A REPORT ON INDUSTRIAL TRAINING (13th June 2011- 22nd July 2011) AT DOORDARSHAN KENDRA , DELHI Submitted In Partial Fulfillment

Of B.TECH In COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING Of MAHARAJA AGRASEN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY By PARVEEN PARMAR

PREFACE This report is a brief introduction about Doordarshan, enclosing the topics that deal with all types of applications & with various aspects related to new researches. I hope, this report will be extremely expedient for grasping the basic knowledge of various fields of communication. The suggestions and constructive criticism for the improvement of the report will be greatly acknowledge and appreciated for further improvements.

ABOUT DOORDARSHAN KENDRA

Doordarshan is the public television broadcaster of India and a division of Prasar Bharti, and nominated by the Government of India. It is one of the largest broadcasting organizations in the world in terms of the infrastructure of studios and transmitters. Doordarshan Kendra is a milestone in the field of entertainment and education media source. DDK, Delhi has the Largest Programmes recording Studio in the Asia. They Broadcast 30 channels in 22 languages over the country. AIR and Doordarshan aims to provide information, education and entertainment for the public. Its network of 1400 terrestrial transmitters cover more than 90.7% of India's population.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The happiness that accompanies the successful completion of any task would not be completed without the expression of thanks to all those who helped me throughout my training. So, with reverence honour. I acknowledge those whose guidance and encouragement has made it possible. I wish to express my unlimited gratitude and thanks to all the respected members of DOORDARSHAN KENDRA, DELHI for teaching and guiding us.

INDEX SECTIONS 1. Earth station Introduction Classes of ES Output chain of ES/UPLINK Input chain of ES/DOWNLINK 2. TV Studio Procedure in recording Procedure in Transmission Video signal Generation CCVS TV Camera Lightening Microphones Video Chain Audio Chain Vision Mixer 3. PAL System Color television Delay line PAL-PAL Demodulator PAL Encoder & Decoder 4. MASTER SWICTHING ROOM(MSR) Introduction Audio Console 5. OB /DSNG Van Introduction OB Van DSNG Van Parts Description 6. Project LAN NETWORKING OF IRDS

EARTH STATION INTRODUCTION An earth station, ground station, or earth terminal is a terrestrial terminal station designed for extraplanetary telecommunication with spacecraft, and/or reception of radio waves from an astronomical radio source. Earth stations are located either on the surface of the Earth, or within Earth's atmosphere. Earth stations communicate with spacecraft by transmitting and receiving radio waves in the super high frequency or extremely high frequency bands (e.g., microwaves). When an earth station successfully transmits radio waves to a spacecraft (or vice versa), it establishes a telecommunications link. When a satellite is within an earth station's line of sight, the earth station is said to have a view of the satellite. It is possible for a satellite to communicate with more than one earth station at a time. A pair of earth stations are said to have a satellite in mutual view when the stations share simultaneous, unobstructed, line-of-sight contact with the satellite. There are currently three classes of earth stations: Mass capacity station --Designed for large users or inter-exchange carrier applications. This type of earth station serves a user community with communications needs great enough to require feeder line access to the earth station. The cost for earth stations in this class runs into millions of dollars. Middle range earth station --Designed for large corporate applications. This type of earth station serves a single large user (e.g. newspaper publisher, financial institution, etc). The cost for earth stations in this class run into the hundreds of thousands of dollars. Low-end earth station --Designed for smaller corporate applications. This type of earth station serves a single user (e.g., retailers, general business, etc) and is typically designed to handle data traffic (e.g., point-of-sale information, inventory control, credit authorization, and other types of remote

processing). These types of earth stations are established with a minimal amount of equipment and a very small aperture terminal (VSAT). Earth station involves the two terms which are basically the important parameters of the communication i.e. UPLINK & DOWNLINK. UPLINK: The process of gathering any informative part & sending it to the satellite, running on specified frequency is termed as UPLINK. The uplink frequency is 5950MHz.

OUTPUT CHAIN OF EARTH STATION OR UPLINK 1. The information gets recorded is in the analog form which needs to be converted into digital form for long route transmission by encoder. 2. Moreover, Encoder also enables the compression technique. 3. Many digitalized signals are then feeded to multiplexer (many into

one) so that we can have one output signal at a time. 4. This output signal has poor strength & power & not fit for the long distance transmission so its need to be pass through modulator where it superimpose on high power carrier signal. But modulator can raise its frequency up to 70MHz only. 5. After that IF switch selects one of the modulator o/p & divide it to 1:4 ratio. 6. It is then compared with Equalizer signal to limits its parameters like amplitude, phase etc. and also to compensate the effect of delay in the signal. 7. UPC (Up converter) increases the signal frequency to a range to reach to the satellite. This is done by mixing the signal with locally generated high frequency signal of oscillator. 8. It is then transmitted to RF selector switch where the signals gets partitioned & provided to two different HPA. 9. High power Amplifier (HPA) amplifies the signal to 750W. 10. The two signals are combined in combiner and transmitted through hollow rectangular waveguide (Now-a-days Travelling wave tubes ,TWT are also in use) to antenna & then to SATELLITE. 11. The uplink frequency assigned to Doordarshan service station is 5950 MHz. 12. All these signals are SD i.e. Standard definition, which uses 625 lines. 13. Very few signals are HD i.e. High definitions which uses 720 lines.

