, SMD (Ave. depth worksheet 10 and SMD worksheet 1)
DP = ________________________ = ____________ in
Deep percolation, DP, % = Deep percolation, DP, in x 100 = ________________ = ________ %

Gross depth applied, Fg, inches
Application efficiency, Ea
Ea = Ave depth stored in root zone* x 100 = _________________________ = ________ %

Gross application, Fg, inches
*Average depth of water stored in root zone = SWD if entire root zone depth is filled to field capacity by
this irrigation. If irrigation efficiency is to be used in place of application efficiency, use average depth
of water beneficially used (i.e., all infiltrated depths less than or equal to SWD) plus any other beneficial
uses.

Chapter 15

Present management
Estimated present gross net application, Fg per irrigation = _______________ inches (Fg from worksheet 3)
Present gross applied per year = Gross applied per irrigation, Fg x number of irrigations
= ________________________________ = ________________ inches
Annual net irrigation requirement _________ inches, for ____________________ (crop)
Potential application efficiency, Epa = ______________%
Potential annual gross applied = Annual net irrigation req. x 100

Potential application efficiency, Epa
= ______________________________ = ____________ inches
Total annual water conserved = (present gross applied - potential gross applied) x area irrigated, ac
12
= ___________________________ = ___________ acre feet

Chapter 15Department of Agriculture
U.S. Resource Planning and Evaluation Part 652 Sheet 6 of 10

Annual cost savings

Water cost
= Cost per acre foot x acre feet saved per year = ______________________________
= $ ____________________________
Cost savings = Pumping cost + water cost = ________________________________ = $ _______________
Fuel cost savings = (fuel cost per ac-ft) x (ac-ft conserved per year) =_______________ = ______________
Recommendations ______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________

Chapter 15

Detailed Evaluation Furrow Worksheet 7-8
Data: Furrow number _________________ Inflow ________ Outflow _________

Turn on
Total volume gallon
Average flow rate = Total irrigation volume, gallon = _________________ = ___________ gpm
Elapsed time, minute

Chapter 15

Furrow Worksheet 9
Intake Curve Plotting Data

Opportunity time at time "T" Intake at time "T"
Clock time Inflow time Outflow time Opportunity Cumulative Cumulative Intake
time inflow Outflow F0-1 7/
T Start 2/ T1 3/ Start 2/ T2 4/ To 5/ volume 6/ volume 6/
Vin Vout
(hr-min)1/ (hr) (hr) (hr) (hr) (hr) (min) (gal) (gal) (in)
1/ Use a 24-hour clock reading for collection of field data; i.e., 1:30 p.m. is 1330 hours. Use decimal hours for inflow
and outflow times.
2/ Time at which inflow or outflow starts in decimal hours (worksheet 7-8)
3/ Inflow time: T1 = "T" - inflow start time (worksheet 7)
4/ Outflow time: T2 = "T" - outflow start time (worksheet 8)
5/ Opportunity time (minutes): To - 30 (T1 + T2)
6/ Cumulative inflow and outflow volumes (worksheet 7-8). If data were not recorded for time T, interpolate the inflow or outflow.
Surface storage and wetted perimeter for length of furrow with water in it.
L = length of furrow with water in it, ft (worksheet 3) = ________
S = average furrow slope, ft/ft (worksheet 3) = ________
n = Mannings "n" (usually 0.04 for furrows, 0.10 for corrugations = ________
Qav = average inflow rate, gpm (worksheet 7) = ________
  Q × n
.7567

Surface storage: Vs = L 0.09731 av .5  + 0.00574 = ________
  S  
 Q × n
.4247
Wetted perimeter: P = 0.2686 av .5  + 0.7462 = ________

 S 
7/ Intake plotting point: Vin = Cumulative inflow (gal) from worksheet 7

Vout = Cumulative outflow (gal) from worksheet 8
F0-1 = 1.604 (Vin - Vout - Vs) Vs = Surface storage (gal) in length of furrow with water in it
L x P

Chapter 15

Furrow Worksheet 10
Furrow advance/recession data
Station Clock ∆T Elapsed Clock ∆T Elapsed Total Opportunity Intake in Intake in
(ft) time 1/ (min) time Tt time 1/ (min) time Tr elapsed time (To) 2/ wetted furrow
(min) (min) time 3/ (min) perimeter width
(in) 4/ (in)
Turn off Inflow T
Lag
Turn on
Totals
1/ Use a 24-hour clock reading; i.e., 1:30 p.m. is 1330 hours. 2/ To = Ti - Tt + Tr

3/ Time since water was turned on. 4/ Interpolated from graph, furrows volume curve
Average opportunity time = total opportunity time = __________________ = _________________ minutes

number of stations
Average depth infiltrated in wetted perimeter, Fwp:

Fwp = total intake in wetted perimeter = _____________________ = ______________________ inches
number of stations
Average depth infiltrated in tested length of furrow, F0-1:

F0-1 = Fwp x P = _______________________ = ______________________ inches
W

Chapter 15
National Resources Conservation Service Irrigation Guide

Furrow Worksheet 11

Chapter 15
Land user ____________________
Date ________________________
Advance and recession curves Field office ___________________

Time - minutes
Irrigation Guide
Part 652
15–61
Chapter 15 Land user ____________________
Resource Planning and Evaluation Part 652
Date ________________________
Flow volume curves Field office ___________________
14,000
12,000
10,000
8000
Volume - Gallons
6000
4000
2000
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Real time (hours)

Chapter 15
Land user ____________________
Date ________________________
Soil water intake curves Field office ___________________
4 5 6 7 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 1,000

10.0 10.0
8.0 8.0
6.0 6.0
5.0 5.0
4.0 4.0
3.0 3.0

Intake inches F 0-1
2.0 2.0
1.0 1.0
.8 .8
.6 .6
.4 .4
Irrigation Guide
Part 652
.3 .3
.2 .2
4 5 6 7 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 1,000
Time in minutes, To
15–63

Chapter 15

Detailed Evaluation Contour Ditch Irrigation System Worksheet


Field size __________________ acres
Crop _________________ Root zone depth ______________ ft MAD 1/ ____________ % MAD 1/ ____________ in
Stage of crop _________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Soil-water data:
(Show locacation of sample on grid map of irrigated area.)
Soil series name ____________________________________________________________________________

____________ ____________________ ______________ ____________ ______________
____________ ____________________ ______________ ____________ ______________
____________ ____________________ ______________ _____________ ______________
____________ ____________________ ______________ ____________ ______________
____________ ____________________ ______________ ____________ ______________
Total ______________ ______________

___________________________________________________________________________________________
Typical irrigation duration __________________ hr, irrigation frequency _________________ days

Type of delivery system, (earth ditch, concrete ditch, pipeline) ______________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Method used to turn water out (shoveled opening, wood box turnout, siphon tubes, portable dams,
concrete checks with check boards, etc.) ______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
1/ MAD = Management allowable depletion

2/ AWC = Available water capacity
3/ SWD = Soil water deficit

Chapter 15
Contour Ditch Irrigation System

Field observations
Crop uniformity _______________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________
Wet and/or dry area problems ____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________
Erosion problems ______________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________
Other observations _____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________
Irrigated test area (from gird map) = (___________ in2) x (___________ in2/ac) = ________________ac
Actual total depth infiltrated, inches:
Depth, inches - (Irrigated volume, ac-in) - (Runoff volume, ac-in)

Depth, inches = ___________________________ = ______________ in
Gross application, Fg, inches:
Fg = (Total inflow volume, ac-in) = __________________________ = _____________ in

DU = (Average depth infiltrated (adjusted) low 1/4, inches)

(Average depth infiltrated (adjusted), inches)
DU = __________________________________________ = _______________
Runoff, RO, inches:
RO, inches = (Runoff volume, ac-in) = ________________________________ = ______________ in

(Irrigated area, ac)
RO, % = (Runoff depth, inches) x 100 = ___________________________ = ______________ %

(Gross application, Fg, inches)

Chapter 15

Deep percolation, DP, inches:
DP, inches = (Gross applic. Fg, inches) - (Runoff depth, RO, inches) - (Soil water deficit, SWD, inches)
DP, inches = __________________________________________________ = __________ inches
DP, % = (Deep percolation, DP, inches) x 100 = ______________________ = _________%

Application efficiency (Ea):
(Average depth replaced in root zone = Soil water deficit, SWD, inches)
Ea% = (Average depth replaced in root zone, inches) x 100 = _______________ = ________ %
Present management:
Estimated present average net application per irrigation = __________________ inches
Present gross applied per year = (Net applied per irrigation, inches) x (no. of irrigations) x 100
(Application efficiency, Ea, percent)
Present gross applied per year = _____________________________ = __________ inches
Annual net irrigation requirement: _________________ inches, for _______________ (crop)
Potential application efficiency, Epa: ____________ % (from irrigation guide or other source)
Potential annual gross applied = (annual net irrigation requirement, inches) x 100
(Potential application efficiency, Epa, percent)
Potential annual gross applied = ___________________________________ = ________ inches
= (Present gross applied, inches) - (Potential gross applied, inches) x Area irrigated, ac)
12
= (_________________________) x (___________________) = ______________ acre-feet

12

Chapter 15 U.S. Department of Agriculture Resource Planning and Evaluation Part 652 Sheet 4 of 6
Natural Resources Conservation Tools and Worksheets
Service Irrigation Guide

Cost savings:
Pumping plant efficiency ______________ percent, Kind of energy __________________________
Cost per unit of fuel ______________________ Fuel cost per acre foot ________________________
Cost savings = (Fuel cost per acre foot) x (Acre inches conserved per year)
= ________________________________________________
= (Cost per acre foot) x (Acre feet saved per year) =
= (_____________) x (_____________) = _____________________________________________
Cost savings = (Pumping cost) + (Water cost) = (_____________) + (_____________) = _________
Recommendations
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________

Chapter 15

Inflow ________ Outflow _________

Turn on
Average flow = Total irrigation volume in (ac-in) = ___________________________ = _______________ ft3/s

Flow factor x elapsed time (min)


Chapter 15
U.S. Department of Agriculture Resource Planning and Evaluation Sheet 6 Part
of 6652
Surface System
Detailed Evaluation Contour Ditch Irrigation Systems Worksheet
Grid Data
Grid Advance Recession Opportunity Typical Adjusted Low 1/4

point time 1/ time 1/ time depth depth adjusted
(hr:min) (hr: min) " To" infil. 2/ infil. 2/ intake 4/
(min) (in) (in) (in)
Total

4/ Adjusted intake for lowest intake 1/4 of points (total number of points divided by 4).
Average depth infiltrated (typical):

= Total depth typical = ____________________ = ____________ in
Average depth infliltrated (adjusted):

(Should be close to actural depth infiltrated)
= Total depth adjusted = ____________________ = ____________ in

Average depth infiltrated (adjusted), low 1/4:
= Total depth adjusted, low 1/4 = ____________________ = ____________ in

Number grid points, low 1/4

Chapter 15
Land user ____________________
Date ________________________
Soil Water Intake Curves Field office ___________________
4 5 6 7 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 1,000

10.0 10.0
8.0 8.0
6.0 6.0
5.0 5.0
4.0 4.0
3.0 3.0

2.0 2.0
1.0 1.0
.8 .8
.6 .6
.4 .4
Irrigation Guide
Part 652
.3 .3
.2 .2
4 5 6 7 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 1,000
Time in minutes
15–71
15–72
Chapter 15

02-96
GENERAL COMMENTS
Elapsed time
Average accum.
intake
Irrigation Guide
Part 652


Land user _______________________________________ Prepared by ___________________________________

District ______________________________ County ______________________ Engineer job class______________

Type of system (check one) : Side- roll ______ Handmove ______ Lateral tow ______ Fixed set ________
Sprinkler head: make _________, model _____________, nozzle size(s) _________ by _________ inches
Spacing of sprinkler heads on lateral, S1 _____________ feet
Lateral spacing along mainline, Sm ________________ feet, total number of laterals ____________
Lateral lengths: max ____________ feet, minimum ______________ feet, average ______________ feet
Lateral diameter: ____________ feet of ________ inches, ___________ feet of __________ inches
Manufacturer rated sprinkler discharge, ________ gpm at ________ psi giving ________ feet wetted diameter
Total number sprinkler heads per lateral ___________, lateral diameter _________ inches
Elevation difference between first and last sprinkler on lateral (=/-) _____________ feet
Sprinkler riser height ____________ feet, mainline material ______________________________________________
Spray type: _______ fine (>30psi), _________ coarse (<30psi)
Field observations:
Crop uniformity _________________________________________________________________________________
Water runoff ___________________________________________________________________________________
Erosion _______________________________________________________________________________________
System leaks ___________________________________________________________________________________
Fouled nozzles _________________________________________________________________________________
Other observations ______________________________________________________________________________
Field data inventory & Computations:

Crop ___________________________, root zone depth _______ feet, MAD 1/ _______ %, MAD 1/ ________ inches
Moisture determination ____________________________________________________________________
Soil series and surface texture ______________________________________________________________

____________ ____________________ ______________ ____________ ______________
____________ ____________________ ______________ ____________ ______________
____________ ____________________ ______________ _____________ ______________
____________ ____________________ ______________ ____________ ______________
____________ ____________________ ______________ ____________ ______________
Totals ______________ ______________
1/ MAD = Management allowable depletion, AWC = Available water capacity, SWD = Soil water deficit

Chapter
U.S. 15
Department of Agriculture Resource Planning and Evaluation Part 652 Sheet 2 of 6

Comments about soils (including restrictions to root development and water movement): _______________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Typical irrigation duration _____________ hr, irrigation frequency ____________ days
Typical number irrigations per year __________________
Distance moved per set ___________ ft, Alternate sets? _____________
Measured nozzle diameters (using shank of high speed drill bit)
Sprinkler no. _____________________________________________________________

Diameter _____________________________________________________________
Size check _____________________________________________________________
(state whether t = tight, m = medium, l = loose)
Actual sprinkler pressure and discharge data:

Sprinkler number on test lateral
1st end
Initial pressure (psi) ________________________________________________

Final pressure (psi) ________________________________________________
Catch volume (gal) ________________________________________________
Catch time (sec) ________________________________________________
Discharge (gpm) ________________________________________________
Test:
Start _____________ stop ____________ duration ___________ = ___________ hours
Atmospheric data:
Wind: Direction: Initial ____________ during ____________ final ______________
Speed (mph): initial ____________ during ____________ final ______________
Temperature: initial ________ final _______ Humidity: _____ low _____ med _____ high
Evaporation container: initial ___________ final ___________ loss __________ inch

Chapter U.S.
15 Department of Agriculture Resource Planning and Evaluation Part 652 Sheet 3 of 6
Natural Resources Conservation Tools and Worksheets
Service Irrigation Guide

Lateral flow data:
Flow meter reading ______________________________________gpm
Average discharge of lateral based on sprinkler head discharge

= [1st gpm - .75 times (1st gpm - last gpm)] times (number of heads)
= __________________________ = ______________ gpm (ave flow per head)
= ________ heads x _________ gpm/head = ________________gpm
Calculations:
Gross application per test = (flow, gpm) x (time, hr) x 96.3

(lateral length) x (lateral spacing)
=( gpm) x ( hours) x 96.3 = _____________ inches

( feet) x ( feet)
Gross application per irrigation = (gross application per test, in) x (set time, hour)
(time, hour)
=( inches) x ( hour) = _____________ inches

(5.95 hour)
Catch container type ______________________________________________
___________ cc (mL) or in, measuring container = __________ inches in container
Total number of containers ___________
Composite number of containers = Total number of containers = ________ = _______

2
Total catch, all containers = _____________ cc (mL)= _____________ inches

cc/in
Average total catch = Total catch = ___________ = __________ inches

composite no. containers
Number of composite containers in low 1/4 = composite no. containers = _______ = ______
4
Total catch in low 1/4 composite containers = _____________ cc(mL) = ____________ inches
cc/in

Chapter 15

Average catch of low 1/4 composite containers = total catch in low 1/4
no. composite low 1/4 containers
= _____________________ = ________________ inches
Average catch rate = Average total catch, inches = _____________________ = _______________inch/hour

Test time, hour hour
NOTE: Average catch rate is application rate at plant canopy height.
DU = (Average catch low 1/4 composite containers) x 100 = ________________ inches x 100 = ___________%
Average total catch inches
Approximate Christiansen Uniformity (CU):
CU = 100 - [0.63 x (100 - DU)] = 100 [0.63 x (100 - ______________________)] = __________________ %
Effective portion of applied water (Re):
Re = Average total catch, inch = ____________________ inches = ________________ inches

Gross applications/test, inches inches
Eq = DU x (Re) = _____________ x _____________ = _____________ %
NOTE: Use for medium to high value crops.
Eh = CU x (Re) = _____________ x _____________ = ______________ %
NOTE: Use for lower value field and forage crops.

Chapter 15
Sheet 5 of 6

Application efficiency, (Ea):
Fn = (gross application per irrigation) x Eq = ( inches) x = ________ inches

100 100
Ea = (water stored in root zone) x 100 = ( inches) x 100 = _________ %

(gross application per irrigation) ( inches)
Losses = (runoff, deep percolation) = gross application per irrigation minus SWD
= (_________________________________ = __________ inches
Potential Water and Cost Savings:
Present management:
Gross applied per year = (gross applied per irrigation) x (number of irrigations) =
= (___________ inches) x (____________) = __________ inches/year
Annual net irrigation requirement __________________ inches/year, for _______________________ (crop)
Potential application efficiency (Eq or Eh) ____________ % (from NEH, Part 623, Ch 11)
Potential annual gross applied = (annual net irrigation requirement) x 100

Potential Eq or EH
= (____________________ inches) x 100 = ___________________ inches
= (Present gross applied - potential gross applied) x (area irrig. (ac)) = _____________________ acre/feet
12
=( inches) - ( inches) x ( acres) = ____________acre/feet

12

Chapter 15

Cost savings:
Pumping plant efficiency ________________________________ Kind of fuel ___________________________
Cost per unit of fuel $ ___________________________________ Fuel cost per acre/foot $ ________________
Cost savings = (fuel cost per acre-foot) x (acre-feet conserved per year) = $ ______________
= (_______________) x (_______________) = $ ________________
= (Cost per acre-foot) x (acre-feet saved per year) = _______________ x _______________ = $ _____________
Cost Savings:
= Pumping cost + water cost = ____________ + ____________ = $ ______________
Recommendations: _________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________

LandEvaluation Part 652
user ____________________
Lateral move system Date ________________________
catch can data Field office ___________________
Lateral flow


Chapter 15

Land user ________________________________________________ Field office __________________________________
Observer ____________________ Date ___________________ Checked by ______________________ Date ___________
Field name/number ____________________________________________________________________________________

Center pivot number _____________ pivot location in field _____________________________________________________
Acres irrigated ________________________
Hardware inventory:
Manufacturer: name and model __________________________________________________________________________
Is design available? ____________ (attach copy) Number of towers ______________ Spacing of towers ________________
Lateral: Material ________________________, Inside diameter __________________ inches
Nozzle: Manufacturer ___________________________________________________________________________________
Position _____________________ Height above ground ________________________________________________
Spacing _______________________________________________________________________________________
Is pressure regulated at each nozzle? _________ operating pressure range ______________________
Type of tower drive ___________________________________________________________________
System design capacity _________________ gpm, system operating pressure ________________ psi
Nozzle data, design: Pivot end

Sprinkler position number __________________________________________________________________________
Manufacturer __________________________________________________________________________
Model __________________________________________________________________________
Type (spray, impact, etc.) __________________________________________________________________________
Nozzle or orifice size __________________________________________________________________________
Location __________________________________________________________________________
Wetted diameter (ft) __________________________________________________________________________
Nozzle discharge (gpm) __________________________________________________________________________
Design pressure (psi) __________________________________________________________________________
Operating pressure __________________________________________________________________________
End gun make, model ____________________________________________________ (when continuously used in corners)

End gun capacity _______________ gpm, Pressure __________________ psi, boosted to ___________________ psi
End swing lateral capacity _________________________ gpm, pressure __________________________ psi
Field observations:
Crop uniformity ________________________________________________________________________________________
Runoff _______________________________________________________________________________________________
Erosion ______________________________________________________________________________________________
Tower rutting __________________________________________________________________________________________
System leaks _________________________________________________________________________________________
Elevation change between pivot and end tower _______________________________________________________________

U.S. Department

Wind: Speed _________________ mph Direction (from) ________________________
Line direction: From center to outer tower ______________________ moving _______________________
Time of day ______________ , Humidity: ________ low ______ med _______ high, Air temp ________________
Evaporation: start depth __________ inches, end depth ___________ inches, Evaporation ___________ inches
Crop _________________________, Root zone depth ________ foot, MAD1/ ________ %, MAD ________ inches
Soil-water data (typical): (show location of sample site on soil map or sketch of field)
Moisture determiniation method ______________________________________________________________
Soil series name, surface texture _____________________________________________________________
Depth Texture *AWC (in)1/ *SWD (%)1/ *SWD (in)1/

____________ ____________________ ______________ ____________ ______________
____________ ____________________ ______________ ____________ ______________
____________ ____________________ ______________ _____________ ______________
____________ ____________________ ______________ ____________ ______________
____________ ____________________ ______________ ____________ ______________
Totals ______________ ______________
Comments about soils:

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Typical system application:

Crop Stage Hours per 2/ Speed Net
of growth revolution setting application
percent (in)
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Hours operated per day ___________________ hours

Approximate number of pivot revolutions per season ___________________
1/ MAD = Management allowed depletion, AWC = Available water capacity, SWD = Soil water deficit
2/ To calculate the hours per revolution around the field, first calculate the average speed the end tower moves
per cycle (start to start) = distance in feet divided by time in seconds.
Then: hours per revolution = 2 (distance to end tower in feet) x π

(end tower speed in ft/s) x 3,600 seconds per hour
ChapterU.S.

