REPORTS ON ECE 1101: ENGINEERING LAB 1

thevenins & Nortons theorem and maximum power tra nsfer and superposition

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6

Evaluation Items Introduction Objectives Equipment lists Experiment Set-up Observation & Data Analysis Conclusion TOTAL

Marks 20% 2 2 2 2 10 2 20

Marks obtain

Date of Experiment: 2 November 2011 1 Matric No: 1113749 Matric No: 1118597

Date of Submission: 16 November 201

Name: Mohammad Syafiq bin Baharuddin Name: Usamah bin Abdul Latif

Test (a): Thevenins Theorem Test (b): Nortons Theorem Introduction

It often occurs in practice that a particular element in a circuit is variable (usually called the load) while other elements are fixed. For example, a household outlet terminal may be connected to different appliances constituting a variable load. Each time the variable element is changed, the entire circuit has to be analyzed all over again. To avoid this pro blem, Thevenins theorem provides a technique by which the fixed part of the circuit is r eplaced by an equivalent circuit. Thevenins theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equiv alent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTH in series with a resistor RTH, where VTH is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals and RTH is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent source are turned off. Thevenin's Theorem is especially useful in analyzing power systems and other circuits where one particular resistor in the circuit (called the "load" resistor) is subject to chan ge, and re-calculation of the circuit is necessary with each trial value of load resistance, t o determine voltage across it and current through it. While, Nortons theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source IN in parallel with a resistor RN, where IN is the short circuit current through the terminals and RN is the input or equivalent resist ance at the terminals when the independent source are turned off. The relationship between Nortons and Thevenins theorem is very closed as

Aim

To apply Thevenins and Nortons theorems in finding the current flowing in a particular resistor (variable load) in a particular network. To verify the theorems by comparing the simulated values to those obtained by measurement.

Apparatus
DC supply (VS = 15V) Digital multimeters Resistors R1=1.8k; R2=3.6k; R3=820; R4=R5=100; RL=180

Circuit Diagram

Figure 3-1

Method
(a) Thevenins Theorem

1. The supply voltage and resistance of each resistor is measured. These values are recorded in Table 3-1. RL is selected as the resistor where it is proposed to determine the current value. 2. The circuit in Figure 3-1 is constructed. The supply does not turn on. 3. Resistor RL is removed from the network. 4. The supply is turn on. The voltage between the points A and D of the network is measured. This is the Thevenins voltage. The value is recorded in Table 3-2. 5. The power supply is switched off. The power supply V1 is replaced with a short circuit. 6. The resistance between terminals A and D is measured. This is the Thevenins resistance. The value is recorded in Table 3-2. 7. The resistor RL is placed back in the circuit with an ammeter is connected between terminals C and D. 8. 1aThe short circuit connection is removed and the power supply is placed back in the circuit. 9. The supply is turn on. The current value flowing in the resistor RL is read and recorded.

(b)

Nortons Theorem

1. The circuit is constructed as shown in Figure 3-1. The supply does not turn on. 2. Resistor RL is removed from the network. RL is selected as the resistor where it is proposed to determine the current value. 3. The supply is turn on. The current shown by the ammeter between terminals A and D is read. This is Nortons current, IN. The value is recorded in Table 3-3. 4. The power supply is switched off. The supply is replaced with a short circuit. 5. The resistance between terminals A and D is measured. This is Nortons resistance. The value is recorded in Table 3-3. 6. The resistor RL is placed back in the circuit with an ammeter is connected between terminals C and D. 7. The power supply is placed back in the circuit and the short circuit connection is removed. 8. The current value flowing in the resistor RL is read and recorded.

Table of Results
V1 15V R1 1.809k Measured values R2 R3 R4 3.557k 0.802k 99.4 Table 3-1 R5 99.3 RL 178.9

Measured values Theoretical values Thevenins r Thevenins v Current in R Thevenins r Thevenins v Current in R esistance oltage L esistance oltage L 612 616.91 4.322V 6.0mA 5.058V 6.13mA Table 3-2

Measured values Theoretical values Nortons res Nortons cur Current in R Nortons res Nortons cur Current in R istance rent L istance rent L 612 616.91 7.8mA 6.0mA 7.91mA 6.13mA Table 3-3

Calculations
Thevenins resistance
By using wye-delta transformation:

= 2.63

= 94.73

= 94.73

RTH = [(Rb + R3) || (Rc + R1)] + Ra RTH = [(94.73 + 820) || (94.73 + 1.8k)] + 2.63 = 616.91 Percentage Error % of Relative Error of RTH =

= 0.8%

Thevenins voltage
Loop 1: 1.8k(I1) 3.6k(I2) + 3.6k(I1) +820(I1) 15 = 0 6220I1 3600I2 = 15 Loop 2: 100(I2) + 3.6k(I2) 3.6k(I1) + 100(I2) = 0 3800I2 = 3600I1 I1 = 1.056I2

I1 = 5.341mA I2 = 5.058mA VTH = I2(R4) + I1(R3) = 5.058m(100) + 5.341m(820) = 4.885V Percentage Error % of Relative Error of VTH =