DOWNLINK: The process by which satellite sends the received signals to the controlling stations is termed as DOWNLINK. The downlink frequency is 3725 MHz.

INPUT CHAIN OF EARTH STATION OR DOWNLINK 1. Downlinking is just opposite of uplinking. 2. Satellite transmits the signal to be received by the earth station. 3. The signals are then passed through LNA (Low Noise Amplifier), so that we can have less noise while Rx signal from the satellite Or through LNBC (Low Noise Block Converter) to down the frequency near to 5150 MHz.

4. It is then divided into 1:4 ratio by the RF divider for the various o/p. 5. RF patch panel are used to monitor the signal at this point. 6. Now, incoming C band signals are converted into L band by C-L band down converter just to lower down the high frequency signals. 7. It is then divided into 1:4 ratio by the L band divider for the various o/p. 8. These four o/p are then passes through IRDs (Decoder) to convert them back to analog signals & then passes to Patch panel for monitoring purpose. 9. After this, through 40X40 SDI/ASI routers they are sent to Suit View Leitch (SVL). 10. The o/p of SVL enables us to view 8 channels simultaneously on single LCD (42) monitor. 11. The downlinking procedure is done for monitoring purpose mostly , just to confirm that whatever we are uplinking are actually happening or not.

TV STUDIOS INTRODUCTION Doordarshan-Delhi has four studio halls. One is used as News Room and the others are used for shooting various programs. Artificial sets are created in the studio hall according to requirements of the program to be shooting. The four studios are named as: >Studio Big > Studio Small > Studio Medium > Studio Large Procedure in recording 1. Set is designed in studio as per conceptual thought of program producer. 2. Floor plan is envisaged. 3. Lighting, Audio and placement of the cameras is arranged as per floor plan. 4. Pre testing of cameras, microphones, VCRs etc. is done before recording. 5. Recording begins and desired camera/mike are selected through VM/Audio console as per command of producer. Program is recorded on VCR. Procedure in Transmission 1. The programs are transmitted as per the daily cue sheet. 2. Normal transmission hours are 1600-2000Hrs. 3. Cue sheet is discussed daily by program and technical staff for details in it and for any last moment changes if any. 4. After getting D-link caption from Delhi end program is played from VCR/Server. The program is uplinked by Earth Station. 5. The program is also transmitted to transmitter at Pitampura via MW link. Then DD channels are taken on air. 6. During our slot, both live as well as recorded programs are transmitted.

Video Signal Generation Video is nothing but a sequence of pictures. The image we see is maintained in our eye for 1/16sec. So if we see images at the rate more than 16 pictures/sec, our eyes cannot recognize the difference and we see the continuous motion. In movies camera and movie projector it is found that 24 fps is better for human eyes. TV system could also use this rate but in PAL system 25fpm is selected. In TV cameras image is converted in electrical signal using photosensitive material. Whole image is divided into many micro particles known as pixels. These pixels are small enough so that our eyes cannot recognize pixels and we see continuous image. Thus, at any particular instance there are almost infinite numbers of pixels that need to be converted in electrical signal simultaneously for transmitting picture details. However this is not possible practical because it is no feasible to provide a separate path for each pixel. In practice this problem is solved by method known as Scanning in which information is converted one by one pixel, line by line and frame by frame. Color Composite Video Signals Active waveform comprises of 2 signals: Luminance (Y)-black and white Chrominance (C)- color signal

TV Camera A TV Camera consists of three sections : a) A Camera lens and optical block b) A transducer or pick up device c) Electronics CAMERA LENS The purpose of the camera lens is to focus the optical energy at the face plate of a pickup device i.e. to form an optical image. The lens has following sections: 1. Main focus section 2. Zoom section with manual or servo mode operation 3. Servo drive assembly for Zoom and iris control 4. Aperture section with manual or auto mode 5. Back focus section with adjustment facilities for back and micro Focus.

Object Side

1 2

3 4 5
Camera Side

TRANSDUCER/ PICK UP DEVICE R, G & B signals, as separated by the optical block are converted to electrical signal in the transducer section of the camera. It is then processed in camera electronics to give CCVS (color composite video signal) output. LIGHTING Lighting for television is very exciting and needs creative talent. There is always a tremendous scope for doing experiments to achieve the required effect. Light is a kind of electromagnetic radiation with a visible spectrum from red to violet i.e. wavelength from 700nm to 3800nm respectively.