System data:
Distance from pivot point to : end tower ____________ ft, wetted edge ____________ ft
* End tower speed: Distance between stakes ________________
Time at first stake __________________, Time at second stake ____________________
Time to travel between stakes __________________ min
* This method is satisfactory for a continuous moving system, but need to allow for moving in start-stop cycles.
Recommend using end tower move distance and from start to star. Typically, percent speed setting for
end tower represents, 60% = 36 seconds of each minute, 72 seconds of each 2 minutes, etc.
Measured system flow rate ______________ gpm, method ___________________

Calculations: ________________________________________________________
Evaluation computations:
Circumference of end tower:
(6.2832)
Distance to end tower x 2π = ________________ x 6.2832 = _______________ ft
End tower speed:
Distance traveled (ft) x 60 = ______________ x 60 = _____________ ft/hr

Time in minutes
Hours per revolution:
Circumference at end tower (ft) = ___________________ = __________ hr

End tower speed (ft/hr)
Area irrigated:
(3.1416)
(Distance to wetted edge)2 x π = ______________ x 3.1416 = _______________ ac
43,560 square feet/acre 43,560
Gross application per irrigation:
Hours per revolution x gpm = _________________ = ______________ in

435 x acres irrigated 453 x ac
Weighted system average application:
Sum of: catch x factors = _______________ = _________ cc (ml)

(Sum of: factors) x number of containers

ChapterU.S.

Convert cc (ml) in measuring cylinder to inches depth in catch container:
_____________ cc (ml) = 1 inch in catch container
Average application = Average catch (cc) = _________________ = _____________ in

cc/inch
Weighted low 1/4 average application:
Sum of low 1/4 catch x factors = _____________ = ____________ cc (ml)

(Sum of low 1/4 factors) x number of low 1/4 containers
Low 1/4 average application = Average low 1/4 (cc) = _______________ = _________ in
cc/inch
Distribution uniformity low 1/4 a (DU):
DU = Weighted low 1/4 average applic. = _________________ = __________ %

Weighted system average application
Approximate Christiansen uniformity (CU):
CU = 100 - [0.63 x (100 - DU)] = 100 - [0.63 x (100 - _____________)] = __________%
Effective portion of water applied (Re):
Re = Weighted system average application (in) = _____________ = _____________

Gross applicaiton (in)
Eq = DU x Re = ____________________________ = _____________ %
(Use for medium to high value crops)
Eh = DU x Re = ____________________________ = _____________ %
(Use for low value field and forage crops)

Chapter 15
U.S. Department of Agriculture Resource Planning and Evaluation Sheet 5Part
of 652
7

Application:
Gross application x hours operated per day x (Eq or Eh)

Hours per revolution x 100
= ____________________________________________ = ________________ in/day
Maximum average application rate:
Maximum catch inches x 60 = _____________ = __________ in/hr

Time containers are uncovered in minutes
Pivot revolutions required t replace typical annual moisture deficit:
(Based on existing management procedures)
Annual net irrig. requirement ______________ in, for _________________________ (crop)
Pivot revolutions required:
Annual net irrig. requirement x 100 = _______________________ = ______________

(Eq or Eh) x gross applic. per irrig.
Present management::
Gross applied per year = gross applied per irrig x number of irrig
= _____________________________ = _______________ in/yr
Potential application efficiency (Epq or Eph) _____________ percent (from
irrigation guide, NEH Sec 15, Ch 11, or other source)
Potential annual gross applied = Annual net irrig. requirement x 100

Potential Epq or Eph
= ______________________________ = _____________ inches

Chapter 15

= (Present gross applied - potential gross applied) x area irrig. (acre)

12
= ____________________________________ = ________________ acre feet

12
Cost savings:
Pumping plant efficiency ____________ kind of fuel ___________________

Cost per unit of fuel ______________ fuel cost per acre foot $ ________________
Cost savings = fuel cost per acre foot x acre foot conserved per year
= _____________________________ = $ ____________________
= Cost per acre foot x acre feet saved per year = ______________________
= $ ___________________
Cost savings = pumping cost + water cost = _________________ = $ ________________
Recommendations:
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________

U.S. Department
Container spacing _____________________ feet
Container Catch Catch (cc) Catch Container Catch Catch (cc) Catch
No. Factor (cc) x Factor (in) No. Factor (cc) x Factor (in)
1 1 48 48
2 2 49 49
3 3 50 50
4 4 51 51
5 5 52 52
6 6 53 53
7 7 54 54
8 8 55 55
9 9 56 56
10 10 57 57
11 11 58 58
12 12 59 59
13 13 60 60
14 14 61 61
15 15 62 62
16 16 63 63
17 17 64 64
18 18 65 65
19 19 66 66
20 20 67 67
21 21 68 68
22 22 69 69
23 23 70 70
24 24
Sum ________ __________
25 25
26 26
27 27 Low 1/4 summation:
28 28
29 29
30 30
31 31
32 32
33 33
34 34
35 35
36 36
37 37
38 38
39 39
40 40 Sum ________ __________
41 41 Max application rate data (5 minute catch)
42 42
1
43 43
2
44 44
3
45 45
4
46 46
5
47 47
Max. rate = max. catch (in) x 60 = __________ inches/hour
5 minutes

Center pivot lateral evaluation, distribution profile of catch
15–88
Chapter 15
Land user ____________________
Eh = _____________ Date ________________________
Eq = _____________ Field office ___________________
Container catch (inches)

Irrigation Guide
Part 652
Container number
U.S. Department

Land user ______________________________ Date _________________ Prepared by _____________________________
District ____________________ County ___________________________Eng job class _______________________

Sprinkler gun make ______________________, model __________________, nozzle type ___________________________
Nozzle: size________________ inches, ________________ mm
Manufacturer rated discharge, ______________ gpm at _______________ psi giving _____________ ft wetted diameter
Hose: length, _____________________ ft, diameter ________________ inches
Towpath: spacing ____________________ ft
Elevation difference between first and last location on towpath (+/-) ________________ ft or _________________ % slope
Gun: height _____________________ ft
Mainline: material _________________________________________ diameter _________________________ inches
Field observations:
Crop uniformity _______________________________________________________________________________________
Water runoff __________________________________________________________________________________________
Erosion ______________________________________________________________________________________________
System leaks _________________________________________________________________________________________
Wind drift ____________________________________________________________________________________________
Other observations ____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Field data inventory and computations:

Crop _______________________, root zone depth ________ ft, MAD 1/ _________%, MAD 1/ ______________ inches
Moisture determination method _______________________________________________________________________
Soil series and surface texture ________________________________________________________________________
Depth Texture AWC (in) 1/ SWD (%) 1/ SWD (in) 1/
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Totals ______________ _____________
Comments about soils and soil condition: _________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
1/ MAD = Management Allowable depletion, AWC = Available water capacity, SWD = Soil water deficit

Chapter 15 Resource Planning and Evaluation Part 652Sheet 2 of 5

Typical irrigation duration _____________ hr, irrigation frequency _______________ days
Typical number of irrigations per year __________________
Test:
Start ______________, Stop ______________, Duration _______________ = __________ hour
Atmospheric data;
Wind: Direction: Initial ______________, during _______________, final ______________
Speed (mph): Initial _______________, during _______________, final ______________
Temperature: initial __________ final _________, humidity: _________ low _____ med _____ high
Evaporation container: initial _____________, final _____________, loss ____________ inches
Pressure: ____________________ psi, at start of test

____________________ psi, at end of test
Measured flow into the system _______________________gpm
Sprinkler travel speed:

at beginning ________ ft ________ min = _________ ft/min
at test site ________ ft ________ min = _________ ft/min
at terminal end ________ ft ________ min = _________ ft/min
average _________ ft/min
Calculations:
Gross average depth of water applied = (gun discharge, gpm) x (1.605)
(tow path spacing, ft) x (travel speed, ft/min)
= ( gpm) x (1.605) = ___________________ in

( ft) x ( ft/min)
Average overlapped catches

System = (sum all catch totals in) = ____________ in
(number of totals _____________)
Low 1/4 = (sum of low 1/4 catch totals in) = ___________ in

(number of low 1/4 catches _________)
Average application rate = (Flow, gpm) x (13,624)

(tow path spacing, ft) x (wet sector, deg.)
=( gpm) x (13,624) = ___________ in/hr

( ft) x ( deg)
Maximum application rate = (average application rate, in/hr) x (1.5)

U.S. Department

Container test data

Catch can type ___________, ___________ cc (mL)/in Left Right
Note part circle operation Towpath

and the dry wedge size in degrees and travel
direction
4, 3, 2, 1 Container catch row 1, 2, 3, 4
Container catch volume Right plus left

Path Left side of path Right side of path side catch totals
spacing
(ft) Catch no. Catch (mL) Catch no. Catch (mL) mL inches
330 1 33
320 2 32
310 3 31
300 4 30
290 5 29
280 6 28
270 7 27
260 8 26
250 9 25
240 10 24
230 11 23
220 12 22
210 13 21
200 14 20
190 15 19
180 16 18
170 17 17
160 18 16
150 19 15
140 20 14
130 21 13
120 22 12
110 23 11
100 24 10
90 25 9
80 26 8
70 27 7
60 28 6
50 29 5
40 30 4
30 31 3
20 32 2
10 33 1
Sum of all catch totals ___________________

Sum of low 1/4 catch totals _______________

Chapter 15

Present management:
Gross applied per year = (Gross applied per irrigation) x (number of irrigation) = ____________ in/yr
+ ( __________ in) x ( ___________ ) = _______________ in/yr
Annual net irrigation requirement ______________________ in/yr, for ________________________ (crop)
Potential application efficiency (Eq or Eh) ____________ % (estimated at 55 - 65%)
Potential annual gross applied = (annual net irrigation requirement) x 100 = _____________ in
Potential Eq or Eh
=( in) x 100 = _________________ inches

= (Present gross applied, inches - potential gross applied, inches) x (area irrigated, ac) = _________ ac/ft
12
=( in) - ( in) x ( ac) = _________________ ac-ft
12
Cost savings:
Pumping plant efficiency ____________________ kind of energy ___________________
Cost per unit of energy $ ____________________ energy cost per ac-ft $ _____________
Cost savings = (energy cost per ac-ft) x (ac-ft conserved per year) = $ __________
= ( ____________ ) x ( ____________ ) = $ ____________

= (Cost per ac-ft) x (ac-ft saved per year) = $ ______________ x ____________ = $ _____________
Cost savings:
= Pumping cost + water cost = __________ + __________ = $ ____________

Chapter 15

Recommendations:
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________


Chapter 15
Micro Irrigation System

Land user ________________________________ Date __________________ Prepared by ______________________________
District ___________________________________ County ________________________________________________________
Crop: __________________________ age _____________ plant and row spacing ______________________________________
Soil: mapping unit _________________________________ surface texture _________________________________________
actual depth _________________________________________AWC _______________________ inches/feet
Irrigation: duration ____________ frequency ____________ MAD ___________% ____________ inches/feet
Irrigation system hardware:
Filter: pressure at: inlet ___________ psi, outlet _____________ psi, loss _____________ psi
Emitter: manufacturer _______________ type _________________ spacing _________________
Rated discharge per emitter (emission point): _______________________gph at _____________________ psi
Emission points per plant ______________ giving __________________ gallons per plant per day
Later: diameter: ___________________ material ________________ length _______________ spacing _____________
Sketch of micro irrigation system layout:
0 +15'
-5' +5'

Chapter
U.S. 15

System discharge: _____________ gpm, number of manifolds ___________ and blocks ___________
Average test manifold emission point discharges at _____________________ psi
Manifold = (sum of all averages gph) = _________________ gph

(number of averages )
Low 1/4 = (sum of low 1/4 averages gph) = __________________ gph

(number of low 1/4 averages )
Adjusted average emission point discharges at ____________________ psi
System = (DCF _______________) x (manifold average ____________) = ____________ gph
Low 1/4 = (DCF ______________) x (manifold low 1/4 _____________) = _____________ gph
Discharge test volume collected in _____________ minutes (1.0 gph = 63 ML/min)
Lateral location on the manifold

Outlet
location inlet end 1/3 down 2/3 down far end
on lateral mL gph mL gph mL gph mL gph
inlet A
end B
ave
1/3 A
down B
ave
2/3 A
down B
ave
far A
end B
ave

Chapter 15

Detailed Evaluation Worksheet (cont.)
Lateral: inlet pressure ______ psi ______ psi ______ psi ______ psi
far end pressure ______ psi ______ psi ______ psi ______ psi
Wetted area per plant ______ ft2 ______ ft2 ______ ft2 ______ ft2
______ % ______ % ______ % ______ %
Estimated average SMD in wetted soil volume ______________________________________
Minimum lateral inlet pressures, MLIP, on all operating, manifolds:
Manifold ID: Test _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ Ave.
pressure, psi _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______
Discharge correction factor, DCF, for the system is:
DCF = 2.5 x (average MLIP psi) = ___________ psi

(average MLIP ___________ psi + (1.5 x test MLIP ___________ psi)
or if the emitter discharge exponent, x = ___________ is known,
DCF = (average MLIP psi) x ------- = ____________ psi

(test MLIP psi)
Comments: __________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________


Chapter 15

Observer ________________________ Date _______________ Checked by _______________ Date _____________
Field name or number __________________________________________ Acres irrigated ______________________
Hardware Inventory:
Power plant:
Electric motor(s): Main pump Booster (if used)

Make _____________________________ ________________________________
Model _____________________________ ________________________________
Rated rpm _____________________________ ________________________________
Rated hp _____________________________ ________________________________
Internal combustion engine:

Make _________________________________________________________________________________________
Model ________________________________________________________________________________________
Continuous rated hp at output shaft ________________________ hp at _______________________ rpm
Comments about condition of power plant ____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Gear or belt drive mechanism:

Type: (check one) direct drive ___________ gear drive _____________ belt drive ______________
_______________________ rpm at driver ____________________________________ rpm at pump
Pumps
Type: (centrifugal,
turbine, submers.) _____________________________ ________________________________
Make _____________________________ ________________________________
Model _____________________________ ________________________________
Impeller diameter _____________________________ ________________________________
Number of impellers _____________________________ ________________________________
Rated flow rate (gpm) _____________________________ ________________________________
at head of (ft) _____________________________ ________________________________
at rpm _____________________________ ________________________________
Pump curves: Attached ______________________ (yes or no)
Comments about conditon of equipment ________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________

Chapter
U.S. 15

Existing suction or turbine column set-up (sketch showing dimensions)
Existing discharge set-up (sketch showing dimensions)
Data and computations:

Total Dynamic Head (TDH):
Elevation difference - water surface to pump outlet ________________ feet
Pressure reading at pump outlet ___________________ psi
Pressure at pump inlet (where supply is pressurized) __________________ psi
Estimated friction loss in suction pipe or pump column _______________ feet
Miscellaneous friction loss _________________ feet
TDH = (elevation difference between water source and pump discharge) + (discharge pressure - pressure at
inlet) times 2.31 + (estimated suction pipe friction loss) + miscellaneous =
________________________________________________________ = ________________ feet
Flow rate:
Flow meter:
Flow rate = ______________________ gpm
Velocity meter:
Pipe ID __________________ inches
Velocity __________________ feet/second
Flow rate, Q, in gpm = (Velocity, in feet/second) x (2.45) x (pipe ID2) =
= ____________________________________ = _________________ gpm

Chapter 15

Water horsepower:
whp = (flow rate, in gpm) x (TDH, in feet) = ______________________________ = ______________ hp
3960
Energy input
Electric:
Disk revolutions _____________________
Time: min ___________ sec ____________ = _____________ sec
Meter constant (Kh) __________________________________
PTR (power transformer ratio - usually 1.0)1/ _____________________
CTR (current transformer ratio - usually 1.0)1/ ___________________
KW = (3.6) x (disk rev) x (Kh) x (PTR) x (CTR) = _______________________________ = _________(kwh/h)
(time, in seconds)
Diesel or gasoline:
Evaluation time: hours ____________ minutes____________ = ______________ hours
Fuel use _____________ gallons (a small quantity of fuel may also be weighed, at 7.05 lb/gal for diesel and 6.0 lb/gallon
for gasoline)
(fuel use, in gallons) = ____________________________________ = _______________ gallons/hour

(time, in hours)
Propane:
Fuel use ________________ lb (weigh fuel used from small portable tank)
(fuel use, in lb) = ___________________________________ = ___________ gallon/hours

(4.25 lb/gal) x (time, in hr)
Natural gas:
Meter reading: End __________________ minus Start _____________________ = __________________ mcf
(fuel used, in mcf) = _______________________________ = ___________________ mcf/hr

(time, in hr)
1/ Some power companies use a type of meter that requires a PTR or CTR correction factor. Check with local
power company.