= 11.5%

Nortons Resistance
RN = RTH = 616.91

Nortons Current

= 7.91mA Percentage Error % of Relative Error of IN = = 1.4%

Current in RL

IL = 5.058/(616.91 + 180) = 6.13mA Percentage Error % of Relative Error of IL =

= 2.12%

Analysis & Deductions

In general, the aims of this experiment have been achieved. From the result of this exper iment, the values obtained during the experiment only have a little different compared t o the actual values. This means, after the calculation, the percentage error between both values is small. Thus, we can say that the both theorems have been verified. Thevenins theorem is likely to be widely used in practice. This is because it provides a t echnique by which the fixed part of the circuit is replaced by an equivalent circuit and al so helps to simplify the circuit. For instance, a large circuit may be replaced by a single i ndependent voltage source and a single resistance. This replacement technique is a pow erful tool in circuit design. In fact, the Nortons theorem is based on the concept of a constant current generator, he nce the usage is not limited. Both theorems are most applicable in the complex network circuit as it involves wye-del ta transformation. These theorems are still valid if there is more than one supply in the circuit because this theorem helps to simplify a large circuit into a single independent voltage source and a single resistor. Thus, it is possible that in a very large circuit, there may be more than on e supply. The theorems are applicable with the presence of dependent sources in the circuit. This is because the dependent sources were treated the same way as the independent source s in Thevenins theorem. But, as with superposition, the dependent sources are not to b e turn off because they are controlled by circuit variables.

Test (c): The Maximum Power Transfer Introduction

In many practical situations, a circuit is designed to provide power to a load. There are a pplications in areas such as communications where it is desirable to maximize the powe r delivered to a load. Hence, the maximum power transfer theorem states that a resistiv e load will receive maximum power when its total resistive value is exactly equal to the Thevenins resistance of the network as seen by the load.

Figure 3-2 Figure 3-2 shows that any circuit A terminated with a load RL can be reduced to its The venins equivalent. Now according to this theorem the load RL will receive maximum po wer when RL = RTH The efficiency of power transfer is defined as the ratio of the power delivered to the loa d POUT, to the power supplied by the source PIN.

The voltage regulation is defined as

At maximum power transfer condition, = 50% & VR = 100%. A relatively low efficiency of 50% can be tolerated in situations where power levels are relatively low such in electronic & communication circuits for transmission & reception of signal where the Engineers goal is to receive or transmit maximum amount of power . However if large power levels are involved, such as at generating stations, efficiencies of 50% would not be acceptable. The goal here is high efficiency and not maximum power. Power utility systems are designed to transmit the power to the load with the greatest e fficiency by reducing the losses on the power lines. Thus the effort is concentrated on re ducing RTH, which would represent the resistance of the source plus the line resistance.

Aim
To verify the maximum power transfer theorem

Apparatus
One DC voltmeter One DC Ammeter DC power supply Rheostats (RTH = 22, RL = 44) Wires & Chords

Circuit Diagram

Figure 3-3

Method
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The circuit is set up as shown in Figure 3-3. 10V DC is applied from the power supply. Thevenin rheostat, RTH is keep 5k at maximum position. The load rheostat RL is varied from 0 to 10k. The voltages VL and I is measured. All the result is recorded in Table 3-4.

Table of Results
No 1. 2. VTH 10 10 VL 0 1.642 I (mA) 1.9 1.6 PIN =VTH.I (mW) 19 16 POUT=VLI (mW) 0 2.627 LOSS=P IN-POUT (mW) 19 13.373 % 0 16.42 %VR 487.33 RL=VL/I (k) 0 1.026

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10 . 11 .

10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

2.829 3.725 4.417 4.96 5.43 5.80 6.20 6.39 6.68

1.4 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.6

14 12 11 10 9 8 7 7 6

3.9606 4.47 4.8587 4.96 4.887 4.64 4.34 4.473 4.008 Table 3-4

10.093 4 7.53 6.1413 5.04 4.113 3.36 2.66 2.527 1.992

28.29 37.25 44.17 49.6 54.3 58 62 63.9 66.8

247.4 161.08 124.53 100.81 82.92 68.97 56.338 54.77 44.92

2.021 3.104 4.015 4.96 6.03 7.25 8.875 9.129 11.13

Calculations
For RL = 4.96k PIN = VTH. I = (10) (1.0) = 10mW POUT = VLI = (4.96) (1.0) = 4.96mW LOSS = PIN - POUT = 10 4.96 = 5.04mW The efficiency of power transfer, % =