Basic three pointing lighting: Key light: It gives shape and modelling by a casting shadow. It is treated as a sun in the sky and should cast only one shadow. Fill light: Controls the lighting contrast by filling in shadows. It can also provide catch lights in the eyes. Back light: Separates the body from the background, gives roundness to the subject and reveals texture. Background lights: Separates person from the background and reveals background interest and shape. Lighting Equipments: HMI lights : compared to standard incandescent lights deliver five times the light output per watt. They generate less heat, which is an important consideration when shooting inside in a confined space. (HMI stands for Hydrargyrum Medium Arc-length Iodide). The light on the left side of this picture is a HMI light; the one on the right a standard quartz light. Cycs: (large, seamless, neutral backgrounds) can be lit from the top and bottom with cyclights. The one here sits on the studio floor and is directed up at the background.

MICROPHONE A microphone is an acoustic-to-electric transducer or sensor that conver ts sound intoan electrical signal. Types of micro phones: Condenser Microphone: In a condenser microphone also called a capacitor microphone or electrostatic microphone, the diaphragm acts as one plate of a capacitor, and the vibrations produce changes in the distance between the plates. Electret Condenser Microphone: An electret is a ferroelectric material that has been permanently electrically charged or polarized. The name comes from electrostatic and magnet; a static charge is embedded in an electret by alignment of the static charges in the material, much the way a magnet is made by aligning the magnetic domains in a piece of iron. Dynamic Microphone: Dynamic microphones work via electromagnetic induction. They ar e robust, relatively in expensive and resistant to moisture. This coupled with their potentially high gain before

feedback makes them ideal for on-stage use. Moving coil microphones use same dynamic principle as in loudspeaker. Ribbon Microphone: Ribbon microphones use a thin, usually corrugated metal ribbon suspended in a magnetic field. The ribbon is electrically connected to the microphone's output, and its vibration within the magnetic field generates the electrical signal. Ribbon microphones are similar to moving coil microphones in the sense that both produce sound by means of magnetic induction. Piezoelectric Microphone: A crystal microphone or piezo microphone uses the phenomenon of piez oelectricity the ability of some materials to produce a voltage when subjected to pressure to convert vibrations into an electrical signal. Laser Microphone: Laser microphones are often portrayed in movies as spy gadgets. A laser beam is aimed at the surface of a window or other plane surface that is affected by sound. The slight vibrations of this surface displace the returned beam, causing it to trace the sound wave. The vibrating laser spot is then converted back to sound. In a more robust and expensive implementation, there turned light is split and fed to an interferometer, which detects movement of the surface. Fiber Optic Microphone: A fiber optic microphone converts acoustic waves into electrical signals by sensing changes in light intensity, instead of sensing changes in capacitance or magnetic fields as with conventional microphones. VIDEO CHAIN The video we see at our home is either pre-recorded in studio or live telecasted. Block diagram shown in fig illustrates different chains of video recording, video playback, news, and live broadcasting. In First chain we will understand studio program recording. Camera output from the studio hall is sent to CCU where many parameters of video signals are controlled. Output signal of CCU after making all corrections is sent to VM in PCR-1 (production control room). Output of 3 to 4 cameras comes here and final signal is selected here using VM according to a directors choice.

Studio 1 (Video camera)

CCU

PCR 1

VTR
Transmitter

Studio 2 (Video camera)

PCR 2 (Vision mixer)

MSR

Earth Station

FIG: Block Diagram The final signal from VM is sent to VTR. VTR uses both analog and digital tape recording system. At the time transmitting this pre recorded program cassettes is played in to respective in VTR room. Signal from VTR is sent to PCR-2. PCR-2 has one VM, video monitoring system, and CG (Computer Graphics). From PCR-2, signal travels from MSR to Transmitter or Earth station for terrestrial and satellite transmission. MSR is the main control room between studio and transmitter or receiver. AUDIO CHAIN In studio program, audio from studio microphones is directly fed to the AUDIO CONSOLE place in PCR-1. It is used to mix audio from different sources and maintain its output. From AC, signal is directly recorded on tape with video signal in VTR. While playing back audio is extracted from tape and fed to another audio console placed in PCR-2 and then travels with the video signal.

PrePrePreVTR CD/V CD Outsid e Satellit e MW link

Program

Audio distan. Ampl. FOR

MSR MSR MW FEED

VTR

Audio console Program Ampl. ADA

VISION MIXER Vision mixer is the almost final equipment in program (video) production and its output is used either for recording or transmission. Vision mixing is the process of providing a composite signal from various input sources. It has many input sources such as cameras, VCR/server, Graphics, IRDs. Out of these I/ p, any source can be taken on o/p. It is used to switch or cut between 2 video sources, or to combine them in a variety of ways. There are two types of mixing: > Additive mixing & > Non additive mixing PAL (PHASE ALTERNATE LINE) SYSTEM The Color Television It is possible to obtain any desired color by mixing three primary colors i.e., red, blue and green in suitable proportion. Thus it is only required to convert optical information of these three colors to electrical signals and transmit it on different carriers to be decoded by the receiver. This

can then be converted back to the optical image at the picture tube. The phosphors for all the three colors i.e. R, G and B are easily available to the manufacturers of the picture tube. So the pick up from the cameras and output for the picture tube should consist of three signals i.e. R, G and B. It is only in between the camera and the picture tube of the receiver we need a system to transmit this information.