U.S.Chapter 15
Land user __________________________________________ Field office _______________________________
In the next step, the efficiency of the power plant and pump, as a unit, is compared to the Nebraska Standards for
irrigation pumping plants. The Nebraska standard for a good condition, properly operated plant. If the comparison
comes out less than 100%, there is room for improvement.
Nebraska performance rating:
Nebraska pumping plant performance criteria ______________________________________________________
Pump and Power Plant

Energy source Whp-h/unit of energy Energy unit
Diesel 12.5 gallon
Propane 6.89 gallon
Natural gas 61.7 mcf
Electricity 0.885 kW=kwh/hr
Gasoline 8.66 gallon
The Nebraska standards assume 75% pump and 88% electric motor efficiency.
Percent of Nebraska performance rating
= (whp) x (100) =
(energy input) x (Nebraska criteria, in whp-h/unit)
= _______________________________________ = _______________ %
Horsepower input:
Electric:
(input kW) = _______________________ = ___________ bhp

(0.746 kW/bhp)
Diesel:
(16.66) x (energy input, in gal/hr) = _________________________ = ____________ bhp
Propane:
(9.20) x (energy input, in gal/hr) = __________________________ = ____________ bhp
Natural gas:
(82.20) x (energy input, in mcf/hr) = _________________________ = ____________ bhp

Chapter 15
Pumping plant efficiency:
Epp = (water horsepower output, whp) x (100) = ________________________________ = ___________ %

(brake horsepower input, bhp)
Energy cost per acre-foot:
Fuel cost per unit __________________ $/kW-hr, or $/gal, or $/mcf
Cost, in $/ac-ft = (5431) x (fuel cost, in $/unit) x (energy input, in kW, gal/hr, or mcf/hr)
(flow rate, in gpm)
= ___________________________________________________ = $ _____________/acre-foot
Recommendations:
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

Pump performance curve
Case: Material C.I. Patt. No. H-689 Mach. No. H-689 3600 NOMINAL R.P.M. 60 Cycles
T.D.B.L. for fresh water at
Impeller: Material BRZ Patt. No. M-3380 Mach. No. M-3380 Dia. 9" FULL sea level 80° F max.
MAXIMUM WORKING PRESSURE 215 PSI M-1 M-2
30
20
N.P.S.H. IN FEET
10
0
TOTAL DYNAMIC HEAD IN FEET
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
TDSL
0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
CAPACITY IN U.S. GALLONS PER MINUTE
Based on T-3184 Superaades C-5006 Dated 10-30-64 Date 5-19-71 MODEL B3ZPL

Chapter 15
NRCS-SOILS-2328
Rev. 5-96
Soil Description File Code Soils-11
Soil File No.
Area Date Stop No.

Classification
Location
N. veg. (or crop) Climate
Parent material
Physiography
Relief Drainage Salt or alkali
Elevation Gr. water Stoniness
Slope Moisture
Aspect Root distrib. % Clay*
Erosion % Coarse fragments* % Coarser than V.F.S.*
Permeability
Additional notes
*Control section average
Hori- Color Struc- Color Reac- Boun- Effer-

Depth Texture Roots Pore Line
zon ture tion dary vesc-
Dry Moist Dry Moist Wet ence

15–106
Chapter 15
05-96
GENERAL COMMENTS
Elapsed time
Average accum.
intake
of gauge intake of gauge intake of gauge intake of gauge intake of gauge intake


Irrigation Guide
Part 652
Chapter 15
Land user ____________________
Date ________________________
Soil water intake curves Field office ___________________
4 5 6 7 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 1,000

10.0 10.0
8.0 8.0
6.0 6.0
5.0 5.0
4.0 4.0
3.0 3.0

2.0 2.0
1.0 1.0
.8 .8
.6 .6
.4 .4
Irrigation Guide
Part 652
.3 .3
.2 .2
4 5 6 7 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 1,000
Time in minutes
15–107
Land user ____________________
Intake curve overlay Date ________________________
15–108
Chapter 15
(Clear plastic overlay is available through NRCS State Office) Field office ___________________
8
7
Accumulated intake (in) 6
5

1
10 20 30 50 70 100 200 300 500 700 1000 2000 3000 5000
Time in minutes
Intake Grouping for Border Irrigation Design

Instructions
1. Plot data from cylinder intake test on matching logarithmic paper using
accumulated intake (inches) as ordinates and elapsed time (minutes) as
Irrigation Guide
Part 652
abscissas. Draw line representing test results.
2. Place overlay over plotted curve, matching the intersection of the lines
for 10 minutes time and 1 inch intake. Select the intake family that
best represents the plotted curve within the normal irrigation range.
Chapter 15
Land user ____________________
Date ________________________
Accumulated intake vs. time Field office ___________________
10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0

5.0

4.0
3.0
2.0
Irrigation Guide
Part 652
1.0
50 100 200 400 600 1,000
Time (T) in minutes
15–109
Land user ____________________
15–110
Date ________________________ Chapter 15
Intake families as used with furrow irrigation Field office ___________________

100 100
80 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
8 8
7 7

6 6
5 5

4 4
3 3
Part 652
Irrigation Guide
2 2
1 1
10 20 30 40 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 8,000
Time (T) minutes

Estimating Soil
Natural
Moisture by
Resources
Conservation
Service
Feel and Appearance
Irrigation Water Management (IWM) is applying water 1-foot increments to the root depth of the crop at
according to crop needs in an amount that can be three or more sites per field. You vary the number of
stored in the plant zone of the soil. sample sites and depths according to: crop, field size,
soil texture, and soil stratification. For each sample
The feel and appearance method is one of several the feel and appearance method involves:
irrigation scheduling methods used in IWM. It is a way
of monitoring soil moisture to determine when to 1. Obtaining a soil sample at the selected depth using
irrigate and how much water to apply. Applying too a probe, auger, or shovel;
much water may cause excessive runoff and/or deep 2. Squeezing the soil sample firmly in your hand
percolation. As a result, nutrients and chemicals may several times to form an irregularly shaped ball;
be lost or leached into the ground water.
3. Observing soil texture, ability to ribbon, firmness
and surface roughness of ball, water glistening,
In applying this method, you determine the amount of
loose soil particles, soil/water staining on fingers,
irrigation water needed by subtracting water in soil
and soil color;
storage (estimated using the feel and appearance
method) from the available water capacity (AWC) of 4. Comparing observations with photographs and/or
the soil. (See the example computation below.) chart to estimate percent water available. (Note: A
very weak ball disintegrates with one bounce of
The feel and appearance of soil varies with texture the hand. A weak ball disintegrates with 2 to 3
and moisture content. Water available for plant use bounces.)
can be estimated, with experience, to an accuracy of
about 5 percent. Soil moisture is typically sampled in
Example for a uniform soil

Sample USDA Field AWC for Water Water
depth Zone texture capacity* layer available need
(inches) (inches) (percent) (inches) (inches) (inches)
6 0-12 sandy loam 30 1.4 .42 .98
18 12-24 sandy loam 45 1.4 .63 .77
30 24-36 loam 60 2.0 1.20 .80
42 36-48 loam 75 2.0 1.50 .50
6.8 3.75 3.05
* Determined by feel and appearance method
Summary of estimation
(inches)
AWC in 48” root zone at 100% field capacity ............................................................................................................ 6.8
Actual water available for plant use ......................................................................................................................... 3.7
Net irrigation requirement or need ........................................................................................................................... 3.1

Fine sand and loamy fine sand soils
Appearance of fine sand and loamy fine sand soils at various soil moisture conditions.
Available water capacity ................................................................... 0.6–1.2 inches/foot
Available Soil Moisture Description Illustration
0-25 Appears dry, will hold together

if not disturbed, loose sand
grains on fingers.
25-50 Slightly moist, forms a very

weak ball with well-defined
finger marks, light coating of
loose and aggregated sand
grains remain on fingers.
50-75 Moist, forms a weak ball with

loose and aggregated sand
grains on fingers, darkened
color, light uneven water
staining on fingers.
75-100 Wet, forms a weak ball, loose

and aggregated sand grains
remain on fingers, darkened
color, heavy water staining on
fingers, will not ribbon.
100 Wet, forms a weak ball, light

to heavy soil/water coating on
(field capacity)
fingers, wet outline of soft ball
remains on hand.

Sandy loam and fine sandy loam soils
Appearance of sandy loam and fine sandy loam soils at various soil moisture conditions.
Available Water Capacity................................................................... 1.3–1.7 inches/foot
0-25 Appears dry, forms a very weak

ball, aggregated soil grains
break away easily from ball.
25-50 Slightly moist, forms a weak

ball with defined finger marks,
darkened color, no water
staining on fingers.
50-75 Moist, forms a ball with

defined finger marks, very
light soil/water staining on
fingers, darkened color, will
not slick.
75-100 Wet, forms a ball with wet

outline left on hand, light to
medium staining on fingers,
makes a weak ribbon.
100 Wet, forms a soft ball, free water

(field capacity) appears briefly on soil surface after
squeezing or shaking, medium to
heavy soil/water coating on fingers.

Sandy clay loam and loam soils
Appearance of sandy clay loam and loam soils at various soil moisture conditions.
0-25 Appears dry, soil aggregations break

away easily, no staining on fingers,
clods crumble with applied pressure.

ball with rough surfaces, no
water staining on fingers, few
aggregated soil grains break
away.
50-75 Moist, forms a ball, very

light staining on fingers,
darkened color, pliable,
forms a weak ribbon.
75-100 Wet, forms a ball with well

defined finger marks, light to
heavy soil/water coating on
fingers, ribbons between thumb
and forefinger.

(field capacity) appears briefly on soil surface after
squeezing or shaking, thick soil/
water coating on fingers.

Clay, clay loam and silty clay loam soils
Appearance of clay, clay loam and silty clay loam soils at various soil moisture conditions.
Appears dry, soil aggregations

0-25 separate easily, clods are hard to
crumble with applied pressure.

ball, very few soil aggregations
break away, no water stains,
clods flatten with applied
pressure.
50-75 Moist, forms a smooth ball

with defined finger marks,
light staining on fingers,
ribbons between thumb and
forefinger.
75-100 Wet, forms a ball, uneven

medium to heavy soil/water
coating on fingers, ribbons
easily.

(field capacity) appears on soil after squeezing or
shaking, thick soil/water coating on
fingers, slick and sticky.

Chapter 16 Special Use Tables, Charts, Part 652
Chapter 16 Special Use Tables, Charts,
and Conversions National Irrigation Guide
and Conversions
652.1601 English conversion units 16–1
652.1602 Metric conversion units 16–3
Exhibits Exhibit 16–1 Irrigation related units conversion factors 16–1
Exhibit 16–2 Units of area, length, weight, volume, pressure, 16–3

flow, velocity, temperature, yields, and rates

16–i
Chapter 16 Part 652
Special Use Tables, Charts,
Chapter 16 Special Use Tables, Charts,
and Conversions
652.1600 General 652.1601 English conver-

sion units
This chapter contains commonly used tables, charts,
and conversions that were not included in the major Throughout this guide, English units generally are
parts of the guide, but do provide a definite use. Tables used followed with metric units in perenthesis. Exhibit
and charts can be added as needed. This chapter will 16–1 displays commonly used conversion factors
vary in size and scope. relating to irrigation.
Exhibit 16–1 Irrigation related units conversion factors
Volume, weight, and flow units
1 gallon (gal) = 231 cubic inches (in3)

= 0.13368 cubic feet (ft3)
1 gallon of water weighs = 8.345 pounds (lb)
1 million gallons (mg) = 3.0689 acre-feet (ac-ft)
= 133,700 cubic feet (ft3)
cubic foot water = 1728 cubic inches (in3)

= 7.48 gallons
1 cubic foot of water weighs = 62.4 pounds (lb)
1 acre-foot (ac-ft) = amount of water to cover 1 acre 1 foot deep

= 43,560 cubic foot (ft3)
= 325,850 gallons
= 12 acre-inches (ac-in)
1 acre-inch per day (ac-in/da) = 18.7 gallons per minute (gpm)
1 million gallons (mg) = 3.0689 acre-feet (ac-ft)

1 million gallons per day (mgd) = 1.547 cubic feet per second (ft3/s),
= 695 gallon per minute (gpm)
1 cubic foot per second = 448.83 (typically rounded to 450) gallons per minute (gpm)
= 7.48 gallons per second
= 0.646 million gallons per day (mgd)
= 0.992 (typically rounded to 1) acre-inch per hour (ac-in/hr)
= 1.983 (typically rounded to 2) acre-feet per day (ac-ft/d)
= 40 miners inches (11.25 gpm)—AZ, CA, MT, NV, OR
= 50 miners inches (9 gpm)—ID, KA, NE, NM, ND, UT
= 38.4 miners inches—CO

Exhibit 16–1 Irrigation related units conversion factors—Continued
Pressure units
1 atmosphere (1 bar) = 14.697 pounds per square inch (lb/in2)

= 2116.3 pounds per square foot (lb/ft2)
= 33.93 feet of water
= 29.92 inches of mercury
1 pound per square inch = 144 pounds per square foot
= 2.31 feet of head of water
1 pound per square foot = 48 Pa = .0048 kPa
1 foot head of water (ft) = 0.433 pounds per square inch
= 0.0295 atmospheres (bars)
Energy units
1 hp = 0.746 kw
1 kw = 1.3405 hp
Soil and water chemistry units
1 meq/liter = 1 mg/liter/equiv. weight 1 mg/L = 1 ppm

1 ml water = 1 cc water
1 ml water = 1 mg
Element Equivalent Element Equivalent

weight weight
Ca 2.0 CO3 30
Mg 12.2 HCO3 61
Na 23 SO4 48
Cl 35.4 NO3-N 14
Common conversion units pertaining to water quality
10 ppm Nitrate – Nitrogen = 27 lb/ac-ft of water

= 2.25 lb/ac-in of water

Basic SI units are:

652.1602 Metric conver-
sion units unit metric unit SI unit designation
length meter m
Where metric units are used in this guide, they gener- mass kilogram kg
ally are presented in SI Units (International System of time second s
Units); however, other more common units may be time hour hr
used for ease of use, display, or conversion. Exhibit time day d
16–2 displays commonly used conversion factors temperature degree Celsius °C
relating to irrigation. pressure Pascals Pa
Exhibit 16–2 Units of area, length, weight, volume, pressure, flow, velocity, temperature, yields, and rates
Area
Units m2 ha km2 in2 ft2 acre
1 square meter = 1 .0001 — 1550 10.764 —-

1 hectare = 10,000 1 .01 — 1.1 x 105 2.4711
1 square kilometer = 1.0 x 106 100 1 — 1.1 x 107 247.1
1 square foot = .0929 9.3 x 10–6 —- 144 1 —-
1 acre = 2.6 x 106 .4047 .0040 — 43,560 1
1 square mile = — — 2.6 — — —-
Length
Units mm cm m km in ft mi
1 millimeter = 1 .1 .001 — .0394 .033 —-

1 centimeter = 10 1 .01 — .3937 .0328 —-
1 meter = 1000 10 1 .001 39.37 3.2808 —-
1 kilometer = — — 1000 1 — 3280.8 .6214
1 inch = 25.40 2.54 .0254 — 1 — —-
1 foot = 304.8 30.48 .3048 — 12 1 —-
1 mile = — — 1609.3 1.6093 — 5280 1
1 yard = — — .9 — — — —-

Exhibit 16–2 Units of area, length, weight, volume, pressure, flow, velocity, temperature, yields, and rates—Continued
Weight
Units mg g kg met ton lb ton
1 milligram = 1 .001 — — — —-
1 gram = 1000 1 .001 — —- —-
1 kilogram = — 1,000 1 .001 2.2046 —-
1 metric ton = — — 1,000 1 2,204.6 1.102
1 pound = — 453.6 .4536 — 1 .0005
1 ton = — — 907.18 .9072 2,000 1
Volume
Units L m3 qt gal ft3
1 liter = 1 .001 .9081 .2270 .0358

1 cubic meter = 1,000 1 — 264.2 35.31
1 quart = 1.1012 — 1 .25 .0389
1 gallon = 3.785 — 4 1 .1337
1 cubic foot = 28.316 .02832 25.714 7.48 1
1 acre foot = — 1233 — — 43,560
1 cubic yard = — .80 — — —-
Flow
Units L/s m3 /s gpm ft3/s ac-ft/d mg/d
1 liter per second = 1 .001 15.85 .03531 .004419 —-

1 cubic meter per second = 1,000 1 15,850 35.31 70.04 22.82
1 gallon per minute = .0631 — 1 — — —-
1 cubic foot per second = 28.32 .02832 448.8 1 1.983 .6463
1 acre-foot per day = 14.28 .01428 226.3 .5042 1 .3259
1 million gallons per day = 43.81 .04381 694.4 1.547 3.069 1

Velocity
Units m/s km/h ft/s mph
1 meter per second = 1 3.6 3.281 2.237

1 kilometer per hour = .2778 1 .9113 .6214
1 foot per second = .3048 1.097 1 .6818
1 mile per hour = .447 1.609 1.467 1
Yield and rate
Units kg/ha met ton/ha lb/ac L/ha gal/ac
1 kilogram per hectare = 1 — .893 — —-

1 metric ton per hectare = — 1 893 — —-
1 pound per acre = 1.12 .00112 1 — —-
1 liter per hectare = — — — 1 .107
1 gallon per acre = — — — 9.35 —-
Pressure conversions
1 atmosphere (1 bar) = 100 kilopascal (kPa)

1 foot of water (ft) = 2.9890 "
1 meter of water (m) = 9.8064 "
1 millibar = 0.100 "
1 pound per square foot (lb/ft2) = .04788 " = 47.8 Pascals
1 pound per square inch (lb/in2) = 6.8948 "

Temperature
°C °F °F °C
-10 14 32 0
-5 23 34 1.1
0 32 36 2.2
38 3.3
2 36 40 4.4
4 39
6 43 42 5.6
8 46 44 6.7
10 50 46 7.8
48 8.9
12 54 50 10.0
14 57
16 61 52 11.1
18 64 54 12.2
20 68 56 13.3
58 14.4
22 72 60 15.6
24 75
26 79 62 16.7
28 82 64 17.8
30 86 66 18.9
68 20.0
32 90 70 21.1
34 93
36 97 72 22.2
37 98.6 74 23.3
38 100 76 24.4
40 104 78 25.6
80 26.7
45 113
50 122
55 131 82 27.8
60 140 84 28.9
65 149 86 30.0
70 158 88 31.1
90 32.2
75 167
80 176
85 185 92 33.3
90 194 94 34.4
95 203 96 35.6
100 212 98 36.7
100 37.8

Chapter 17 Part 652
Glossary and References
Chapter 17 Glossary and References
Irrigation Guide
Advance time (1) Time required for a given surface irrigation stream of water to move
from the upper end of a field to the lower end.
(2) Time required for a given surface irrigation stream to move from one
point in the field to another.
Algicide Any substance that will kill or control algae growth.
Alkali soil See sodic soil.
Allowable depletion That part of soil moisture stored in the plant root zone managed for use by
plants, usually expressed as equivalent depth of water in acre inches per
acre, or inches.
Alternate set irrigation A method of managing irrigation whereby, at every other irrigation, alter-
nate furrows are irrigated or sprinklers are placed midway between their
locations during the previous irrigation.
Application efficiency (Ea) The ratio of the average depth of irrigation water infiltrated and stored in
the root zone to the average depth of irrigation water applied, expressed as
a percentage. Also referred to as AE.
Application efficiency low half The ratio of the average of the low one-half of measurements of irrigation
(Eh) water infiltrated and stored in the root zone to the average depth of irriga-
tion water applied, expressed as a percentage. Also called AELH. Used as
an indication for uniformity of application.
Application efficiency low The ratio of the average of the lowest one-fourth of measurements of
quarter (Eq) irrigation water infiltrated to the average depth of irrigation water applied,
expressed as a percentage. Also called AELQ. Used as an indication for
uniformity of application.
Application rate, sprinkler The rate at which water is applied to a given area by a sprinkler system.
application rate Usually expressed in inches per hour.
Application time, set time The amount of time that water is applied to an irrigation set.
Arid climate Climate characterized by low rainfall and high evaporation potential. A
region is usually considered as arid when precipitation averages less than
10 inches (250 mm) per year.
Available soil water The difference between actual water content of a soil and the water held by
that soil at the permanent wilting point.
Available water capacity (AWC) The portion of water in a soil that can be readily absorbed by plant roots of
most crops, expressed in inches per inch, inches per foot, or total inches
for a specific soil depth. It is the amount of water stored in the soil between
field capacity (FC) and permanent wilting point (WP). It is typically ad-
justed for salinity (electrical conductivity) and rock fragment content. Also
called available water holding capacity (AWHC).