= 49.6%

The voltage regulation, %VR

= 100.81%

Analysis & Deductions

Generally, the maximum power transfer theorem has been verified from this experimen t. The maximum power will transfer to the load when the load resistance, RL equals to th e Thevenins resistance, RTH as seen from the load. From our result in this experiment, when RTH = 5k is used, the maximum power is transfer to the load when RL = 4.96k. After the calculations, the maximum power is 4.96mW. High voltage transmission is always used in case of transmitting electric power to reduc e the energy lost in long distance transmission. It is due to the the electrical definition of power: Power = Voltage * Current, or Current squared times resistance. Since resistanc e is an inherent characteristic of the wire used, as the power sent through the power lin e increases, so does the losses in the power line (the power line will heat up based on ho w much current is passing through it). If the voltage is increased, then the current must decrease for the same amount of power (first equation), so the losses in the power line will also decrease. The maximum power transfer is used when designing a system with limited energy avai lability. It is also used when power levels are relatively low and it is desirable to maximi ze the power delivered to the load such as in electronic and communication circuit. Power utilities transmit power at maximum efficiency instead of transmitting maximum power because it will minimise losses over the lines and in transformers, and hence mi nimise generation costs. If the lower efficiency is used, the loss of power over the lines will be higher. The condition of maximum power transfer is the efficiency of power transfer, % = 50% and the voltage regulation, %VR = 100%.

Discussion
First and foremost, praise to Allah SWT because of his assist, we are able to conduct this experiment properly. In this experiment, which is the third experiment, we are about to verify Thevenins and Nortons theorem as well as the maximum power transfer theore m. Generally, this experiment was divided into three parts. In the first part of this experiment, we want to verify and apply the theorem that was int roduced by M. Leon Thevenin, a French telegraph engineer in 1883, which is the Theven ins theorem in finding the current flowing in a particular resistor in a particular networ k. He said that it is possible to simplify any linear circuit, no matter how complex, to an e quivalent circuit with just a single voltage source and series resistance connected to a lo ad. Through this experiment, the values of Thevenins voltage can be obtain by measuring t

he voltage between the points A and D of the network, after the resistor RL is removed. Whereas, the Thevenins resistances value can be obtained by replacing the power sup ply with a short circuit, and measure the resistance between terminals A and D. Based on our result that was tabulated in Table 3-1, RTH = 612, VTH = 4.322V and IL = 6. 0mA. As usual, this result is not as accurate as the theoretical values, hence, it gives som e percentage errors. However, the small value of percentage error makes the result can be accepted and the theorem is verified. For instance, the percentage error for RTH is 0.8 %, while the percentage error for VTH and IL is 11.5% and 2.12% respectively. In the second part of this experiment, we want to verify another theorem that has a clos e relationship with Thevenins theorem. This theorem was proposed in 1926 by E. L. No rton, an American engineer at Bell Telephone Laboratories, which is the Nortons theor em. He said that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit co nsisting of a current source IN in parallel with a resistor RN, where IN is the short circuit c urrent through the terminals and RN is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminal s when the independent source are turned off. In a simple word, Throughout the experiment, we obtain the Nortons current by measured the current be tween terminals A and D after the resistor RL was removed from the circuit. Meanwhile, the Nortons resistance is measured in a similar way as the Thevenins resistance, thus their values are the same. From the result of this experiment, IN = 7.8A, RN = 612 and IL = 6.0mA. These results al so have their percentage relative errors. For IN, the percentage error is 1.4%, RN = 0.8& a nd IL = 2.12%. The small value of percentage relative error deduced that the theorem ha s been verified. In the third part of this experiment, the main objective is to verify the maximum power t ransfer theorem. This theorem states that the load will receive maximum power when RL =RTH. At maximum power transfer condition, the efficiency of power transfer, % = 5 0% and the voltage regulation, %VR = 100%. From the result tabulated in Table 3-4 and the graph plotted, the maximum power is tra nsferred when RL = 4.96k as RTH = 5k. In addition, when RL = 4.96k, the efficiency o f power transfer, = 49.6% whereas the voltage regulation, VR = 100.81%. These values are in accordance to the condition of maximum power transfer. According to the graph of POUT vs. RL, when RL = 4.96k, the POUT is maximum, which is 4.96V. Hence the maxim um power transferred is 4.96V. After all, it can be deduced that the maximum power tra nsfer theorem is verified as the maximum power is transferred when RL = RTH. It is very common that in every experiment conducted, there might be some discrepanci es in the result obtained compared to the theoretical values. Thats why there will be so me percentage errors obtained in every result achieved. These discrepancies is due to th e probable errors that might be occurs in the experiment. Some of the errors is the amm eter is not function properly, as there is a loose connection between the ammeter and th e wire. This error is human error and it will make the value of current inconsistent, henc e will affect the result. The other human error is failure to complete the circuit in a corre

ct way as well as doing the careless mistakes in completing it. Besides that, there is othe r error that might be occurs, which is the insufficient current to run the circuit and this c an reduce the value of voltage and current measured. This error is called system error. In order to achieve a good result and data while conducting the experiment, there must be some precautionary steps taken to prevent the occurring of those errors. These steps including make sure the apparatus that will be used is in a good condition, make sure th e connection of wire is tight enough before reading the values, and having a better unde rstanding about a particular experiment that will be conduct by doing pre-reading befor e the experiment.

Conclusion
In general, we conclude that all the aims and objectives of this experiment have been su ccessfully achieved. Based on the results, calculations, and discussion, the Thevenins an d Nortons theorem and also the maximum power transfer theorem have been verified as there is just a small value of percentage errors appeared.