When a CCVS signal passes through a long chain or network (or a defective network) the chrominance signal may suffer a phase change with respect to burst resulting in wrong hue. This is because the relationship between burst phase and the instantaneous sub-carrier superimposed on the Luminance signal will determine HUE or color. If any serious changes occur in this relationship in the transmission path, Assuming a phase error of (Alpha) after the transmission link for the resultant chrominance signal of nth line. In the successive line also there is a phase error of (alpha) but the resultant chrominance polarity is different. So when we combine the chrominance of nth line and (n +1) th line the net result is chrominance signal with original phase. This is a major improvement in PAL system over the NTSC system. Even if we do not combine the chrominance outputs of n and n + 1 lines electronically by using delay line of one TV line (64 Micro seconds) as in case of PAL-D Receivers. Wrong Hues will result. Delay Line PAL - PAL - Demodulator In the case of PAL's Receiver the ability of eyes to combine the hues on the adjacent lines is utilized. However the resultant picture is less satisfactory for phase errors exceeding 15 degrees.

PAL-D demodulator uses the delay line to combine the information of a line with the information of the previous line. This is done by adding and subtracting the two lines. The two resultants are the separated 'U' and 'V' modulation side bands which corresponds to the average hue and saturation of the present and previous lines received. The delay line is a ultrasonic one. It is a glass element fitted with suitable transducers. The input and output impedance's are of the order of 150 ohms and the bandwidth is around 2 MHz. Insertion loss is 10 dB or more. The delay timing accuracy is of the order of 3 nanoseconds. PAL ENCODER PAL encoder instead of reversing the phase of V component on every alternating line, it has been found much easier to change the phase of carrier modulating the R-Y component by 180 degree every alternate line. This switching is controlled by the H/2 oscillator i.e., by a 7.80 kHz PAL Indent pulse. The block diagram of PAL encoder explains a system having the following steps :1) Add R G B to generate Y, R-Y & B-Y 2) Modulate R-Y by SC at 90o for line n and 270 o for line n+1. Switching of SC phase is controlled by 7.80 kHz, switching pulse. 3) Modulate B-Y by SC at 0o phase. 4) To generate SC with V switching information i.e. either at 135/225o (burst) each alternate line. (Swinging burst) 5) Generation of pulse called PAL-indent signal of 7.80 kHz. 6) Generating of burst gate or K pulse to define the parking space for burst at the back porch.

7) Adding of 2, 3, 4, Y and sync to generate CCVS i.e., color composite Video signal as Encoder output.

PAL DECODER PAL decoder is a reverse of encoding process. The objectives of recovering R G & B from the received signal is achieved in the following steps: 1) Y & S is recovered by decoding video & using LPF and Sync separator circuit of receiver. 2) Chroma is separated by using BPF (centre at 4.43 MHz) 3) Chrome is keyed or gated to get back the burst i.e. SC by using K Pulse. 4) L.O. 4.43 MHz is phase locked with the recovered burst to make it of same phase as that of the transmitted one. 5) 4.43 MHz SC is processed further to get the same pulse at 90 degree phase as well. 6) Modulated chroma is demodulated by these two SC at 0 & 90 degree. This will retrieve U & V components. 7) Phase of the V component is restored back to normal by using the concerned information from the transmitted burst.

8) U & V is demodulated back to R-Y & B-Y. 9) Y, R-Y & B-Y are mixed to retrieve R G B which will control the three grids of picture tube.

MASTER SWITCHING ROOM (MSR)

Master switching room (MSR) is used for transmission media. It is the engineering co-ordination centre of activity for selecting & routing the signal from various sources to transmitter and earth station. It is a room where all different sources from the outside studio comes first here and enroots transmission to different destination like transmitter & earth station. This room comprises of Routine switcher, Stab amplifier, Video/Audio distribution amplifier etc. It is the heart of the studio. Most of the switching electronics are kept here e.g. camera base stations, switcher mainframe, SPG, Satellite receivers, MW link, DDA & most of the patch panels. Signal is routed through MSR. Signal can be monitored at various stages. This section is equipped with a 64X64 Digital Routing Switcher where all the signals from Studio-A, Studio-B, Transmitter, Earth Station, OB Van signal, DSNG etc are routed to various areas as per requirements for recording/transmission. One OFC link between MSR and Earth Station has also been installed.

AUDIO CONSOLE It has many input sources such as microphones, VCR / server, IRDs, tone generators. Out of these i/p, any source can be taken on o/p. Audio level of Sources can be adjusted and audio effects can be added.

OB/DSNG VAN

Introduction Outside broadcasting is the production of television or radio programmes (typically to cover news and sports events) from a mobile television studio. This mobile control room is known as an "Outside Broadcasting Van", "OB Van", "Scanner" (a BBC term), "mobile unit", "remote truck", "live truck", or "production truck". Signals from cameras and microphones come into the OB Van for processing and transmission.