Chapter 17 Glossary and References Part 652
Irrigation Guide
Average annual precipitation The long-term or historic (generally 30 years or more) arithmetic mean of
precipitation (rain, snow, dew) received by an area.
Average daily peak use rate Calculated or measured water used by plants in 1 day through evapotrans-
piration, expressed as inches per day.
Backflow prevention device Safety device that prevents the flow of water from the water distribution
system back to the water source.
Basic intake rate Rate at which water percolates into soil after infiltration has decreased to a
nearly constant value.
Basin irrigation Surface irrigation by flooding areas of level land surrounded by dikes.
Generally used interchangeably with level border irrigation. In some areas
level borders have tailwater runoff. If used in high rainfall areas, storm
runoff facilities are necessary.
Blaney-Criddle Method An air temperature based method to estimate crop evapotranspiration.
Border irrigation Surface irrigation by flooding strips of land, rectangular in shape, usually
level perpendicular to the irrigation slope, surrounded by dikes. Water is
applied at a rate sufficient to move it down the strip in a uniform sheet.
Border strips having no down field slope are referred to as level border
systems. Border systems constructed on terraced lands are commonly
referred to as benched borders.
Broad-crested weir Any of a group of thick-crested overspill weirs used for flow measurements
in open channels. Some broad-crested weirs may have flow transitions,
roundings, or plane surface ramps on the upstream side. Thin versions
without transitions approach the behavior of sharp-crested weirs. Thick
versions with transitions approach the behavior of long-throated flumes.
Broad-crested weirs typically operate with very little head loss.
Bubbler irrigation Micro irrigation application of water to flood the soil surface using a small
stream or fountain. The discharge rates for point-source bubbler emitters
are greater than for drip or subsurface emitters, but generally less than 1
gallon per minute (225 L/h). A small basin is usually required to contain or
control the water.
Bulk density Mass of dry soil per unit volume, determined by drying to constant weight
at 105 °C, usually expressed as gm/cc or lb/ft3. Rock fragments 2 mm or
larger are usually excluded or corrected for after measurement.
Cablegation A semiautomatic furrow irrigation system where a gated pipe is used to

deliver water to each furrow. A continuous moving plug is attached to a
speed control device with a small cable. The moving plug allows flow out
of newly passed gates. As the plug moves downstream, the water level
drops in upstream gates thereby shutting off flows.

Irrigation Guide
Capillary water Water held in the capillary, or small pores of the soil, usually with soil
water pressure (tension) greater than 1/3 bar. Capillary water can move in
any direction.
Carryover soil moisture Moisture stored in the soil within the root zone during the winter, at times
when the crop is dormant, or before the crop is planted. This moisture is
available to help meet water needs of the next crop to be grown.
Cation exchange capacity (CEC) The sum of exchangeable cations (usually Ca, Mg, K, Na, Al, H) that the
soil constituent or other material can adsorb at a specific pH, usually
expressed in centimoles of charge per Kg of exchanger (cmol/Kg), or milli
equivalents per 100 grams of soil at neutrality (pH = 7.0), meq/100g.
Check, check structure Structure to control water depth in a canal, lateral, ditch, or irrigated
field.
Chemigation Application of chemicals to crops through an irrigation system by mixing

them with irrigation water.
Christiansen’s uniformity A measure of the uniformity of irrigation water application. The average
coefficient (CU) depth of irrigation water infiltrated minus the average absolute deviation
from this depth, all divided by the average depth infiltrated. Also called
coefficient of uniformity. Typically used with sprinkle irrigation systems.
Cipolletti weir A sharp-crested trapezoidal weir with sides inclining outwardly at a slope
of 1 horizontal to 4 vertical.
Compensating emitter Micro irrigation system emitters designed to discharge water at a near
constant rate over a wide range of lateral line pressures.
Consumptive use See Evapotranspiration and Crop evapotranspiration.
Continuous flushing emitter Micro irrigation system emitters designed to continuously permit passage
of large solid particles while operating at a trickle or drip flow, thus
reducing filtration requirements.
Contracted weir A measuring weir that is shorter than the width of the channel and is
therefore said to have side or end contractions. Sometimes called a sharp-
crested weir.
Control structure Water regulating structure, usually for open channel flow conditions.
Conveyance efficiency (Ec) The ratio of the water delivered to the total water diverted or pumped
into an open channel or pipeline at the upstream end, expressed as a
percentage.
Conveyance loss Loss of water from a channel or pipe during transport, including losses
resulting from seepage, leakage, evaporation, and transpiration by plants
growing in or near the channel.

Irrigation Guide
Corrugation irrigation A surface irrigation system where small ditches, channels, or furrows are
used to guide water downslope. Can be used in combination with graded
border systems to provide more uniform flow down the border strip.
Crop coefficient (Kc) A factor used to modify potential evapotranspiration:

(1) Ratio between crop evapotranspiration (ETc) and the reference crop
(ETo) when crop is grown in large fields under optimum growing
conditions, or ETc = Kc times ETo.
(2) The ratio of the actual crop evapotranspiration to its potential evapo-
transpiration.
Crop evapotranspiration (ETc) The amount of water used by the crop in transpiration and building of plant
tissue, and that evaporated from adjacent soil or intercepted by plant
foliage. It is expressed as depth in inches or as volume in acre inches per
acre. It can be daily, peak, design, monthly, or seasonal. Sometimes re-
ferred to as consumptive use (CU).
Crop growth stages Periods of like plant function during the growing season. Usually four or
more periods are identified:
Initial—Between planting or when growth begins and approximately 10
percent ground cover.
Crop development—Between about 10 percent ground cover and 70 or 80
percent ground cover.
Mid season—From 70 or 80 percent ground cover to beginning of maturity.
Late—From beginning of maturity to harvest.
Crop rooting depth Crop rooting depth is typically taken as the soil depth containing 80
percent of plant roots, measured in feet or inches.
Crop water stress index (CWSI) An index of moisture in a plant compared to a fully watered plant, mea-
sured and calculated by a CWSI instrument. Relative humidity, solar radia-
tion, ambient air temperature, and plant canopy temperature are measured.
Improperly called an infrared thermometer (plant canopy temperature is
measured by infrared aerial photography).
Crop water use Calculated or measured water used by plants, expressed in inches per day.
Same as ETc except it is expressed as daily use only.
Cumulative intake The depth of water absorbed by soil from the time of initial water applica-
tion to the specified elapsed time.
Cutback irrigation The reduction of the furrow or border inflow stream after water has ad-
vanced partly or completely through the field to reduce runoff and improve
uniformity of application.
Cutback stream Reducing surface irrigation inflow stream size (usually a half or a third)
when a specified time period has elapsed or when water has advanced a
designated distance down the furrow, corrugation, or border.

Irrigation Guide
Cutthroat flume Open-channel waterflow measuring device that is part of a group of short-
throated flumes that control discharge by achieving critical flow with
curving streamlines through contraction. The flume is rectangular in cross
section, has two main parts resembling a Parshall Flume with the con-
tracted throat removed or cut out (hence its name), and has a flat floor
throughout. Calibrations depend on laboratory ratings.
Cycle time The length of water application periods, typically used with surge irrigation.
Deep percolation (DP) Water that moves downward through the soil profile below the plant root
zone and is not available for plant use. A major source of ground water
pollution in some areas.
Deficit irrigation An irrigation water management alternative where the soil in the plant root
zone is not refilled to field capacity in all or part of the field.
Delivery box Water control structure for diverting water from a canal to a farm unit
often including a measuring device. Also called delivery site, delivery
facility, and turnout.
Demand irrigation delivery Irrigation water delivery procedure where each irrigator may request
irrigation water in the amount needed and at the time desired.
Depth of irrigation (1) Depth of water applied, measured in acre inches per acre.
(2) Depth of soil affected by an irrigation event.
Distribution uniformity (DU) The measure of the uniformity of irrigation water distribution over a field.
NRCS typically uses DU of low one-quarter. DU of low one-quarter is the
ratio of the average of the lowest one-fourth of measurements of irrigation
water infiltrated to the average depth of irrigation water infiltrated, ex-
pressed as a decimal. Each value measured represents an equal area.
Distribution system A network of open canals or pipelines to distribute irrigation water at a

specific design rate to multiple outlets on a farm or in a community.
Drip irrigation A micro irrigation application system wherein water is applied to the soil
surface as drops or small streams through emitters. Discharge rates are
generally less than 2 gallons per hour (8 L/h) for single outlet emitters and 3
gallons per hour (12 L/h) per meter for line source emitters.
Effective precipitation (Pe) The portion of precipitation that is available to meet crop evapotranspira-
tion. It does not include precipitation that is lost to runoff, deep percola-
tion, or evaporation before the crop can use it.
Effective rooting depth The depth from which roots extract water. The effective rooting depth is
generally the depth from which the crop is currently capable of extracting
soil water. However, it may also be expressed as the depth from which the
crop can extract water when mature or the depth from which a future crop
can extract soil water. Maximum effective root depth depends on the
rooting capability of the plant, soil profile characteristics, and moisture
levels in the soil profile.

Irrigation Guide
Electrical conductivity (EC) A measure of the ability of the soil water to transfer an electrical charge.
Used as an indicator for the estimation of salt concentration, measured in
mmhos/cm (dS/m), at 77 °F (25 °C).
ECe = Electrical conductivity of soil water extract.
ECi = Electrical conductivity of irrigation water.
ECaw = Electrical conductivity of applied water.
Electrical resistance blocks A block made up of various material containing electrical contact wires
that is placed in the soils at selected depths to measure soil moisture con-
tent. Electrical resistance, as affected by moisture in the block, is read with
a meter.
Emitter A small micro irrigation dispensing device designed to dissipate pressure

and discharge a small uniform flow or trickle of water at a constant dis-
charge. Also called a dripper or trickler.
Compensating emitter—Designed to discharge water at a constant rate
over a wide range of lateral line pressures.
Continuous flushing emitter—Designed to continuously permit passage
of small solid particles while operating at a trickle or drip flow, thus reduc-
ing filter fineness requirements.
Flushing emitter—Designed to have a flushing flow of water to clear the
discharge opening every time the system is turned on.
Line-source emitter—Water is discharged from closely spaced perfora-
tions, emitters, or a porous wall along the tubing.
Long-path emitter—Employs a long capillary sized tube or channel to
dissipate pressure.
Multi-outlet emitter—Supplies water to two or more points through
small diameter auxiliary tubing.
Orifice emitter—Employs a series of orifices to dissipate pressure.
Vortex emitter—Employs a vortex effect to dissipate pressure.
Energy gradient, A plotted line relating total energy elevations along an open channel or
energy grade line conduit, typically a pressure pipeline. (See Hydraulic grade line).
Environmental control Controlling air temperature and humidity or soil moisture conditions to
minimize effects of low and high air temperatures on crop quality and
quantity.
Evaporation The physical process by which a liquid is transformed to the gaseous state,
which in irrigation generally is restricted to the change of water from liquid
to vapor. Occurs from plant leaf surface, ground surface, water surface,
and sprinkler spray.
Evaporation Pan (1) A standard U.S. Weather Bureau Class A pan (48-inch diameter by
10-inch deep) used to estimate the reference crop evapotranspiration
rate. Water levels are measured daily in the pan to determine the
amount of evaporation.
(2) A pan or container placed at or about crop canopy height containing
water. Water evaporated from the device is measured and adjusted by
a coefficient to represent estimated crop water use during the period.

Irrigation Guide
Evapotranspiration (ET) The combination of water transpired from vegetation and evaporated from
soil and plant surfaces. Sometimes called consumptive use (CU).
Exchange capacity The total ionic charge of the absorption complex active in the adsorption of
ions. See Cation exchange capacity (CEC).
Exchangeable cation A positively charged ion held on or near the surface of a solid particle by a
negative surface charge of a colloid and which may be replaced by other
positively charged ions in the soil solution.
Exchangeable sodium The fraction of cation exchange capacity of a soil occupied by sodium ions,
percentage (ESP) expressed as a percentage. Exchangeable sodium (meq/100 gram soil)
divided by CEC (meq/100 gram soil) times 100. It is unreliable in soil
containing soluble sodium silicate minerals or large amounts of sodium
chloride.
Exchangeable sodium ratio The ratio of exchangeable sodium to all other exchangeable cations,
(or percentage) expressed as meq/100 grams of soil or as a percentage.
FAO Blaney-Criddle Method A method to calculate grass reference crop evapotranspiration (ETc) based
on long-term air temperature data, estimates for humidity, wind movement
and sunshine duration, and a correction to ETc downward for elevations
above 1,000 meters above sea level.
Feel and appearance method A method to estimate soil moisture by observing and feeling a soil sample
with the hand and fingers. With experience, this method can be accurate.
Field application duration The elapsed time from the beginning of water application to the first
(irrigation period) irrigation set to the time at which water application is terminated on the
last irrigation set of a field.
Field capacity The amount of water retained by a soil after it has been saturated and has
drained freely by gravity. Can be expressed as inches, inches per inch, bars
suction, or percent of total available water.
Field slope, grade The terms field slope and grade are interchangeable. Surface irrigation
designers typically refer to elevation differences in the direction of water
movement as the irrigation grade. Cross slope refers to the land grade
perpendicular to the direction of irrigation.
Final infiltration rate See Basic intake rate.
Float valve A valve, actuated by a float, that automatically controls the flow of water.
Flood irrigation, wild flooding A surface irrigation system where water is applied to the soil surface
without flow controls, such as furrows, borders (including dikes), or
corrugations.
Flume (1) Open conduit for conveying water across obstructions.

(2) An entire canal or lateral elevated above natural ground, or an aqueduct.
(3) A specially calibrated structure for measuring open channel flows.

Irrigation Guide
Flushing emitter A micro irrigation application device designed to have a flushing flow of
water to clear the discharge opening each time the system is turned on.
Foot valve (1) A check valve used on the bottom of the suction pipe to retain the
water in the pump when it is not in operation.
(2) A valve used to prevent backflow.
Free drainage Movement of water by gravitational forces through and below the plant
root zone. This water is unavailable for plant use except while passing
through the soil. (See Deep percolation.)
Frost protection Applying irrigation water to affect air temperature, humidity, and dew point
to protect plant tissue from freezing. The primary source of heat (called
heat of fusion) occurs when water turns to ice, thus protecting sensitive
plant tissue. Wind machines and heating devices are also used.
Full irrigation Management of water applications to fully replace water used by plants
over an entire field.
Fungicide Chemical pesticide that kills fungi or prevents them from causing diseases
on plants.
Furrow (1) A trench or channel in the soil made by a tillage tool.

(2) Small channel for conveying irrigation water downslope across the
field. Sometimes referred to as a rill or corrugation.
Furrow dike Small earth dike formed in a furrow to prevent water translocation.
Typically used with LEPA and LPIC systems. Also used in nonirrigated
fields to capture and infiltrate precipitation. Sometimes called reservoir
tillage.
Furrow irrigation A surface irrigation system where water is supplied to small channels or
furrows to guide water downslope and prevent cross flow. Called rill or
corrugation irrigation in some areas.
Furrow stream The streamflow in a furrow, corrugation, or rill.
Gate, slide gate A device used to control the flow of water to, from, or in a pipeline or open
channel. It may be opened and closed by screw or slide action either manu-
ally or by electric, hydraulic, or pneumatic actuators. In open channels,
gates slide on rails and are used to control drainage or irrigation water.
Gated pipe Portable pipe that has small gates installed at regular intervals along one
side for distributing irrigation water to corrugations, furrows, or borders.
Gravimetric (ovendry) method A method of measuring total soil water content by sampling, weighing, and
drying in a oven at 105 °C. Percent water, usually on a dry weight basis, is
calculated.
Gravitational water Soil water that moves into, through, or out of the soil under the influence of
gravity.

Irrigation Guide
Gross irrigation Water actually applied, which may or may not be total irrigation water
requirement; i.e., leaving storage in the soil for anticipated rainfall, harvest.
Gross irrigation requirement (Fg) The total irrigation requirement including net crop requirement plus any
losses incurred in distributing and applying water and in operating the
system. It is generally expressed as depth of water in acre inches per acre
or inches
Gross irrigation system capacity Ability of an irrigation system to deliver the net required rate and volume of
water necessary to meet crop water needs plus any losses during the appli-
cation process. Crop water needs can include soil moisture storage for
later plant use, leaching of toxic elements from the soil, air temperature
modification, crop quality, and other plant needs.
Ground water Water occurring in the zone of saturation in an aquifer or soil.
Growing season The period, often the frost-free period, during which the climate is such
that crops can be produced.
Gypsum block An electrical resistance block in which the material used to absorb water is
gypsum. It is used to measure soil water content in non-saline soils.
Head ditch Ditch across the upper end of a field used for distributing water in surface
irrigation.
Head gate Water control structure at the entrance to a conduit or canal.
Herbicide A chemical substance designed to kill or inhibit the growth of plants,

especially weeds. Types include:
Contact—A herbicide designed to kill foliage on contact.
Non-selective—A herbicide that destroys or prevents all plant growth.
Post-emergence—A herbicide designed to be applied after a crop is above
the ground.
Pre-emergence—A herbicide designed to be applied before the crop
emerges through the soil surface.
Selective—A herbicide that targets specific plants.
Humid climates Climate characterized by high rainfall and low evaporation potential. A
region generally is considered as humid when precipitation averages more
than 40 inches (1,000 mm) per year.
Hydrant An outlet, usually portable, used for connecting surface irrigation pipe to
an alfalfa valve outlet.
Hydraulic conductivity The ability of a soil to transmit water flow through it by a unit hydraulic
gradient. It is the coefficient k in Darcy’s Law. Darcy’s Law is used to
express flux density (volume of water flowing through a unit cross-sec-
tional area per unit of time). It is usually expressed in length per time
(velocity) units, i.e., cm/s, ft/d. In Darcy’s Law, where V = ki, k is estab-
lished for a gradient of one. Sometimes called permeability.

Irrigation Guide
Hydraulic grade line (HGL) A plotted line relating operational energy elevations along an open channel
or closed conduit. With open channel (non-pressure) flow, the HGL is at
the water surface. The HGL is the elevation water would rise in an open
stand at a given location along a pressure pipeline. (See Energy grade line).
Hydraulic ram Device that uses the energy of flowing water to lift a portion of the flow to
a higher elevation or greater pressure.
Infiltration, infiltration rate The downward flow of water into the soil at the air-soil interface. Water
enters the soil through pores, cracks, wormholes, decayed-root holes, and
cavities introduced by tillage. The rate at which water enters soil is called
intake rate or infiltration rate.
Infiltrometer A device for determining the intake rate of soil.