OB VAN OB Van is equipped with 8 numbers of Thomson TTV 1657 Digital CCD cameras, 16 input versatile vision mixers ROSS Synergy with various special effects. 16 channel Sound Craft make audio mixer with facility of individual channel equalization and limited. In addition to the above, one computerized MOVE CG for superimposing titles. Two nos. of broadcast quality VCR having slow motion (TTV3575p), two nos. of Recording VCRs and one EVS make Live slow motion hard disc recording system is also installed. One Long haul microwave link is also available with OB Van. DSNG VAN The mobile DSNG Van is equipped with 400 W TWT of Xycom and Tandberg E5500 encoder in 1+1 mode along with up converters / down converters of ADVENT and base band equipments. The DSNG van can be operated in both C or Ku band and it has the unique dual band waveguide in it. The system is operational since November 2002 The 2 meter antenna system is of advent make having the auto tracking

facility controlled through laptop computer and can track any satellite in very short period automatically. It has a GPS system with flux gate compass etc used for auto tracking of satellites. The vehicle mounted DSNG Van supplied through BECIL is used in live coverages for up linking. A typical OB Van is usually divided into 5 parts: > The 1st and largest part is the production area where the director, technical director, assistant director, character generator operator and producers usually sit in front of a wall of monitors. This area is very similar to a Production control room. The technical director sits in front of the video switcher. The monitors show all the video feeds from various sources, including computer graphics, cameras, video tapes, video servers and slow motion replay machines. The wall of monitors also contains a preview monitor showing what could be the next source on air and a program monitor that shows the feed currently going to air or being recorded. Behind the directors there is usually a desk with monitors for the editors to operate. It is essential that the directors and editor are in connection with each other during events, so that replays and slow-motion shots can be selected and aired. > The 2nd part of a van is for the audio engineer; it has a sound mixer. The audio engineer can control which channels are added to the output and will follow instructions from the director. >The 3rd part of van is video tape. The tape area has a collection of VTRs and may also house additional power supplies or computer equipment. > The 4th part is the video control area where the cameras are controlled by 1or 2 people to make sure that the iris is at the correct exposure and that all the cameras look the same. > The 5th part is transmission where the signal is monitored by and engineered for quality control purposes and is transmitted or sent to other trucks.

PROJECT ALLOTED FROM DDK

LAN NETWORKING OF IRDS

INTRODUCTION Networking can be defined simply as an interconnection of two or more computers as shown in Fig.1. This can be achieved by connecting

computers with optical fiber cables or UTP Cables. Recently the wireless networking has become popular because of its mobility; and WiMax is also catching the interest and is under development. Fig. 1: A computer network PURPOSE OF NETWORKING 1. Sharing of files The file from one computer can be shared by another computer. 2. Sharing of resources Network printers are the most cost effective sharing of resource. Instead of providing each and every computer with a printer, we may provide four or five printers in a network which will save cost and space. Hard disk space can also be shared. 3. Sharing of programs We may provide a server based office suite which will be cost effective. 4. Users communicate with each other Networking can be used for communication between two computers in text form. If sound cards are installed, voice can also be interchanged like intercoms with chat programs.

5. Video conferencing The picture and voice from one computer can be transmitted to the other computer through networking. 6. Entertainment, distributed games - Audio & video streaming - Doom and other games: This is very popular among youngsters. 7. Commerce - Ticket booking, Purchase of articles and banking 8. Automation of business processes In a business environment it will be prudent to have an automatic reply mechanism. This programme will scan the e-mails and reply back with standard set of frequently asked questions. This will save enormous amount of time and money and customer will also get immediate reply. 9. Control of equipment Domestic equipment like washing machine, Microwave etc. In Radio stations this function can be used to get data on the transmitter readings etc. where the transmitter can be installed in inaccessible places. TYPES OF NETWORKING LAN LAN (Local Area Network) MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) WAN (Wide Area Network)

- LAN is normally a small network within a building.

MAN - This is a connection of two networks situated in two different locations within a city. WAN - This is a connection of networks situated in two different cities. One more variant of this is the VPN (virtual private network) which uses public network for connecting offices in different cities. The VPN concept had improved with win 2003 and will be cheaper as it is using public network. IP ADDRESS

Every host connected to a network should have an IP address for interconnectivity. IP addresses are unique logical addresses. They have 32 bits but are written in four octets of dotted decimal notation like 192.168.1.1 as in Fig. 7. Each and every IP address has two parts namely network ID and the host ID. The host ID is the unique number allotted by the administrator of the network. The network ID of all the computers in the network are same otherwise they cannot communicate to each other. One more classification of IP addresses is the public IP address and the private IP address. All the computers connected to the internet have a public IP address which is assigned by the IANA (Internet Assigning Numbers Authority). There are certain range of addresses which can be given in a private network. They are called private IP addresses. SUBNET MASK The Subnet masks are useful in segregating the host ID and the network ID. If it is 255, it is network ID and if it 0 then it is host ID. The above said classification is general and because of more requirement variable length subnet mask is also being used in which numbers other than 255 is also used. Example For Class C network the subnet mask is 255.255.255.0 as shown in Fig. 7 MAC ADDRESS Every LAN card has a unique 48 bit address known as the MAC address as in Fig. 8. This is an hexadecimal format and is permanent as it is embedded in the chip. Because of this it is also known as physical address or hardware address. This MAC address is used by the LAN switches for switching. Example : 00:0D:60:A4:25:4C.