Ring infiltrometer—Consists of metal rings that are inserted (driven)
into the soil surface and filled with water. The rate at which water enters
the soil is recorded.
Sprinkler infiltrometer—Consists of a sprinkler head(s) that applies
water to the soil surface at a range of rates of less-than to greater-than soil
infiltration rates. Maximum infiltration rates are observed and recorded.
Flowing infiltrometer—Consists of an inlet device to apply a specific
flow rate to a furrow and a collection sump with a pump to return tail
water to the inlet device. Water infiltrated by the soil in the test section
(typically 10 meters) is replaced with water from a reservoir to keep the
flow rate constant. The rate of water infiltrated versus time is observed and
plotted. Accumulated infiltration versus time is also plotted. An equation
(typically for a curvilinear line) then represents the intake characteristics
for that particular soil condition.
Initial intake Depth of water absorbed by a soil during the period of rapid or compara-
tively rapid intake following initial application. Expressed in inches per
hour.
Instantaneous application rate The maximum rate, usually localized, that a sprinkler application device
applies water to the soil, expressed in inches per hour. Instantaneous
application rates of over 30 inches per hour have been measured near the
ends of low pressure center pivot irrigation laterals.
Intake family curve, A set of accumulated intake versus time curves grouped into families
intake characteristic curve having similar border or furrow intake characteristics. Intake family curves
are unitless and do not represent the average infiltration rate. The infiltra-
tion process in borders differs from that in furrows, thus each irrigation
system has a different set of intake family curves.
Intake family A grouping of intake characteristics into families based on field

infiltrometer tests on many soils. Used to analyze and design border and
furrow irrigation systems.
Intake rate The rate at which irrigation water enters the soil at the surface. Expressed
as inches per hour. (See infiltration.)

Irrigation Guide
Interception That part of precipitation or sprinkler irrigation system applied water

caught on the vegetation and prevented from reaching the soil surface.
Inverted siphon A closed conduit with end sections above the middle section; used for
crossing under a depression, under a highway or other obstruction. Some-
times called sag pipe.
Irrecoverable water loss Water loss that becomes unavailable for reuse through evaporation,
phreatophyte transpiration, or ground-water recharge that is not economi-
cally recoverable.
Irrigable area Area capable of being irrigated, principally based on availability of water,
suitable soils, and topography of land.
Irrigating stream (1) Flow for irrigation of a particular tract of land.

(2) Flow of water distributed at a single irrigation. Sometimes called
irrigating head, normally expressed as a rate or volume.
Irrigation Applying water to the land for growing crops, reclaiming soils, temperature
modification, improving crop quality, or other such uses.
Irrigation check (1) Small dike or dam used in the furrow or alongside an irrigation border
to make the water spread evenly across the border.
(2) A plastic or canvas tarp dam placed in a field ditch to raise the water
level in the ditch for diversion onto a field.
Irrigation company A semi-public, private group, or commercial enterprise set up to deliver

irrigation water.
Irrigation district, company A cooperative, self-governing semipublic organization set up as a subdivi-

sion of a state or local government to deliver irrigation water.
Irrigation efficiency (Ei) The ratio of the average depth of irrigation water beneficially used to the
average depth applied, expressed as a percentage. Beneficial uses include
satisfying the soil water deficit, leaching requirement for salinity control,
and meeting other plant needs. Generally used to express overall field or
farm efficiency, or seasonal irrigation efficiency.
Irrigation frequency, interval The time, generally in days, between irrigation events. Usually considered
the maximum allowable time between irrigation’s during the peak ET
period.
Irrigation method One of four irrigation methods used to apply irrigation water: surface,
sprinkle, micro, and subirrigation. One or more irrigation systems can be
used to apply water by each irrigation method.
Irrigation scheduling Determining when to irrigate and how much water to apply, based upon
measurements or estimates of soil moisture or crop water used by the
plant.

Irrigation Guide
Irrigation set The area irrigated at one time within a field.
Irrigation set time, The amount of time required to apply a specific amount of water during
irrigation period one irrigation to a given area, typically refilling the plant root zone to field
capacity minus expected rainfall.
Irrigation slope Elevation difference along the direction of irrigation expressed as, a per-
centage (feet per 100 feet) or foot per foot. Sometimes called irrigation
grade.
Irrigation system Physical components (pumps, pipelines, valves, nozzles, ditches, gates,
siphon tubes, turnout structures) and management used to apply irrigation
water by an irrigation method. All properly designed and managed irriga-
tion systems have the potential to uniformly apply water across a field.
Irrigation water management Managing water resources (precipitation, applied irrigation water,
(IWM) humidity) to optimize water use by the plant. Soil and plant resources
must also be considered.
Irrigation water requirement The calculated amount of water needed to replace soil water used by the
crop (soil water deficit), for leaching undesirable elements through and
below the plant root zone, plus other needs; after considerations are made
for effective precipitation.
Julian day, day of year Sequential numbering of days starting January 1 as day one and continuing
until the end of the year, December 31, as day 365 (leap year day 366).
Kinematic wave A method of mathematical analysis of unsteady open channel flow in which
the dynamic terms are omitted because they are small and assumed to be
negligible.
Land leveling, land grading, Shaping the surface of the soil to planned elevations and grades.
precision land leveling
Laser controlled leveling Land leveling or grading in which a stationary laser transmitter and a laser
or grading receiving unit mounted on each earthmoving machine are used for auto-
mated grade control.
Leaching fraction The ratio of the depth of subsurface drainage water (deep percolation) to
the depth of infiltrated irrigation water. (See Leaching requirement.)
Leaching requirement (1) The amount of irrigation water required to pass through the plant root
zone to reduce the salt concentration in the soil for reclamation
purposes.
(2) The fraction of water from irrigation or rainfall required to pass
through the soil to prevent salt accumulation in the plant root zone
and sustain production. (See Leaching fraction.)
Leaching Removal of soluble material from soil or other permeable material by the
passage of water through it.

Irrigation Guide
Length of run The distance down the furrow, corrugation, or border to the planned end of
irrigation, typically the edge of the field.
Limited irrigation Management of irrigation applications to apply less water than needed to
satisfy the soil water deficit in the entire root zone. Sometimes called
deficit or stress irrigation.
Line-source emitter Water is discharged from closely spaced perforations, emitters, or a porous
wall along a micro irrigation lateral.
Long-path emitter Employs a long capillary sized tube or channel to dissipate pressure and
discharge water in discrete droplets or seeps.
Long throated flume Open-channel flow measuring devices of various cross-sections, having
three to five main sections. Their operation is based on critical flow occur-
ring in a contracted throat, with parallel walls and level floor, that is long
enough to produce nearly parallel flow streamlines. This allows accurate
calibration by computational methods. The name usually refers to devices
with contractions from the channel sides or from both the sides and bot-
tom. Flumes with bottom-only contractions are traditionally referred to as
a type of broad-crested weir, but are hydraulically the same as long-
throated flumes.
Low energy precision A water, soil, and plant management regime where precision down-in-crop
application (LEPA) applications of water are made on the soil surface at the point of use.
Application devices are located in the crop canopy on drop tubes mounted
on low pressure center pivot and linear move sprinkler irrigation systems.
Generally limited to circular plantings on less than 1 percent slopes and no
translocation of applied water. Furrow dikes, good soil condition, and crop
residue are usually required to control water translocation.
Low pressure in canopy (LPIC) A low pressure in-canopy system that may or may not include a complete
water, soil, and plant management regime as required in LEPA. Application
devices are located in the crop canopy with drop tubes mounted on low
pressure center pivot and linear move sprinkler irrigation systems. Limited
water translocation within the field and some minor nonuniformity of
water application usually exists.
Lysimeter An isolated block of soil, usually undisturbed and in situ, for measuring the
quantity, quality, or rate of water movement through or from the soil.
Management allowed The planned soil moisture deficit at the time of irrigation. It can be
depletion (MAD) expressed as the percentage of available soil water capacity or as the
depth of water that has been depleted from the root zone. Sometimes
called allowable soil depletion.
Manufacturer’s coefficient A measure of the variability of discharge of a random sample (of a given
of variation make, model, and size) of micro irrigation emitters, pressure regulators and
sprinkler nozzles, as produced by the manufacturer and before any field
operation or aging has taken place. It is equal to the ratio of the standard
deviation of the discharge to the mean discharge of the emitters.

Irrigation Guide
Matric potential Matric potential is a dynamic soil property and will be near zero for a
saturated soil. Matric potential results from capillary and adsorption
forces. This potential was formerly called capillary potential or capillary
water.
Maximum application rate The maximum discharge, in inches per hour, at which sprinklers can apply
water without causing significant translocation.
Microclimate Atmospheric conditions within or near a crop canopy.
Micro irrigation The frequent application of small quantities of water as drops, tiny streams,
or miniature spray through emitters or applicators placed along a water
delivery line. The micro irrigation method encompasses a number of sys-
tems or concepts, such as bubbler, drip, trickle, line source, mist, or spray.
Mixed-flow pump A centrifugal pump in which the pressure is developed partly by centrifugal
force and partly by the lifting action of the impellers in the water.
Moisture deficit, The difference between actual soil moisture and soil moisture held in the
soil moisture depletion soil at the field capacity.
Moisture stake See Tensiometer
Multi-outlet emitter Supplies water to two or more points through small diameter auxiliary
tubing.
Multi-stage pump A pump having more than one impeller mounted on a single shaft.
Nappe Sheet or curtain of unsubmerged water flowing from a structure, such as a

weir or dam.
Net irrigation The actual amount of applied irrigation water stored in the soil for plant
use or moved through the soil for leaching salts. Also includes water ap-
plied for crop quality and temperature modification; i.e., frost control,
cooling plant foliage and fruit. Application losses, such as evaporation,
runoff, and deep percolation, are not included. Generally measured in
inches of water depth applied.
Net irrigation water requirement The depth of water, exclusive of effective precipitation, stored soil mois-
ture, or ground water, that is required for meeting crop evapotranspiration
for crop production and other related uses. Such uses may include water
required for leaching, frost protection, cooling, and chemigation.
Net positive suction head The head that causes liquid to flow through the suction piping and enter
(NPSH) the eye of the pump impeller. Required NPSH is a function of the pump
design and varies with the capacity and speed of the pump. It must be
supplied by the manufacturer. Available NPSH is a function of the system
in which the pump operates and represents the energy level in the water
over vapor pressure at the pump inlet. The available NPSH must equal or
exceed the required NPSH or cavitation occurs.

Irrigation Guide
Nonpoint source pollution (NPS) Pollution originating from diffuse areas (land surface or atmosphere)
having no well-defined source.
Non-saline sodic soil A soil containing soluble salts that provide an electrical conductivity of the
saturation extract (ECe) less than 4.0 mmhos/cm and an exchangeable
sodium percentage (ESP) greater than 15. Commonly called black alkali or
slick spots.
Nutrient management Managing the application rate and timing of fertilizers to optimize crop use
and reduce potential pollution of ground and surface water.
Neutron gauge, neutron probe, A nondestructive method, used primarily by researchers, to measure in situ
neutron scattering device soil moisture. High speed neutrons are emitted from the radioactive source.
Electronic count of the returning slow speed neutrons (or reflected),
primarily affected by hydrogen atoms in the soil, is calibrated to represent
total soil-water content. When properly calibrated and used, the neutron
moisture gauge is probably the most accurate and repeatable method to
measure soil moisture. The equipment is expensive, data collection is time
consuming, training and licensing for personnel using the gauge and for
storage are required.
Operational spills Planned or emergency spills made along or at the end of an open ditch
(lateral) in a community irrigation water delivery system. Planned spills
include the discharge of administrative or carry through water carried in
laterals, to allow turnouts to be opened and closed without precision
management of lateral flow rates. Emergency spill structures include
overflow structures to discharge precipitation runoff water that has
entered an irrigation water delivery system, and relief gates to discharge
irrigation water in case of ditch or structure failure. Typically planned and
emergency spill structures discharge water into a natural watercourse or
protected channel.
Opportunity time The time that water inundates the soil surface with opportunity to infil-
trate.
Orifice emitter A micro irrigation system application device employing a series of orifices
to dissipate pressure.
Orifice An opening with a closed perimeter through which water flows. Certain
shapes of orifices are calibrated for use in measuring flow rates.
Overhead irrigation See Sprinkler irrigation.
Pan coefficient A factor to relate actual evapotranspiration of a crop to the rate water
evaporates from a free water surface in a shallow pan. The coefficient
usually changes by crop growth stage.

Irrigation Guide
Parshall flume Open-channel water flow measuring devices which are a part of a group of
short-throated flumes that control discharge by achieving critical flow with
curving streamlines in a contracted throat section. The sidewallls of the
throat section are parallel, but the floor slopes downward in the direction
of flow then rises again in a diverging side wall section. Calibrations are
based on laboratory ratings. The flume is used for measuring water flow
rates with very small total head loss (also see venturi flume). Ten critical
edges and surfaces must be met for construction of an accurate Parshall
flume
Peak use rate The maximum rate at which a crop uses water, measured in inches (acre
inches per acre) per unit time; i.e., inches per month, inches per week,
inches per day.
Peak period ET The average daily evapotranspiration rate for a crop during the peak water
use period. Sometimes commonly called peak period CU (consumptive
use).
Penman-Monteith Method A (radiation and advection) method used to estimate reference crop evapo-
transpiration (ETo) using current climatic data including air temperature,
relative humidity, wind speed, and solar radiation.
Percolation Movement of the water through the soil profile. The percolation rate is
governed by the permeability or hydraulic conductivity of the soil. Both
terms are used to describe the ease with which soil transmits water.
Permanent wilting point (PWP) The moisture percentage, on a dry weight basis, at which plants can no
longer obtain sufficient moisture from the soil to satisfy water require-
ments. Plants will not fully recover when water is added to the crop root
zone once permanent wilting point has been experienced. Classically, 15
atmosphere (15 bars) or 1.5 mPa, soil moisture tension is used to estimate
PWP.
Permeability (1) Qualitatively, the ease with which gases, liquids, or plant roots
penetrate or pass through a layer of soil
(2) Quantitatively, the specific soil property designating the rate at which
gases and liquids can flow through the soil or porous media.
Pest management Management to control undesirable plants, animals, fungi, or bacteria that
are troublesome, annoying, or degrading to crop quantity and quality.
Pesticide Any chemical agent used to control specific organisms. Includes insecti-
cides, herbicides, and fungicides.
Phreatophyte transpiration Transpiration from water loving vegetation along streams and water bod-
ies, generally considered a loss for irrigation purposes. Phreatophyte
vegetation may be a highly valuable food source and habitat for fish and
wildlife.

Irrigation Guide
Potential evapotranspiration The maximum evapotranspiration that will occur when water is not
(ETo) limiting. In some methods of computing evapotranspiration, it is mea-
sured as evaporation of water from a free surface. When used as refer-
ence crop evapotranspiration, it is for either well watered short grass or
alfalfa. Care should be used in determining which factors are used. Pre-
ferred term is reference evapotranspiration.
Project efficiency (Ep) The overall efficiency of irrigation water use in a project setting that ac-
counts for all water uses and losses, such as crop ET, environmental control,
salinity control, deep percolation, runoff, ditch and canal leakage, phreato-
phyte use, wetlands use, operational spills, and open water evaporation.
Rainfall management Managing soil, water, and plant resources to optimize use of rainfall
Rectangular weir Typically a sharp crested weir that is rectangular.
Reference crop The evapotranspiration from thick, healthy, well maintained grass (or
evapotranspiration alfalfa) that does not suffer any water stress. The reference crop is used
to represent the water use of a standard crop in that environment even
though that crop may not be physically grown in the area. ETo is gener-
ally used when referring to clipped (2 to 5 inches high) grass as the refer-
ence crop. ETr is used for 8- to 12-inch-high, 2-year-old alfalfa.
Relative humidity The ratio of the amount of water vapor present in the atmosphere to the
amount required for saturation at the same dry bulb temperature.
Replogle flume, ramp flume A modified broad crested weir located in a short flume, lined ditch or
pipeline that causes a drop in the hydraulic grade line, for measuring
water flow rates. With open channel flow, there is one critical surface,
which is level. With closed pipeline flowing full, the same surface can be
oriented in any position parallel to the direction of flow. Very little head
loss is required to accurately measure water flow rate.
Return-flow facilities, A system of ditches, pipelines, pump(s), and reservoirs to collect and
reuse facilities convey surface or subsurface runoff from an irrigated field for reuse.
Sometimes called tailwater reuse facilities or pumpback facilities.
Reverse grade A slope or grade on a field surface, crop row, or channel that slopes in the
direction opposite to the prevalent or desired grade.
Riparian (1) Typically that area of flowing streams that lies between the normal
water line and some defined high water line.
(2) Pertaining to the banks of a body of water; a riparian owner is one
who owns the banks.
(3) A riparian water right is the right to use and control water by virtue
of ownership of the banks.
Root zone Depth of soil that plant roots readily penetrate and in which the predomi-
nant root activity occurs. Preferred term is plant root zone.

Irrigation Guide
Rotational delivery system A management technique used for community irrigation water delivery
systems in which water deliveries are rotated among water users often at a
frequency determined by water supply availability rather than crop water
need. This method of managing water deliveries results in some of the
lowest on-farm irrigation water application efficiencies.
Row grade The slope in the direction of crop rows.
Runoff, runoff loss Surface water leaving a field or farm, resulting from surface irrigation
tailwater, applying water with sprinklers at a rate greater than soil infiltra-
tion and surface storage, overirrigation, and precipitation.
Saline soil A non-sodic soil containing sufficient soluble salts to impair its productivity
for growing most crops. The electrical conductivity (ECe) of the saturation
extract is greater than 4 mmhos/cm, and exchangeable sodium percentage
(ESP) is less than 15; i.e., non-sodic. The principal ions are chloride, sul-
fate, small amounts of bicarbonate, and occasionally some nitrate. Actu-
ally, sensitive plants are affected at half this salinity, and highly tolerant
ones at about twice this salinity.
Saline-sodic soil Soil containing both sufficient soluble salts and exchangeable sodium to
interfere with the growth of most crops. The exchangeable sodium percent-
age (ESP) is greater than or equal to 15, and electrical conductivity of the
saturation extract (ECe) is greater than 4 mmhos/cm. It is difficult to leach
because the clay colloids are dispersed.
Salinity The concentration of dissolved mineral salt in water and soil on a unit
volume or weight basis. May be harmful or nonharmful for the intended use
of the water.
Satiation To fill most voids between soil particles with water.
Saturation To fill all (100%) voids between soil particles with water.
Seepage, seepage loss, leakage 1. Water escaping below or out from water conveyance facilities, such as
open ditches, canals, natural channels, and waterways.
2. Water emerging from the ground along an extensive line or surface as
contrasted with a spring where the water emerges from a localized spot.
Semiarid climate Climate characterized as neither entirely arid nor humid, but intermediate
between the two conditions. A region is usually considered as semiarid
when precipitation averages between 10 inches (250 mm) and 20 inches
(500 mm) per year.
SI units, An international metric system developed by General Conference on

International System of Units Weights and Measures, CGPM. This system provides for an established
single unit that applies for each physical quantity. Units for all other me-
chanical quantities are derived from these basic units. See chapter 16 for
complete definitions and conversions for English to metric and metric to
English units.

Irrigation Guide
Siphon A closed conduit used to convey water across localized minor elevation
raises in grade. It generally has end sections below the middle section. A
vacuum pump is commonly used to remove air and keep the siphon
primed. The upstream end must be under the water surface. Both ends
must be under water, or the lower end must be closed to prime the siphon.
Siphon tube Relatively short, light-weight, curved tube used to convey water over
ditchbanks to irrigate furrows or borders. The tube is typically between 1
and 4 inches in diameter 4 to 6 feet long.
Slide gate See Gate.
Sodic soil A non-saline soil containing sufficient exchangeable sodium to affect crop
production and soil structure (including soil intake) under most conditions of
soil and plant growth. The lower limit of the saturation extract exchangeable
sodium percentage (ESP) of such soils is conventionally set at 15.
Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) A relation between soluble sodium and soluble divalent cations that can be
used to predict the exchangeable sodium percentage of soil equilibrated
with a given solution. It is defined as follows:
Na
SAR = 1
 Ca + Mg  2
 
 2 
where: Na is sodium, Ca is calcium, and Mg is magnesium. Concentrations,
denoted by parentheses, are expressed in moles per liter.
Sodium adsorption ratio, The sodium adsorption ratio of a water adjusted for the precipitation or
adjusted dissolution of Ca2+ and Mg2+ that is expected to occur where a water reacts
with alkaline earth carbonates within a soil. Numerically, it is obtained by
multiplying the sodium adsorption ratio by the value (1 + 8.4 - pHc*), where
pHc is the theoretical calculation of the pH of water in contact with lime
and in equilibrium with soil CO2.
Soil aeration Process by which air and other gases enter the soil or are exchanged.
Soil crusting Compaction of the soil surface by droplet impact from sprinkle irrigation
and precipitation. Well graded, medium textured, low organic matter soils
tend to crust more readily than other soils.
Soil compaction Consolidation, increase in bulk density, reduction in porosity, and collapse
of the soil structure when subjected to surface loads or the downward and
shearing action of tillage implement surfaces.
Soil condition The physical condition of the soil related to farmability, tillage, crop
growth, root development, water movement, water intake, structure, or-
ganic matter content, fertility, and biological activity.
Soil density Same as Bulk density.

Irrigation Guide
Soil horizon A layer of soil differing from adjacent genetically related layers in physical,
chemical, and biological properties or characteristics.
Soil moisture tension See Soil water tension.
Soil organic matter Organic fraction of the soil, including plant and animal residue in various
stages of decomposition, cells and tissues of soil organisms, and sub-
stances synthesized by the soil population.
Soil profile Vertical section of the soil from the surface through all its horizons.
Soil sealing The orientation and consolidation of soil particles in the intermediate
surface layer of soil so that it becomes almost impermeable to water.
Soil series The lowest category of U.S. System of soil taxonomy. A conceptualized
class of soil bodies having similar characteristics and arrangement in the
soil profile.
Soil structure The combination or arrangement of primary soil particles into secondary
particles, units, or peds that make up the soil mass. These secondary units
may be arranged in the soil profile in such a manner as to give a distinctive
characteristic pattern. Principal types of soil structure are platy, prismatic,
columnar, blocky, granular, and massive.
Soil texture Classification of soil by the relative proportions of sand, silt, and clay
present in the soil. USDA uses 12 textural classes.
Soil water, soil moisture All water stored in the soil. See Water holding capacity.
Soil-water content The water content of a given volume of soil. It is determined by: gravimet-
ric sampling and oven drying field samples (to a standard 105 °C), neutron
moisture probes, time domain (TDR) and frequency domain reflectrometry
(FDR) devices commonly called RF capacitance probes, tensiometers,
electrical resistance blocks, thermal dissipation blocks, and feel and ap-
pearance methods.
Soil-water deficit or depletion Amount of water required to raise the soil-water content of the crop root
zone to field capacity. It is measured in inches of water.
Soil-water potential Expresses the potential energy status of soil water relative to conditions
associated with pure, free water. Total soil-water potential consists of
osmotic potential, gravitational potential, and matric potential. See Soil-
water tension and Matric potential.
Soil-water tension A measure of the tenacity with which water is retained in the soil. It is the
force per unit area that must be exerted to remove water from the soil and
is usually measured in bars, or atmospheres. It is a measure of the effort
required by plant roots to extract water from the soil. Measurements are
made using a tensiometer in the field (limited to 1 atmos) and a pressure
plate apparatus in the laboratory.

Irrigation Guide
Solar radiation (Rs) Radiation from the sun that passes through the atmosphere and reaches
the combined crop and soil surface. The energy is generally in a waveband
width of 0.1 to 5 microns. Net Rs is incoming minus reflected radiation from
a surface.
Spile A conduit made of lath, pipe, or hose placed through ditchbanks to transfer
water from an irrigation ditch to a field.
Spray irrigation The application of water by a small spray or mist to the soil surface where
travel through the air becomes instrumental in the distribution of water.
(used with sprinkler and micro irrigation methods).
Sprinkler distribution pattern Water depth-distance relationship measured from a single sprinkler head.
Sprinkler head A nozzle or device, which may or may not rotate, for distributing water
under pressure through the air. Water is delivered to sprinkler heads by a
system of pressurized pipelines.
Sprinkle irrigation Method of irrigation in which water is sprayed or sprinkled through the air
to plant or ground surface. See Sprinkler irrigation system.
Sprinkler irrigation system Facility used to distribute water by the sprinkle irrigation method. Sprin-
kler systems are defined in the following general categories:
Periodic-move system—A system of laterals, sprinkler heads (gun types),
or booms that are moved between irrigation settings. They remain station-
ary while applying water.
Fixed/solid-set system—A system of portable surface or permanently
buried laterals totally covering the irrigated area or field. Typically several
adjacent laterals or heads are operated at one time. Portable laterals are
typically removed from the field at end of germination, plant establishment,
or the irrigation season and are replaced the next irrigation season.
Continuous/self-move system—A lateral, sprinkler (traveler), or boom
that is continuous or self moving while water is being applied. Power for
moving the facility is typically provided by electric or hydraulic (water)
motors or small diesel engines.
Specific types of sprinkler systems under each general category include:

Boom—An elevated, cantilevered boom with sprinklers mounted on a
central stand. The sprinkler-nozzle trajectory back pressure rotates the
boom about a central pivot, which is towed across the field by a cable
attached to a winch or tractor. Can be either periodic move or continuous
move type system.
Center pivot—An automated irrigation system consisting of a sprinkler
lateral rotating about a pivot point and supported by a number of self-
propelled towers. Water is supplied at the pivot point and flows outward
through the pipeline supplying the individual sprinklers or spray heads. A
continuous/self-move type system.
Corner pivot—An additional span or other equipment attached to the end
of a center pivot irrigation system that allows the overall radius to increase
or decrease in relation to field boundaries.

Irrigation Guide
Gun type—A single sprinkler head with large diameter nozzles, supported
on skids or wheels. Periodically moved by hand or mechanically with a
tractor, cable, or water supply hose. When the travel lane (or path) has
been irrigated, the sprinkler head is relocated at the far end of the next
travel lane and irrigation continues.
Lateral move, linear move—An automated irrigation machine consisting
of a sprinkler line supported by a number of self-propelled towers. The
entire unit moves in a generally straight path perpendicular to the lateral
and irrigates a basically rectangular area. A continuous/self move type
system.
Linear move—See Lateral move.
Portable handmove—Sprinkler system moved to the next irrigation set
by uncoupling and picking up the pipes manually, requiring no special
tools. A periodic move type system.
Side-move sprinkler—A sprinkler system with the supply pipe supported
on carriages and towing small diameter trailing pipelines each fitted with
several sprinkler heads. A periodic move type system.
Side-roll (wheel line) sprinkler—The supply pipe is usually mounted on
wheels with the pipe as the axle and where the system is moved across the
field by rotating the pipeline by engine power. A periodic move type system.
Solid-set, fixed-set—System that covers the complete field with pipes
and sprinklers in such a manner that all of the field can be irrigated without
moving any of the system. Laterals may be permanently buried or portable.
Towed sprinkler—System where lateral lines are mounted on wheels,
sleds, or skids and are pulled or towed in a direction approximately parallel
to the lateral. Rollers or wheels are secured in the ground near the main
water supply line to force an offset in the tow path equal to half the dis-
tance the lateral would have been moved by hand. A periodic move type
system.
Traveler—A single large, gun type sprinkler head with a large diameter
nozzle mounted on a unit that is continuously moved across the field by
supply hose or cable. The hose reel may be mounted with the sprinkler
head on a trailer or on a separate trailer secured at the water supply main
line, which is typically located at or near the center of the field. Sometimes
called traveling gun or hosepull.
Static head The potential energy resulting from elevation differences. (See Head.)
Stilling well Pipe, chamber, or compartment having closed sides and bottom except for
a comparatively small inlet connected to a main body of water. It buffers
waves or surges while permitting the water level within the well to rise and
fall with major fluctuations of the main water body. Used with water mea-
suring devices to improve accuracy of measurement.
Stress irrigation Management of irrigation water to apply less than enough water to satisfy
the soil-water deficiency in the entire root zone. Preferred term is limited
irrigation or deficit irrigation.

Irrigation Guide
Subhumid climate Climate characterized by moderate rainfall and moderate to high evapora-
tion potential. A region is usually considered subhumid when precipitation
averages more than 20 inches (500 mm) per year, but less than 40 inches
(1,000 mm) per year.
Subirrigation Applying irrigation water below the ground surface either by raising the
water table or by using a buried perforated or porous pipe system that
discharges water directly into the plant root zone. Primary source of water
for plant growth is provided by capillary rise of soil water above the water
table (up flux) or capillary water movement away from the line source.
Surface irrigation Broad class of irrigation systems in which water is distributed over the soil
surface by gravity flow (preferred term is surface irrigation method).
Surge irrigation A surface irrigation technique wherein flow is applied (typically to furrows
or less commonly borders) intermittently during a single irrigation set.
Tailwater runoff Surface irrigation system water leaving a field or farm from the down-
stream end of a graded furrow, corrugation, border. Best surface irrigation
distribution uniformity across the field is obtained with 30 to 50 percent
tailwater runoff, unless tailwater reuse facilities are used.
Tensiometer Instrument, consisting of a porous cup filled with water and connected to a
manometer or vacuum gauge, used for measuring the soil-water matric
potential.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) The total dissolved mineral constituents of water.
Total dynamic head Head required to pump water from its source to the point of discharge.
Equal to the static lift plus friction head losses in pipes and fittings plus
velocity head.
Total suction head Head required to lift water from a water source to the centerline of the
pump impeller plus velocity head, entrance losses, and friction losses in
suction pipeline.
Translocation Movement of water to other area(s) than where it was applied.
Transpiration The process of plant water uptake and use, beginning with absorption
through the roots and ending with transpiration at the leaf surfaces. See
Evapotranspiration.
Trapezoidal flume A calibrated open-channel structure with sidewalls inclined to the horizon-
tal, used to measure flow of water. Measurement is based on the principle
of critical flow at a critical section.
Trapezoidal weir A sharp-crested weir of trapezoidal-shape.
Triangular weir A sharp-crested V-notch weir. Most common is 90 degree V-notch, but it
can be any angle.

Irrigation Guide
Trickle irrigation A micro irrigation system (low pressure and low volume) wherein water is
applied to the soil surface as drops or small streams through emitters.
Preferred term is Drip irrigation.
Turnout See Delivery box.
Unavailable soil water That portion of water in a soil held so tightly by adhesion and other soil
forces that it cannot be absorbed by plants rapidly enough to sustain
growth without permanent damage. The soil water remaining at the perma-
nent wilting point of plants.
Valve A device to control flow that includes:

Pressurized system:
Air relief valve—Device that releases air from a pipeline automatically
without permitting loss of water.
Air vacuum, air relief valve—Device that releases air from a pipeline
automatically without permitting loss of water or admits air auto-
matically if the internal pressure becomes less than atmospheric.
Backflow prevention valve—A check valve that allows flow in one
direction. When closed, air is admitted to the low pressure (supply)
side to prevent siphoning or backflow of water and chemicals to a
water source.
Ball valve—A valve in a pipeline used to start or stop flow by rotating
a sealed ball with a transverse hole approximately equal to the
diameter of the pipeline. Ball rotation is typically 90 degrees for
single-port control. With hole modifications, several outlets may be
controlled. In this case, only partial rotation of the handle may be
used. Ball valves should be opened and closed slowly to avoid high
surge pressures. Headloss through a ball valve is very low.
Butterfly valve—A valve in a pipeline to start or stop flow by rotating a
disk 90 degrees. The disk is about the same diameter as the pipeline.
Butterfly valves should be opened and closed slowly to avoid high
surge pressures (water hammer). Headloss through a butterfly valve
is low.
Check valve—Valve used in a pipeline to allow flow in only one direction.
Drain valve—(a) Automatic has spring-loaded valve that automatically
opens and drains the line when the pressure drops to near zero.
(b) Flushing type has a valve on the end of a line to flush out dirt and
debris. This may be incorporated into an end plug or end cap.
Float valve—A valve, actuated by a float, that automatically controls the
flow of water.
Gate valve—A valve in a pipeline used to start or stop water flow. May
be operated by hand with or with out mechanical assistance or by
high or low voltage (solenoid) electric controlled mechanical assis-
tance. Gate valves consist of seated slide or gates operating perpen-
dicular to the flow of water. Head loss through a gate valve is typi-
cally less than a globe valve, but more than a ball or butterfly valve.
Globe valve—A valve in a pipeline used to start or stop water flow.
Globe valves stop flow by positioning a disk and gasket over a
machined seat about the same diameter as the pipe. Globe valves are
limited to smaller sizes because of the high velocities and very high
head loss through the valve.
Irrigation Guide
Pressure relief valve—A spring loaded valve set to open at a pressure

slightly above the operating pressure, used to relieve excessive
pressure and surges.
Solenoid valve—A misused term meaning a low voltage electrically
controlled, mechanically actuated valve; typically a gate valve. Often
a spring is used to hold the valve in a closed (or open) position when
water pressure is low or electric energy is discontinued. (When
ignition electric energy for an internal combustion engine or electric
energy to a motor is discontinued, a spring closes the valve.)
Vacuum relief valve—Valve used to prevent a vacuum in pipelines and
avoid collapsing of thin-wall pipe.
Non-pressure or very low pressure system:

Alfalfa valve—An outlet valve attached to the top of a short vertical pipe
(riser) with an opening equal in diameter to the inside diameter of the
riser pipe and a adjustable lid or cover to control water flow. A ring
around the outside of the valve frame provides a seat and seal for a
portable hydrant. Typically used in border or basin irrigation.
Orchard valve—An outlet valve installed inside a short vertical pipe
(riser) with an adjustable cover or lid for flow control. Similar to an
alfalfa valve, but with lower flow capacity. Typically used in basin
irrigation.
Surge valve—A device in a pipe T fitting to provide flow in alternate
directions at timed intervals. Used in surge irrigation.
Velocity head The energy head (H) created by water movement. The difference in eleva-
tion between the hydraulic grade line (HGL) and energy grade line (EGL).
Described as H = V2/2g, where g = 32.2 ft/s/s (acceleration of gravity).
Venturi flume Flow measuring device with a contracted throat that causes a drop in the
hydraulic grade line as well as an increase in velocity. Used for both open-
channel and closed pipe flow measurement.
Vortex emitter A micro irrigation water application device that employs a vortex effect to
dissipate pressure.
Water amendment (1) Fertilizer, herbicide, insecticide, or other material added to water for
the enhancement of crop production.
(2) A chemical water treatment to reduce drip irrigation system emitter
clogging.
Water conveyance efficiency Ratio of the volume of irrigation water delivered by a distribution system to
the water introduced into the system.
Water holding capacity Total amount of water held in the soil per increment of depth. It is the
amount of water held between field capacity (FC) and oven dry moisture
level, expressed in inch per inch, inch per foot, or total inches for a specific
soil depth. Soils that are not freely drained because they have impermeable
layers can have temporary saturated conditions just above the imperme-
able layers. This can temproarily increase water holding capacity. Some-
times called Total water holding capacity. See Available water capacity.

Irrigation Guide
Water leveling A method of landgrading wherein fields are divided into segments and
flooded, and the highs are removed until all soil is beneath the water sur-
face. Typically used with rice production.
Water rights State administered legal rights to use water supplies derived from common
law, court decisions, or statutory enactments.
Water spreading Application of water to lands for the purpose of storing it as ground water
for subsequent withdrawal, or
A specialized form of surface irrigation accomplished by diverting water
runoff from natural channels or water courses and spreading the flow over
relatively level areas for soil storage or plant use. Typically does not supply
full irrigation needs as they operate only when there is surface runoff from
rainfall or snow melt events.
Water table control Controlling the water table elevation by pumping water into or discharging
water from a planned subsurface irrigation or drainage system. The water
table is maintained at a nearly constant elevation for each stage of plant
growth and maturity.
Water table The upper surface of a saturated zone below the soil surface where the
water is at atmospheric pressure.
Weirs Any of a group of flow measuring devices for open-channel flow. Weirs can
be either sharp-crested or broad-crested. Flow opening may be rectangular,
triangular, trapezoidal (cipolletti), or specially shaped to make the dis-
charge linear with flow depth (sutro weir). Calibration is based on labora-
tory ratings.
Wilting point See Permanent wilting point.
Wind movement, daily wind run, Used to calculate reference crop evapotranspiration, usually expressed as
wind speed wind run (average velocity, mph times time in hr/d).

Irrigation Guide
Merriam, John L., and Jack Keller. 1978. Farm irriga-

References tion system evaluation: A guide for management.
Agric. & Irrig. Eng. Dep., Utah State Univ., Logan,
UT.
American Association for Vocational Instructional
Materials (AAVIM). 1980. Planning for an irriga- Soil Conservation Society of America. 1982. Resource
tion system. 2nd edition. conservation glossary. 3rd ed.
American Society of Agricultural Engineers. 1990. United States Department of Agriculture, Natural
Management of farm irrigation systems. ASAE Resources Conservation Service. Engineering
Monograph, G.J. Hoffman, T.A. Howell, K.H. Field Handbook (EFH).
Solomon, editors.
United States Department of Agriculture, Natural
American Society of Agricultural Engineers. 1993-94. Resources Conservation Service. National Engi-
Irrigation related definitions of irrigation effi- neering Handbook (NEH), Part 623 (Section 15),
ciency and distribution uniformity. Irrigation & Irrigation, chapters 1-9, 11, 12; Part 634 (Section
Drainage Task Committee. 5), Hydraulics; Part 624 (Section 16), Drainage;
Part 638 (Section 18), Hydrogeology.
American Society of Agricultural Engineers. Design
and operation of farm irrigation systems. ASAE United States Department of Agriculture, Natural
Monograph Number 3, M.E. Jensen, editor. Resources Conservation Service. Technical
Release TR-21, Irrigation Water Requirements
American Society of Agricultural Engineers. Soil and (Rev. Sep. 1970). In NEH, Part 623, Chapter 2,
water engineering terminology. Standard: ASAE Irrigation Water Requirements.
S526.
United States Department of Interior, Bureau of Recla-
American Society of Civil Engineers. 1990. Agricultural mation. 1971 (rev. 1995). Water Measurement
salinity assessment and management. Manuals & Manual. 2nd ed.
Reports on Engineering Practice, No. 71.
University of Nebraska. 1985. Irrigation pumping plant
American Society of Civil Engineers. 1990. Evapotrans- test procedure manual. Agricultural Engineering
piration and irrigation water requirements. Department, Ext. Serv., Univ. Nebraska, Lincoln.
Manuals & Reports on Engineering Practice, No.
70. University of Nebraska, Agricultural Engineering
Irrigation Group, Paul E. Fishbach (Ed). 1982.
Council for Agricultural Science and Technology Irrigation pumping plant performance handbook.
(CAST). 1988. Effective use of water in irrigated Agricultural Engineering Department, Ext. Serv.,
agriculture. Report 113, Ames, IA. Univ. Nebraska, Lincoln.
Council for Agricultural Science and Technology Western Area Power Administration Conservation and
(CAST). 1992. Water quality, agriculture’s role. Renewable Energy Program. 1985. Revised
Report 120, Ames, IA. irrigation pumping plant test procedure manual.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United

Nations, Rome. FAO irrigation and drainage
papers. Paper 24, Crop Water Requirements;
Paper 29, Water Quality for Agriculture; Paper
33, Crop Yield Response to Water; Paper 45,
Guidelines for Designing and Evaluating Surface
Irrigation Systems.