Fig. 7: Network card, IP address and subnet mask

Fig. 8: Mac address (Physical address)

CABLES USED IN NETWORKING Earlier co-axial cables were being used for inter connecting computers in a network. Slowly they had been replaced by un shielded twisted pair cables (UTP) as shown in Fig. 10 a.

Fig. 10b: Screened twisted pair. Fig. 10a: Unshielded twisted pair In environments where RF or electro magnetic interference is more, we may go for shielded twisted pair or screened twisted pair as shown in fig. 10b. It normally contains four pair of wires in different colours. Up to 100 MBPS only two pairs are used and in Gigabit Ethernet all the four pairs are used. The table below gives some details about the types of UTP cables and their speed.

Cable category Cat 5 Cat 5e Cat6

Rated frequency Bandwidth In MHz 100 100 250

Use 10 and 100MBPS 10,100 and 100MBPS 10,100 and 100MBPS

Common Ethernet network cable are straight and crossover cable. This Ethernet network cable is made of 4 pair high performance cable that consists twisted pair conductors that used for data transmission. Both end of cable is called RJ45 connector. The cable can be categorized as Cat 5, Cat 5e, Cat 6 UTP cable. Cat 5 UTP cable can support 10/100 Mbps Ethernet network, whereas Cat 5e and Cat 6 UTP cable can support Ethernet network running at 10/100/1000 Mbps. You might heard about Cat 3 UTP cable, it's not popular anymore since it can only support 10 Mbps Ethernet network.

Straight and crossover cable can be Cat3, Cat 5, Cat 5e or Cat 6 UTP cable, the only difference is each type will have different wire arrangement in the cable for serving different purposes.

Cable T-568A Straight-Through Ethernet Cable

The TIA/EIA 568-A standard which was ratified in 1995, was replaced by the TIA/EIA 568-B standard in 2002 and has been updated since. Both standards define the T-568A and T-568B pin-outs for using Unshielded Twisted Pair cable and RJ-45 connectors for Ethernet connectivity. The standards and pin-out specification appear to be related and interchangeable, but are not the same and should not be used interchangeably.

T-568B Straight-Through Ethernet Cable

Both the T-568A and the T-568B standard Straight-Through cables are used most often as patch cords for your Ethernet connections. If you require a cable to connect two Ethernet devices directly together without a hub or when you connect two hubs together, you will need to use a Crossover cable instead. RJ-45 Crossover Ethernet Cable

A good way of remembering how to wire a Crossover Ethernet cable is to wire one end using the T-568A standard and the other end using the

T-568B standard. Another way of remembering the color coding is to simply switch the Green set of wires in place with the Orange set of wires. Specifically, switch the solid Green (G) with the solid Orange, and switch the green/white with the orange/white. Ethernet Cable Instructions: 1. Pull the cable off the reel to the desired length and cut. If you are pulling cables through holes, its easier to attach the RJ-45 plugs after the cable is pulled. The total length of wire segments between a PC and a hub or between two PC's cannot exceed 100 Meters (328 feet) for 100BASE-TX and 300 Meters for 10BASE-T. 2. Start on one end and strip the cable jacket off (about 1") using a stripper or a knife. Be extra careful not to nick the wires, otherwise you will need to start over. 3. Spread, untwist the pairs, and arrange the wires in the order of the desired cable end. Flatten the end between your thumb and forefinger. Trim the ends of the wires so they are even with one another, leaving only 1/2" in wire length. If it is longer than 1/2" it will be out-of-spec and susceptible to crosstalk. Flatten and insure there are no spaces between wires. 4. Hold the RJ-45 plug with the clip facing down or away from you. Push the wires firmly into the plug. Inspect each wire is flat even at the front of the plug. Check the order of the wires. Double check again. Check that the jacket is fitted right against the stop of the plug. Carefully hold the wire and firmly crimp the RJ-45 with the crimper. 5. Check the color orientation, check that the crimped connection is not about to come apart, and check to see if the wires are flat against the front of the plug. If even one of these are incorrect, you will have to start over. Test the Ethernet cable. Ethernet Cable Tips:

A straight-thru cable has identical ends. A crossover cable has different ends. A straight-thru is used as a patch cord in Ethernet connections. A crossover is used to connect two Ethernet devices without a hub or for connecting two hubs. A crossover has one end with the Orange set of wires switched with the Green set. Odd numbered pins are always striped, even numbered pins are always solid colored.

Looking at the RJ-45 with the clip facing away from you, Brown is always on the right, and pin 1 is on the left. No more than 1/2" of the Ethernet cable should be untwisted otherwise it will be susceptible to crosstalk. Do not deform, do not bend, do not stretch, do not staple, do not run parallel with power cables, and do not run Ethernet cables near noise inducing components.