Index Part 652
Index Irrigation Guide
A Available water capacity 1–4, Continuous move 6–43, 6–52,

2–1, 2–2, 2–3, 2–4, 2–5, 9–41, 9–42, 9–152, 9–146,
Advance curve 9–38, 9–66, 2–6, 2–7, 2–8, 2–10, 2–16, 9–147, 9–148, 9–149, 9–150,
9–67, 9–102 2–28, 2–34, 2–37, 4–7, 6–6, 9–151, 9–152, 9–155, 9–156,
Advance rate 6–1, 6–2, 6–11, 7–7 6–8, 6–9, 6–11, 6–35, 6–45, 9–157, 9–158, 9–159, 9–160,
Allowable depletion 1–4, 3–7, 6–50, 6–51, 7–1, 8–1, 8–6, 9–161, 9–162, 9–189, 9–190,
3–12, 3–24, 4–7, 6–35, 9–2, 9–1, 9–2, 9–4, 9–5, 9–6, 9–204, 9–231, 9–232, 10–10
9–6, 9–66, 9–132, 9–164 9–8, 9–20, 9–26, 9–228, Contour ditch irrigation 5–12,
Application depth 9–34, 9–36, 10–5, 10–27 6–22, 6–23, 6–24, 6–90,
9–38, 9–42, 9–64, 9–65, Axial flow pump 7–6, 7–12 7–4, 9–103, 9–104, 9–106,
9–79, 9–99, 9–116, 9–120, 9–107, 9–108, 9–109, 9–110,
9–134, 9–136, 9–137, 9–152, 9–111, 9–112, 9–113, 9–115,
9–154, 9–169, 9–186 B 9–116, 9–117, 9–118, 10–10
Application efficiency 4–4, 6–7, Contour levee irrigation 5–12,
6–12, 6–13, 6–14, 6–15, Backflow 7–21, 7–25, 7–34
Basin bubbler 3–15, 6–2, 6–59, 6–5, 6–7, 6–8, 7–4
6–20, 6–27, 6–32, 6–33, Conveyance 1–2, 7–2, 7–3,
6–58, 6–78, 7–11, 7–18, 6–63, 6–70, 6–74, 6–91, 10–10
Basin irrigation 2–18, 2–39, 7–5, 8–4, 8–7, 8–8, 8–9,
8–11, 9–26, 9–30, 9–31, 8–10, 8–11, 8–13, 8–17,
9–32, 9–36, 9–37, 9–65, 3–16, 10–10
Benefit analysis 8–12, 11–2, 8–18, 8–19, 8–20, 8–25, 10–10
9–66, 9–69, 9–79, 9–80, Conveyance efficiency 7–5, 9–31
9–100, 9–101, 9–103, 9–116, 11–12, 11–17, 11–27
Big gun type 6–54, 9–42, 10–10 Cost analysis 6–55, 7–17, 8–13,
9–130, 9–131, 9–148, 9–149, 8–19, 11–4, 11–11, 11–14,
9–150, 9–160, 9–161, 9–170, Blaney-Criddle 4–2, 4–4, 4–5,
4–13 11–27, 11–28
9–171, 10–6, 11–3, 11–16, Crop coefficient 4–2
11–18 Bubbler 3–15, 5–2, 5–5, 5–10,
Crop evapotranspiration 1–4,
Application efficiency low half 6–2, 6–59, 6–63, 6–70,
3–12, 3–13, 3–23, 4–1, 4–2,
9–31 6–74, 6–91, 10–10, 10–12
4–3, 4–4, 4–5, 4–6, 4–7,
Application efficiency low quar- Bulk density 2–1, 2–4, 2–5,
4–8, 4–13, 6–8, 6–31, 6–35,
ter 9–31 2–16, 2–23, 2–28, 3–10,
8–3, 8–6, 8–11, 9–2, 9–19,
Application rate 1–2, 1–4, 9–4, 9–5, 9–6, 9–10, 9–12,
9–17, 9–18, 9–19 9–21, 9–26, 10–6, 10–11,
2–20, 2–21, 2–22, 2–25, 10–14, 11–17
2–29, 2–38, 3–16, 5–4, 6–1, C Crop growth stage 3–7, 3–18,
6–25, 6–28, 6–29, 6–33, 3–24, 4–2, 9–21
6–42, 6–45, 6–47, 6–48, Carryover soil moisture 11–17 Crop water use 3–14, 3–18,
6–49, 6–50, 6–51, 6–54, Catch container 9–33, 9–34, 4–1, 6–1, 6–21, 6–45, 7–1,
6–56, 6–63, 6–79, 7–24, 9–35, 9–41, 9–42, 9–43, 9–2, 9–22, 9–23, 9–25,
9–1, 9–41, 9–42, 9–133, 9–119, 9–120, 9–122, 9–134, 9–26, 9–28, 10–11
9–137, 9–146, 9–149, 9–152, 9–135, 9–136, 9–137, 9–147, Cumulative intake 2–17, 9–57,
9–160, 9–185, 9–186, 9–189, 9–149, 9–152, 9–153, 9–154, 9–60, 9–65, 9–66, 9–77,
9–190, 9–203, 9–204, 9–205, 9–160, 9–164, 9–190, 9–203, 9–98, 9–99, 9–102, 9–113,
9–227, 10–12, 11–17 9–204, 9–205 9–115, 9–229, 9–189, 9–199
Arid climate 4–4, 4–6, 4–13 Centrifugal pump 6–52, 6–53, Cutback irrigation 6–15, 6–18,
Automation 1–1, 1–5, 5–7, 7–12, 9–184 6–20, 9–38
5–8, 5–9, 5–10, 5–11, 6–5, Checkbook method 9–25, 9–26 Cycle time 6–12, 9–25
6–7, 6–8, 6–9, 6–14, 6–75, Chemigation 1–1, 1–2, 4–1, Cylinder infiltrometer 9–45,
6–77, 7–2, 7–15, 7–16, 4–7, 5–2, 6–34, 6–44, 6–50, 9–46, 9–47, 9–57, 9–61,
7–33, 8–4, 8–8, 8–9, 9–196, 6–52, 7–21, 7–22, 7–25, 9–68, 9–69, 9–103, 9–114,
9–205, 9–214, 9–227, 10–12 7–33, 8–18, 9–33, 9–119, 9–188, 9–190, 9–191, 9–192,
Auxiliary water 4–3, 4–7, 4–13, 9–223, 11–17 9–193, 9–195, 9–196, 9–229,
8–6, 8–10, 9–188, 9–190 Consumptive use 4–1, 4–3, 9–171 9–230
(210-vi-NEH, September 1997) I–1

Index Part 652
Irrigation Guide
D Electrical resistance 9–16, Filtration 6–8, 6–10, 6–11,

9–17, 9–41 6–13, 6–14, 6–15, 6–18,
Deep percolation 1–2, 1–5, Emitter device 6–59, 6–61, 6–27, 6–48, 6–49, 6–50,
2–17, 3–13, 4–3, 4–4, 4–8, 6–62, 6–66, 6–74, 6–75, 6–51, 6–52, 6–59, 6–62,
4–9, 4–10, 5–4, 6–2, 6–5, 6–76, 6–91, 9–43, 10–13 6–63, 6–65, 6–70, 6–72,
6–7, 6–8, 6–9, 6–11, 6–13, Emitter plugging 5–4, 9–206 6–73, 6–74
6–14, 6–15, 6–18, 6–25, Energy conservation 1–4 Fixed set irrigation 5–2, 5–4,
6–27, 6–50, 6–65, 6–75, Environmental impact 8–2, 5–5, 5–8, 9–122, 9–123,
7–18, 7–19, 7–21, 8–6, 8–8, 8–12, 10–3 9–204, 10–10
8–10, 8–11, 8–19, 9–25, Erosion control 1–1, 4–7, 6–6, Flow measurement 6–21, 7–7,
9–26, 9–28, 9–31, 9–38, 6–25, 6–89, 7–16, 7–18 7–8, 7–9, 7–10, 9–1, 9–4,
9–62, 9–64, 9–79, 9–100, Evaporation 3–12, 3–13, 3–14, 9–83, 9–120, 9–135, 9–206,
9–102, 9–116, 9–130, 9–148, 3–17, 3–18, 4–2, 4–3, 4–4, 9–210, 9–213, 9–214, 9–215,
9–149, 9–164, 10–10, 4–9, 5–3, 5–4, 6–2, 6–6, 9–219, 9–220, 9–221, 9–222,
10–11, 10–12 6–7, 6–22, 6–27, 6–45, 9–228, 10–12, 10–13
Deficit irrigation 6–12, 9–3, 7–19 6–48, 6–49, 6–50, 6–51, Flow meter 6–77, 7–10, 9–36,
Delivery rate 8–5, 8–8, 9–3 6–52, 6–65, 7–2, 7–12, 9–37, 9–120, 9–134, 9–135,
Delivery schedule 1–4, 4–4, 7–18, 8–10, 8–17, 9–6, 9–147, 9–153, 9–160, 9–174,
5–3, 5–7, 5–8, 5–9, 5–10, 9–21, 9–26, 9–31, 9–42, 9–181, 9–208, 9–209, 9–210,
5–11, 6–77, 8–5, 8–7, 8–8, 9–120, 9–122, 9–129, 9–130, 9–213, 9–214, 9–217, 9–218,
8–25, 9–1, 9–3, 9–4, 9–23, 9–135, 9–136, 9–148, 9–149, 9–219, 9–220, 9–221, 9–222,
9–33, 10–6 9–153, 9–154, 9–163, 9–170, 9–228
Demand delivery 3–14, 6–75 9–171, 10–11 Flow regulator 6–34, 6–47,
Distribution uniformity 1–5, Evaporation pan 4–2, 9–21 6–48, 6–77, 9–132
3–13, 5–1, 5–4, 6–1, 6–5, Evapotranspiration 1–4, 2–1, Freeze protection 9–21
6–6, 6–9, 6–11, 6–13, 6–14, 3–2, 3–12, 3–13, 3–23, 4–1, Frost protection 1–1, 3–16,
6–15, 6–18, 6–20, 6–22, 4–2, 4–3, 4–4, 4–5, 4–6, 4–1, 4–7, 5–3, 6–1, 6–42,
6–29, 6–31, 6–32, 6–35, 4–7, 4–8, 4–13, 6–1, 6–8, 8–2, 8–18, 11–17
6–42, 6–44, 6–45, 6–50, 6–31, 6–35, 6–75, 6–78,
6–56, 6–58, 6–65, 9–31, 8–3, 8–6, 8–11, 8–17, 9–2,
9–32, 9–35, 9–36, 9–38, 9–19, 9–21, 9–26, 9–28, G
9–64, 9–67, 9–69, 9–79, 9–164, 9–170, 10–6, 10–11,
9–100, 9–103, 9–116, 9–129, Graded border irrigation 5–5,
10–14, 11–16, 11–17 6–2, 6–5, 6–8, 7–16, 9–45,
9–133, 9–148, 9–186, 9–199 Exchangeable sodium percentage
Distribution uniformity low 9–65, 9–188, 10–10
(ESP) 2–31 Graded furrow irrigation 5–5,
quarter 9–148
Drainage system 3–17, 3–18, 6–8, 6–10, 6–11, 6–12,
6–6, 6–82, 6–83, 7–2, 7–18, F 6–13, 6–14, 6–18, 6–20,
7–19, 7–33, 9–82, 9–83, 7–16, 9–82, 9–85, 9–188, 10–10
9–210, 10–5, 10–7, 10–10 FAO Blaney-Criddle 4–4, 4–5, Gravitational water 2–7, 2–16,
4–13 2–28, 9–47, 9–70, 9–84, 9–104
Fertigation 7–21 Gross system capacity 4–4
E Fertilizer injector 6–77, 6–78, Ground water 1–1, 1–5, 2–29,
7–24, 7–34 3–1, 3–2, 3–19, 5–1, 5–3,
Ecosystem 8–13, 8–16 Filters 5–5, 6–65, 6–70, 6–72, 6–13, 6–25, 6–45, 6–65,
Effective precipitation 4–3, 6–73, 6–74, 6–77, 6–83, 7–19, 7–20, 8–2, 8–3, 8–6,
4–4, 4–10, 8–2, 8–6, 8–10, 6–90, 9–34, 9–173 8–10, 8–12, 8–17, 8–19,
8–11, 8–17, 9–23, 9–26, 10–12 9–1, 9–23, 9–30, 10–1,
Electrical conductivity 2–9, 10–10, 10–11
2–10, 2–31, 2–32, 2–39, Growing period 4–3, 9–2
3–17, 6–68, 9–186, 9–221
I–2 (210-vi-NEH, September 1997)

Index Part 652
Irrigation Guide
H Irrigation scheduling 1–1, 1–5, Level furrow irrigation 5–5,

2–9, 3–2, 3–4, 3–12, 3–14, 6–8, 7–16, 9–37, 10–10
Humid climate 3–1, 3–12, 4–2, 4–9, 6–5, 6–35, 6–50, Line-source emitter 5–4, 6–62,
3–14, 5–7, 5–9, 5–10, 5–12, 6–63, 6–75, 6–77, 6–78, 6–74, 9–43
6–1, 6–9, 6–48, 6–83, 7–2, 7–15, 8–4, 8–5, 8–18, 9–1, Lined ditches 6–15, 7–5, 7–4,
9–96, 9–100 9–2, 9–3, 9–4, 9–22, 9–23, 7–5, 7–33, 9–212
Humidity 3–12, 3–16, 4–1, 9–24, 9–25, 9–26, 9–27, Long-throated flume 9–210,
4–2, 4–3, 4–8, 5–3, 6–42, 9–28, 9–30, 9–65, 9–68, 9–212, 9–213, 9–214, 9–216,
8–10, 8–17, 9–20, 9–21, 9–80, 9–81, 9–101, 9–116, 9–217, 9–220, 9–230
9–28, 9–122, 9–130, 9–136, 9–131, 9–150, 9–151, 9–161, Low energy precision application
9–149, 9–153 9–162, 9–164, 9–205, 9–206, (LEPA) 5–2, 5–9, 6–27,
Hydraulic conductivity 6–81, 9–227, 9–229, 10–2, 10–3, 6–44, 6–47, 6–48, 6–49, 6–51,
6–82, 6–83 10–12, 10–13, 11–2, 11–14, 6–52, 9–42, 9–134, 9–189
Hygroscopic water 2–4 11–18 Lysimeter 4–1
Irrigation season 2–17, 2–25,
4–8, 5–4, 6–18, 6–47, 6–48,
I M
6–51, 6–52, 7–3, 8–11,
Impermeable layers 6–22, 7–19 8–18, 9–2, 9–30, 9–67, Management allowable
Infiltration 2–2, 2–17, 2–20, 9–82, 9–163, 9–164, 9–205, Depletion 1–4, 3–7, 3–12,
2–22, 2–28, 3–1, 3–14, 4–9, 10–12 3–24, 4–7, 6–35, 9–2, 9–6,
5–4, 5–3, 5–7, 5–8, 5–9, Irrigation system evaluation 9–66, 9–102, 9–132, 9–164
5–10, 5–11, 6–2, 6–3, 6–6, 7–12, 9–33, 9–35, 9–36, Manifold 6–73, 6–76, 6–77,
6–8, 9–39, 9–45, 9–46, 9–45, 9–227 9–164, 9–165, 9–170, 9–172,
9–47, 9–60, 9–62, 9–69, Irrigation water management 9–173
9–77, 9–82, 9–84, 9–115, 1–5, 2–11, 2–16, 3–2, 3–12, Measuring device 6–35, 6–36,
9–132, 9–137, 9–173, 9–185, 3–13, 3–18, 5–4, 6–5, 6–9, 6–66, 6–74, 6–77, 6–78,
9–186, 9–187, 9–188, 9–189, 6–35, 7–9, 7–12, 7–15, 6–82, 7–2, 7–5, 7–6, 7–7,
9–190, 9–193, 9–196, 9–198, 7–18, 8–7, 8–8, 9–1, 9–2, 7–9, 8–4, 8–8, 8–17, 8–20,
9–199, 9–202, 9–203, 9–227, 9–3, 9–4, 9–19, 9–21, 9–22, 9–3, 9–5, 9–7, 9–23, 9–26,
9–230 9–25, 9–30, 9–34, 9–151, 9–30, 9–33, 9–35, 9–37,
Infiltrometers 9–46, 9–47, 9–162, 9–205, 9–206, 9–217, 9–46, 9–82, 9–83, 9–103,
9–57, 9–60, 9–103, 9–104, 9–227, 10–2, 10–10, 10–11, 9–105, 9–198, 9–205, 9–206,
9–115, 9–188, 9–193, 9–196 10–12, 10–13, 10–14, 9–207, 9–210, 9–212, 9–213,
Infrared 7–16, 9–10, 9–20, 10–24, 11–1 9–214, 9–218, 9–223, 9–228,
9–21, 9–23, 9–25, 9–207 Irrigation water requirement 9–229, 10–10
Injection 6–67, 6–68, 7–2, 1–1, 1–4, 1–5, 2–31, 3–11, Measuring flume 7–6, 7–9,
7–21, 7–22, 7–23, 7–24, 3–12, 3–13, 3–16, 3–17, 3–19, 9–83, 9–188, 9–202, 9–212,
7–25, 7–26, 7–27, 7–28, 4–1, 4–2, 4–3, 4–4, 4–7, 4–8, 9–213
7–30, 7–34 4–9, 4–13, 8–1, 8–2, 8–4, Measuring weir 6–22, 7–7
Intake families 2–18, 2–19, 8–6, 8–7, 8–10, 8–23, 8–25 Micro irrigation 6–25, 6–59,
2–22, 2–39, 9–185, 9–196, 6–62, 6–63, 6–65, 6–67,
9–197, 9–201, 9–230 6–68, 6–69, 6–70, 6–72,
Irrigation efficiency 3–13, 5–4, L
6–73, 6–74, 6–75, 6–76,
6–6, 6–7, 6–22, 7–11, 7–15, Lag time 9–67, 9–102 6–80, 6–89, 7–2, 7–3, 7–15,
8–2, 8–6, 8–10, 8–11, 9–2, Laser controlled leveling 6–6, 7–16, 7–21, 8–7, 9–32,
9–31, 9–32, 9–35, 9–66, 10–13 9–33, 9–34, 9–35, 9–43,
9–100, 9–102, 9–227, 10–11 Leaching requirement 3–18, 4–7 9–163, 9–164, 9–165, 9–166,
Irrigation frequency 3–12, level basin 2–3, 9–193 9–167, 9–168, 9–169, 9–170,
3–23, 4–7, 6–33 Level basin irrigation 2–3, 6–2, 9–171, 9–172, 9–173, 9–206,
6–5, 6–6, 6–7, 7–16, 9–68, 9–230, 9–231, 9–232, 11–1,
9–79, 9–193, 10–10 11–2

Index Part 652
Irrigation Guide
Microspray 5–2, 5–10, 6–74, 6–76 Percolation 1–2, 1–5, 2–17, Pump sump 6–20, 9–189, 9–202
Miners inches 7–9, 8–1, 9–219 3–13, 4–3, 4–4, 4–8, 4–9, Pumpback system 6–20, 7–11,
Minispray 10–10 4–10, 5–4, 6–2, 6–5, 6–7, 7–12
Moisture stress 1–4, 2–5, 2–9, 6–8, 6–9, 6–11, 6–13, 6–14, Pumping plant efficiency 9–66,
2–28, 3–2, 3–3, 3–4, 3–5, 6–15, 6–18, 6–25, 6–27, 9–80, 9–101, 9–117, 9–132,
3–7, 3–12, 3–14, 3–16, 6–50, 6–65, 6–75, 7–18, 9–183
3–24, 9–1, 9–2, 9–20, 9–21, 7–19, 7–21, 8–6, 8–10, Pumping plants 1–1, 5–3, 6–1,
9–22, 9–23, 9–25 8–11, 8–19, 9–25, 9–26, 7–2, 7–17, 7–33, 9–174,
9–28, 9–31, 9–38, 9–62, 9–181, 9–182, 9–183, 9–185,
9–64, 9–79, 9–100, 9–102, 9–231, 10–7, 10–10
N 9–116, 9–130, 9–148, 9–149,
Net irrigation requirement 9–164, 10–10, 10–11, 10–12
Periodic move 2–17, 2–22, R
3–12, 3–23, 4–3, 4–4, 6–56,
8–2, 9–65, 9–80, 9–101, 2–38, 6–27, 6–28, 6–30, Radiation method 4–2
9–117, 9–149, 9–150, 6–31, 6–42, 6–44, 6–89, Recession curve 9–36, 9–37,
9–161, 10–6 7–16, 9–40, 9–119, 9–122, 9–59, 9–60, 9–65, 9–66,
Net system capacity 4–4 9–123, 9–124, 9–125, 9–126, 9–67, 9–69, 9–96, 9–97,
Net water application 6–9 9–127, 9–128, 9–129, 9–130, 9–101, 9–102, 9–229
Non-saline 5–10 9–131, 9–132, 9–133, 9–165, Recession rate 6–2
Nonpoint source 7–20 9–190, 9–204, 9–231 Reference crop evapotranspira-
Permeability 2–2, 2–3, 2–4, tion 4–1, 4–2
2–7, 2–16, 2–17, 2–28, Relative humidity 4–1, 4–2,
O 2–29, 2–32, 2–39, 3–1, 5–11 4–3, 4–8, 9–20, 9–28
Piston pump 9–213 Replogle flume 7–9, 7–10,
Opportunity time 2–17, 2–29, Pollution 1–1, 1–2, 1–4, 1–9,
6–6, 6–11, 6–13, 9–37, 9–45, 9–36, 9–37, 9–206, 9–211,
6–13, 6–20, 6–45, 6–81, 9–212, 9–214, 9–223
9–47, 9–60, 9–65, 9–66, 7–21, 7–25, 9–23, 9–30,
9–67, 9–68, 9–69, 9–77, Retardance 6–10
9–31, 10–7 Rill irrigation 10–10
9–79, 9–81, 9–96, 9–99, Precipitation 2–1, 3–1, 3–17,
9–100, 9–102, 9–103, 9–104, Riparian areas 6–80
4–3, 4–4, 4–8, 4–9, 4–10, Root zone 1–2, 1–5, 2–1, 2–3,
9–115, 9–137, 9–186, 9–188, 5–7, 6–1, 6–6, 6–14, 6–48,
9–199, 9–202 3–1, 3–2, 3–7, 3–8, 3–10,
6–49, 6–50, 6–51, 6–65, 3–11, 3–12, 3–13, 3–19,
6–68, 6–74, 6–80, 7–11, 4–3, 4–7, 4–8, 4–9, 5–4,
7–12, 7–18, 7–19, 7–20, 6–2, 6–6, 6–9, 6–11, 6–15,
P 7–33, 8–2, 8–3, 8–6, 8–10, 6–48, 6–50, 6–63, 6–65,
Parshall flume 7–10, 9–36, 8–11, 8–17, 9–23, 9–26, 6–66, 6–68, 6–73, 6–75,
9–37, 9–206, 9–211, 9–212 9–28, 9–40, 9–186, 9–203, 6–81, 7–18, 7–19, 8–10,
Peak daily evapotranspiration 6–1 10–7, 10–10, 10–11, 10–12 8–11, 9–2, 9–5, 9–6, 9–7,
Penman method 4–2 Preferential flow paths 2–17 9–17, 9–20, 9–22, 9–23,
Penman-Monteith method 4–2 Pressure plate 9–5 9–26, 9–30, 9–31, 9–32,
Perched water table 2–28 Pressure regulator 6–33, 6–36, 9–37, 9–38, 9–43, 9–46,
6–50, 6–52, 6–65, 6–66, 6–77 9–65, 9–69, 9–79, 9–83,
Project water requirement 6–1, 9–96, 9–100, 9–102, 9–116,
8–2, 8–7 9–119, 9–130, 9–134, 9–148,
Puddling 6–30, 6–55, 6–56, 9–153, 9–160, 9–163, 9–170,
9–186, 9–190 9–171, 9–199, 10–5, 10–10,
Pump characteristic curves 6–34,
10–11
7–17
Rooting depth 1–4, 2–4, 2–28,
Pump impeller 7–9, 7–17, 9–184
3–8, 3–23, 4–9, 6–6, 6–33,
Pump performance curves 6–34,
6–45, 6–75, 9–1, 9–2, 9–7,
7–17, 9–181
9–14, 9–34, 10–5

Index Part 652
Irrigation Guide
Runoff 1–2, 1–5, 2–3, 2–17, Sediment 1–2, 2–17, 2–23, Soil water 2–4, 2–9, 2–28, 3–1,
2–20, 2–21, 2–25, 2–26, 5–3, 5–7, 6–1, 6–9, 6–11, 3–2, 3–5, 3–7, 3–8, 3–10,
2–27, 2–29, 2–38, 3–1, 6–20, 6–21, 6–25, 6–26, 3–13, 3–24, 4–4, 4–8, 6–5,
3–13, 3–14, 4–3, 4–4, 4–8, 6–45, 6–63, 6–65, 6–66, 6–42, 6–65, 6–66, 6–83,
4–9, 5–1, 5–3, 5–7, 5–12, 6–70, 6–73, 6–74, 7–4, 7–6, 7–15, 9–2, 9–7, 9–8, 9–10,
6–2, 6–3, 6–5, 6–6, 6–7, 7–7, 7–12, 7–13, 7–19, 8–7, 9–14, 9–17, 9–19, 9–21,
6–8, 6–9, 6–11, 6–12, 6–13, 8–12, 8–17, 8–18, 8–19, 9–23, 9–24, 9–26, 9–28,
6–14, 6–15, 6–18, 6–20, 9–31, 9–33, 9–34, 9–38, 9–46, 9–47, 9–57, 9–62,
6–21, 6–22, 6–27, 6–44, 9–41, 9–46, 9–82, 9–83, 9–65, 9–66, 9–69, 9–70,
6–45, 6–46, 6–47, 6–48, 9–135, 9–153, 9–165, 9–172, 9–79, 9–81, 9–83, 9–84,
6–49, 6–50, 6–51, 6–52, 9–186, 9–213, 9–214, 9–215, 9–96, 9–100, 9–102, 9–103,
6–65, 6–69, 7–11, 7–12, 9–217, 9–221 9–104, 9–113, 9–116, 9–118,
7–13, 7–18, 7–19, 7–20, Seepage losses 6–8, 7–5, 7–33, 9–188, 9–206, 9–229,
7–21, 7–33, 7–34, 8–3, 8–6, 8–8, 9–31, 9–213 10–11, 10–12, 10–27
8–7, 8–10, 8–11, 8–18, Semiarid climate 3–1, 5–7, Soil-water deficit 3–7, 3–12,
9–25, 9–31, 9–33, 9–34, 5–9, 5–10, 5–12, 6–1, 6–9, 9–6, 9–26, 9–31, 9–36,
9–36, 9–38, 9–39, 9–41, 6–15, 6–42, 6–48, 6–79 9–37, 9–38, 9–40, 9–41,
9–42, 9–46, 9–47, 9–59, Sideroll wheel line 5–2, 5–4, 9–42, 9–43, 9–119, 9–132,
9–60, 9–62, 9–64, 9–65, 7–16, 9–40, 9–119, 10–6 9–134, 9–148, 9–151, 9–153,
9–66, 9–67, 9–82, 9–84, Siphon tube 6–12, 6–20, 6–22, 9–162
9–100, 9–102, 9–103, 9–104, 6–25, 7–4, 7–7, 7–8, 9–33, Soil-water potential 3–8, 3–17
9–116, 9–130, 9–133, 9–134, 9–37, 9–38, 9–82, 9–207, 9–223 Solar radiation 4–1, 4–2, 4–3,
9–137, 9–148, 9–149, 9–151, Sodic soil 2–31, 2–37, 3–1, 4–8, 5–3, 8–17
9–152, 9–160, 9–162, 9–186, 7–19, 9–16 Solid set irrigation 5–2, 5–5,
9–189, 9–202, 9–204, Sodicity 1–4, 2–1, 2–3, 2–4, 5–8, 6–27, 6–42, 10–10
9–205, 10–6, 10–10, 10–11, 2–5, 2–7, 2–17, 2–23, 2–24, Specific gravity 2–16
10–12 2–31, 3–1, 3–17, 3–18, Spray heads 2–20, 3–13, 3–15,
3–19, 3–23, 4–7, 5–7, 5–8, 5–2, 5–5, 5–12, 6–30, 6–44,
5–9, 5–10, 5–11, 7–18, 6–46, 6–48, 6–52, 6–59,
S 8–17, 10–5 6–63, 6–70, 6–74, 9–43,
Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) 9–122, 9–134, 9–163, 9–165,
Saline soil 2–31, 3–1, 7–19
2–31, 2–32, 2–39, 3–17 9–189, 9–190, 9–203, 10–13
Salinity 1–1, 1–4, 2–1, 2–3,
Soil erodibility 2–4, 2–29, Sprinkler irrigation 2–17, 4–9,
2–4, 2–5, 2–7, 2–9, 2–10,
2–30, 2–37, 2–38, 8–1 5–6, 5–8, 5–9, 5–12, 5–17,
2–23, 2–24, 2–31, 2–37,
Soil horizon 2–12 6–1, 6–27, 6–28, 6–33,
2–39, 3–1, 3–17, 3–18,
Soil properties 1–4, 2–1, 2–2, 6–34, 6–35, 6–42, 6–43,
3–19, 3–23, 4–7, 5–7, 5–8,
2–3, 2–4, 2–29, 2–34, 2–37, 6–45, 6–52, 6–89, 7–8,
5–9, 5–10, 5–11, 6–33,
2–38, 2–39, 6–83 7–15, 7–21, 9–33, 9–119,
6–65, 6–66, 6–68, 6–81,
Soil survey 1–4, 2–1, 2–2, 9–122, 9–123, 9–124, 9–125,
8–1, 8–6, 8–10, 8–17, 9–16,
2–34, 8–1, 9–46, 9–68, 10–5 9–126, 9–127, 9–128, 9–129,
9–18, 9–20, 9–28, 9–31,
9–130, 9–131, 9–132, 9–133,
9–39, 9–41, 9–42, 9–43,
9–137, 9–138, 9–139, 9–140,
9–46, 9–69, 9–82, 9–83,
9–141, 9–142, 9–143, 9–144,
9–119, 9–134, 9–152,
9–145, 9–151, 9–152, 9–155,
9–164, 10–3, 10–5
9–156, 9–157, 9–158, 9–159,
Salinity management 3–18,
9–164, 9–231, 9–232, 10–6,
4–7, 9–31, 9–82
10–14, 10–24, 10–25, 10–26
Salt tolerance 3–17
Static head 9–181
Screening device 7–2
Subhumid climate 4–4, 4–6
Subirrigation 5–2, 5–11, 5–17,
6–83, 8–18, 9–45, 10–10

Index Part 652
Irrigation Guide
Supplemental irrigation 6–56, Translocation 2–20, 2–25, Water quality 2–1, 2–17, 3–1,
7–18 3–13, 6–27, 6–44, 6–45, 6–2, 6–9, 6–67, 6–70, 6–81,
Surface irrigation 1–2, 5–1, 6–46, 6–47, 6–48, 6–49, 7–18, 7–20, 7–21, 8–1,
5–7, 5–12, 5–17, 6–2, 6–3, 6–50, 6–51, 6–52, 6–56, 8–10, 8–11, 8–12, 8–19,
6–5, 6–6, 6–7, 6–8, 6–10, 7–19, 9–31, 9–34, 9–39, 8–20, 9–1, 9–2, 9–16, 9–22,
6–12, 6–18, 6–22, 6–27, 9–41, 9–42, 9–133, 9–134, 9–45, 9–68, 9–82, 9–135,
6–44, 6–83, 6–89, 6–91, 9–137, 9–151, 9–152, 9–160, 9–153, 10–1, 10–5, 10–6
7–4, 7–15, 7–16, 7–19, 8–4, 9–161, 9–186, 9–189 Water right 5–1, 5–3, 7–9, 8–1,
8–6, 8–7, 9–33, 9–47, 9–48, Transpiration 2–1, 3–12, 3–17, 8–8, 8–12, 8–17
9–49, 9–50, 9–51, 9–52, 9–53, 3–18, 4–1, 6–7, 6–65, 9–19, Water table 2–1, 2–3, 2–4,
9–54, 9–55, 9–71, 9–72, 9–20 2–28, 2–29, 2–34, 2–37,
9–73, 9–74, 9–75, 9–76, Traveling gun sprinkler 5–2, 2–39, 3–10, 5–2, 5–3, 5–11,
9–84, 9–85, 9–86, 9–87, 5–5, 6–27, 6–54, 6–55, 6–33, 6–80, 6–81, 6–82,
9–88, 9–89, 9–90, 9–91, 6–56, 6–57, 9–42, 10–6 6–83, 6–84, 6–85, 6–92,
9–92, 9–93, 9–94, 9–35, Trickle irrigation 6–34, 6–59, 7–18, 7–19, 7–20, 8–1, 8–6,
9–100, 9–106, 9–107, 9–108, 6–85, 9–163 8–17, 9–1, 9–17, 9–22,
9–109, 9–110, 9–111, 9–112, Turbine pump 6–34 9–26, 9–34, 9–46, 9–69,
9–185, 9–186, 9–227, 9–83, 9–104, 9–119, 9–134,
9–231, 10–6 9–153, 10–5, 10–6, 10–10
Surface sealing 2–23, 9–186 U Water table management 6–81,
Surface storage 2–20, 2–21, 6–82, 6–83, 6–85, 6–92
Unsaturated 2–20, 6–5
2–22, 2–25, 2–26, 2–27, Weather station 9–26, 9–28
Upflux 2–1, 4–8, 6–81, 7–19,
2–28, 2–29, 2–38, 2–39, Weir 6–22, 6–81, 6–82, 7–5,
9–22, 9–227
3–14, 6–2, 6–9, 6–27, 6–44, 7–7, 7–9, 7–16, 8–10, 9–36,
Upward flow 4–8, 6–83, 9–22
6–45, 6–46, 6–47, 6–48, 9–37, 9–68, 9–82, 9–103,
6–50, 6–51, 6–52, 9–42, 9–188, 9–198, 9–206, 9–207,
9–137, 9–151, 9–162, 9–189, V 9–209, 9–210, 9–211, 9–212,
9–203, 9–204 9–213, 9–214, 9–215, 9–216,
Surge irrigation 6–10, 6–14, Vacuum pump 7–6, 9–14 9–217, 9–223, 9–228, 9–230
6–16, 6–18, 6–91, 9–38 Volumetric water content 3–17 Wetted bulb 6–65, 9–38, 9–199
System capacity 2–1, 4–4, 6–1, Wetted front 9–47, 9–70,
6–28, 6–33, 6–46, 6–49, Wetted perimeter 9–99, 9–100,
6–50, 6–51, 6–75, 6–78,
W 9–101
6–89, 8–3, 8–19, 8–25, Wastewater 6–20, 6–26, 7–19, Wheel line 6–29, 6–35, 6–36,
9–147, 9–160, 10–14 8–18 6–52, 6–92, 9–40, 9–41,
Water balance 8–11, 9–1, 9–4, 9–119, 10–6
9–22, 9–25, 9–26, 9–27, Wilting point 2–4, 2–5, 2–9,
T 9–28, 9–227, 9–229, 10–10, 9–4, 9–5, 9–7, 9–10, 9–18,
10–11 9–20
Tailwater recovery 6–20, 6–21,
Water brake 6–20 Wind drift 3–13, 4–4, 5–4,
6–91, 7–2, 7–11, 7–12,
Water budget 1–4, 1–5, 8–10, 6–27, 6–50, 6–51, 7–21,
7–13, 7–14, 7–19, 7–33,
8–11, 8–19, 8–25, 8–26, 9–1, 9–40, 9–129, 9–135, 9–153,
10–6, 10–10
9–4, 10–10 9–171
Tensiometer 9–14, 9–15, 9–16,
Water duty 5–4 Wind movement 4–2, 4–8
9–228, 9–229
Total available water 3–7 Water holding capacity 2–4,
Toxicity 3–18, 3–19, 5–3 2–37, 9–4, 9–5
Water measurement 1–4, 2–16,
3–14, 6–1, 7–2, 7–9, 7–33,
8–8, 8–19, 9–4, 9–25,
9–202, 9–205, 9–206, 9–207,
9–228, 9–229

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National Part 652

(210-vi-NEH, September 1997) v

Issued September 1997

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimina-

To file a complaint, write the Secretary of Agriculture, U.S. Department of

vi (210-vi-NEH, September 1997)

Irrigation is vital to produce acceptable quality and yield of crops on arid

Today's management of irrigation water requires using the best information

Irrigation Guide, Part 652, is a new handbook to the family of references in

In addition to the irrigation Guide (part 652), chapters in the National

(210-vi-NEH, September 1997) i

Part 652, Irrigation Guide, is an addition to the National Engineering Hand-

Principal NRCS staff who contributed to the development and review of

State conservation engineers coordinated a multidiscipline (representing

William J. Carmack, national water management engineer, (retired),

Editing and publication production assistance were provided by the Techni-

ii (210-vi-NEH, September 1997)

Contents: Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 4 Water Requirements

Chapter 5 Selecting an Irrigation Method

Chapter 6 Irrigation System Design

Chapter 7 Farm Distribution Components

Chapter 8 Project and Farm Irrigation Water Requirements

Chapter 9 Irrigation Water Management

Chapter 10 Conservation Management Systems and Irrigation Planning

Chapter 11 Economic Evaluations

Chapter 12 Energy Use and Conservation

Chapter 13 Quality of Water Supply

Chapter 14 Environmental Concerns

Chapter 15 Resource Planning and Evaluation Tools and Worksheets

Chapter 16 Special Use Tables, Charts, and Conversions

Chapter 17 Glossary and References

(210-vi-NEH, September 1997) iii

Contents: 652.0100 Purpose and objective 1–1

652.0101 Water and energy conservation 1–1

652.0102 Soil conservation, water quality, and pollution abatement 1–2

652.0103 Using the guide 1–3

652.0104 Irrigation guide outline 1–4

652.0105 Use of computers 1–6

652.0106 State supplement 1–6

(210-vi-NEH, September 1997) 1–7

652.0100 Purpose and 652.0101 Water and energy

(210-vi-NEH, September 1997) 1–1

Applying water too soon or in excess of crop needs

Pollution of ground and surface water by agricultural

Inefficient irrigation can have offsite benefits. Wetland

1–2 (210-vi-NEH, September 1997)

A personal library or reference folder(s) containing

(210-vi-NEH, September 1997) 1–3

Crops respond to irrigation when rainfall does not

1–4 (210-vi-NEH, September 1997)

(210-vi-NEH, September 1997) 1–5

652.0105 Use of computers 652.0106 State supplement

Only state approved computer software is available to

Information contained in this guide describes availabil-

1–6 (210-vi-NEH, September 1997)

Contents: 652.0200 Introduction 2–1

652.0201 General 2–1

652.0202 Physical soil characteristics 2–4

652.0203 Explanation of tables and data bases 2–34