Basic Theory:

By looking at a T-568A UTP Ethernet straight-thru cable and an Ethernet crossover cable with a T-568B end, we see that the TX (transmitter) pins are connected to the corresponding RX (receiver) pins, plus to plus and minus to minus. You can also see that both the blue and brown wire pairs on pins 4, 5, 7, and 8 are not used in either standard. What you may not realize is that, these same pins 4, 5, 7, and 8 are not used or required in 100BASE-TX as well. So why bother using these wires, well for one thing its simply easier to make a connection with all the wires grouped together. Otherwise you'll be spending time trying to fit those tiny little wires into each of the corresponding holes in the RJ-45 connector. Straight Cable You usually use straight cable to connect different type of devices. This type of cable will be used most of the time and can be used to: 1) Connect a computer to a switch/hub's normal port. 2) Connect a computer to a cable/DSL modem's LAN port. 3) Connect a router's WAN port to a cable/DSL modem's LAN port. 4) Connect a router's LAN port to a switch/hub's uplink port. (normally used for expanding network) 5) Connect 2 switches/hubs with one of the switch/hub using an uplink port and the other one using normal port.

If you need to check how straight cable looks like, it's easy. Both side (side A and side B) of cable have wire arrangement with same color. Check out different types of straight cable that are available in the market here.

Crossover Cable Sometimes you will use crossover cable, it's usually used to connect same type of devices. A crossover cable can be used to: 1) Connect 2 computers directly. 2) Connect a router's LAN port to a switch/hub's normal port. (normally used for expanding network) 3) Connect 2 switches/hubs by using normal port in both switches/hubs. In you need to check how crossover cable looks like, both side (side A and side B) of cable have wire arrangement with following different color . Have a look on these crossover cables if you plan to buy one. You can also find more network cable choices and information from Comtrad Cables.

In case you need to make a crossover cable yourself! You can use this crimper to do it. TYPES OF CONNECTOR USED FOR NETWORKING The co-axial cables were using BNC connectors. The UTP cables generally use RJ45 connector as in Fig. 11. It has eight pins for the four

pairs of wires. Fig. 11: RJ 45 connector used with UTP cable HUBS AND SWITCHES

These are hardware components which enable communication between computers. A Hub/Switch is a device used to centralize network traffic through a single connection point. Hubs can be of two types: active and passive. An active hub regenerates and transmits the signals. It requires electrical power to run. A passive hub acts as a mere connection point and does not amplify or regenerate the signal. Passive hubs do not require electrical power to run. Hubs have become obsolete and no more in use. Switch offers more advantages than a hub and also ensures better utilisation of the bandwidth. Fig. 12 shows the picture of a switch, which uses RJ-45 type connector to connect to the network cables. Switches are always specified by the number of ports (network connections) and speed. For example, the C-DAC networks use either 8 port, 10/100 Mbps switch or 16 port, 10/100 Mbps switch depending upon the category of the installation.

Fig. 12: A switch

INTRODUCTION TO LOCAL AREA NETWORK A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that connects computers and devices in a limited geographical area such as home, school, computer laboratory or office building. [1] The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to wide area networks (WANs), include their usually higher data-transfer rates, smaller geographic area, and lack of a need for leased telecommunication lines. ARCNET, Token Ring and other technology standards have been used in the past, but Ethernet over twisted pair cabling, and Wi-Fi are the two most common technologies currently in use. Early LAN cabling had always been based on various grades of coaxial cable. However shielded twisted pair was used in IBM's Token Ring implementation, and in 1984 StarLAN showed the potential of simple unshielded twisted pair by using Cat3the same simple cable used for telephone systems. This led to the development of 10Base-

T (and its successors) and structured cabling which is still the basis of most commercial LANs today. In addition, fiber-optic cabling is increasingly used in commercial applications. As cabling is not always possible, wireless Wi-Fi is now the most common technology in residential premises, as the cabling required is minimal and it is well suited to mobile laptops and smartphones. Network topology describes the layout pattern of interconnections between devices and network segments. Switched Ethernet has been for some time the most common Data Link Layer and Physical Layer implementation for local area networks. At the higher layers, the Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) has become the standard. Smaller LANs generally consist of one or more switches linked to each other, often at least one is connected to a router, cable modem, or ADSL modem for Internet access. Larger LANs are characterized by their use of redundant links with switches using the spanning tree protocol to prevent loops, their ability to manage differing traffic types via quality of service (QoS), and to segregate traffic with VLANs. Larger LANs also contain a wide variety of network devices such as switches, firewalls, routers, load balancers, and sensors.[13] LANs may have connections with other LANs via leased lines, leased services, or by tunneling across the Internet using virtual private network technologies. Depending on how the connections are established and secured in a LAN, and the distance involved, a LAN may also be classified as metropolitan area network (MAN) or wide area networks (WAN). INTEGRATED RECIEVER/DECODER CONSUMER IRDS Consumer IRDs commonly called a set-top box are used by end users and are much cheaper compared to professional IRDs. To curb content piracy, they also lack many features and interfaces found in professional IRDs such as outputting uncompressed SDI video or ASI transport

stream dumps. They are also designed to be more aesthetically pleasing. Professional IRDS Commonly found in radio, television, Cable and satellite broadcasting facilities, the IRD is generally used for the reception of contribution feeds that are intended for re-broadcasting. The IRD is the interface between a receiving satellite dish or Telco networks and a broadcasting facility video/audio infrastructure. Professional IRDs have various features that consumer IRDs lack such as:

SDI outputs. ASI inputs / outputs. AES/EBU Audio decoding. VBI reinsertion. WSS data and pass through. Transport stream demultiplexing. Genlock input. Frame synchronization of digital video output to analogue input. Closed captions and VITS/ITS/VITC Insertion. Video test pattern generator. Remote management over LAN/WAN. GPI interface - For sending external alarm triggers. Rack mountable.

There are many Integrated receiver/decoders of different companies like Motorola DSR-4410 which has below features: The DSR-4410 IRD brings the latest technology advances from the recognized leader in satellite program delivery. Building on the DigiCipher II platform, the DSR-4410 IRD is affordable and easy to use. It is designed to deliver outstanding video and audio performance. This receiver can output either NTSC or PAL video formats, automatically matching the programmers video format. With a variable front end and bypass capabilities, the DSR-4410 is

ideally suited for network conversion from analog to digital. Equipped with DVB ASI input and output, the DSR-4410 is ready to connect to the rest of your headend equipment.

Feautures:

MPEG-2 Main Level @ Main Profile DigiCipher II MegaPipe+ support Variable tuning from 4 MHz to 36 MHz Dolby Digital and MPEG layer II audio processing VBI reinsertion SID/AMOL-II, NABTS and closed caption Stackable 1 RU chassis design DigiCipher II conditional access control Quick disconnect screw terminals for easy installation Bypass video and audio inputs DTMF cue tones for local ad insertion ASI input and/or output for easy connection to digital cable headend products 10/100Base-T Ethernet port for datacasting and/or SNMP monitoring and control Dedicated video diagnostics output

Motorola DSR-4550

Building on the DigiCipher II platform, the DSR-4550 IRD is affordable, easy to use and designed to deliver excellent video and audio performance. The DSR-4550 supports digital component video. The SDI output provides 2 channels of embedded audio to allow easy routing of video and audio through a cable facility. Equipped with both ASI input/output and Gig-E output, the DSR-4550 is ready to connect easily to the rest of your headend equipment. Features:

Gig-E output for easy connection to digital cable headend products Advanced modulation support with 8PSK Turbocode SDI digital component video output with embedded audio AES digital audio output ASI input/output 8 RF Inputs (L-Band) MPEG-2 Main Level @ Main Profile DigiCipher II MegaPipe+ support Variable tuning from 4 MHz to 36 MHz Dolby Digital and MPEG layer II audio processing VBI reinsertion SID/AMOL-II, NABTS and closed caption DigiCipher II conditional access control Quick disconnect screw terminals for easy installation 1 RU chassis design Bypass video and audio inputs

DTMF cue tones for local ad insertion 10/100Base-T Ethernet port for SNMP monitoring and control DSM-CC encapsulated IP data output Dedicated video diagnostics output Over-the-air software download capability

RD5000 MPEG-2/4 Receiver Decoder

The RD5000 is a multi-format modular receiver decoder supporting MPEG-2/4 SD & HD 4:2:0 formats. The design allows you to customize a compact, modular chassis with up to eight I/O modules including RF inputs (DVB-S/S2, COFDM, QAM, 8VSB), ASI input/output, IP inputs/outputs in addition to decoded Audio/Video outputs (HD/SD SDI, AES, analog). The platform is ready for hardware and software upgrade in the field and matches any application such as contribution, distribution and confidence monitoring. Supporting multi-services descrambling (BISS & Dual DVB-CI CAM), the RD5000 is the ideal solution to receive live feeds via RF, ASI or IP and to deliver a demodulated/decoded signal for local processing and re-encoding. The RD5000 includes all the features by default (e.g. MPEG-2, MPEG-4, SD, HD, MPEG Audio, AAC, AC-3, E-AC3, down conversion) and preserves CAPEX for companies migrating from MPEG-2 to MPEG-4 now or in the future. The RD5000 is a single channel receiver decoder per 1RU rack. As complement, the RD5002 manages two channels in a 1RU rack, which is unique in the market. This density drives important system cost reduction, and the price per channel is extremely competitive. Key Features:

Single channel in RD5000 or dual channels in RD5002 per 1RU MPEG-2 & MPEG-4 SD & HD 4:2:0 decoding Up to eight input/output interfaces (DVB-S/S2, ASI, IP) Up to 4 stereo audios channels

Multi-services descrambling

Figure: Block Diagram

CONNECTING AN IRD TO LAN NETWORK

Conclusion

Doordarshan, the national television service of India, is devoted to public service broadcasting. It is one of the largest terrestrial networks in the world. In my Industrial training at Doordarshan Kendra, Delhi, I have gained useful knowledge which will surely be of great help in future. This training gave me an opportunity to learn the practical aspects of the knowledge of my field of interest, Electronics and communication.