Chapter 1: The Beginnings Introduction The modern world began in the first century of 1600, in which America was

founded 1. Capitalism Came in the First Ships New England unfertile soil, Chesapeake fertile soil People flocked to this land because of its promise The vast land ruined peoples belief that land was scarce and labor was many Land brought hope as land was given out almost for free Many, like the Dutch, tried to bring feudalism with them, but it didnt survive Lord Baltimore was more successful than the Dutch in Maryland, but slaves and plantations still won Carolina still tried, creating a full system of ranks, but peasant class was completely absent Wealth was not generated by the class system, but by other means, allowing others to get wealthy too Private property was created in New England, where the feudal system was left behind The lack of feudalism created a profit-driven society, which left very few European-conservatives This American mentality forces the recruitment of the best men available, and Americans constantly seek to expand their wealth Instead of aristocracy, Puritanism and Quakerism was brought, bringing backward-looking and forward-looking economic attitudes Puritans believed that work was offering to God Puritanism also brought social obligation to look good Puritans also adopted trading Quakers also adopted a plain, trading lifestyle Quaker businessmen were known to work hard and continue practicing their religion As New England and the Middle West grew, Puritanism did too Franklins Poor Richards Almanac was a saying full of Puritan quotes, under the name of Yankees 2. Were the Puritans Puritanical Puritans are rumored to fear happiness They believed God created the world to survive, not for pleasure They accepted wine but not drunkards, the lottery but not gambling Puritans tried to control provocative clothes, but little change was made Dress was accepted based on class; only the higher class was allowed to wear luxuries Puritans hated music in the church, but loved music otherwise and brought opera with them There is little evidence about Puritans and art, except that they had some Puritans married for the sake of marrying, but women were used for good They had relatively easy divorce laws Signs of affection were okay th Puritans accepted sinners, but the 17 century time was one of punishment Relationships between husband and wife were much more loving than people believe In the end, Puritans were still serious and sober Puritans strived to achieve new levels of morality Such spirituality led to narrow-mindedness They were quite different, but all were common in that they believed in their cause strongly Puritans knew that they had to sustain themselves after breaking away from the Roman Church during the Reformation Puritans left resistance to oppression They believed that the most religious was the most intellectual Most Puritans believed that the feeling of salvation does not allow one to give up religious conduct Puritans valued education, as colleges in New England had far more graduates than in the South They valued the education of ministers extremely highly Primary education was important so that people can go to college Families were obliged to send their children to school, or at least teach them to read at home High education standards were otherwise uncommon Quakers did not have even close to an equivalent education standard Virginia had some education, but not equal to the standard of New England

There definitely is a connection between education in the past and education now The colleges were created as byproducts of spreading religion A pattern was set for education for all However, Puritans were still not religiously tolerant 3. Rights of Englishmen A republic was set-up accidently and casually The king allowed a representative assembly when the Virginia charter was revoked and Virginia became a royal colony This set-up a basis for the governments of all royal colonies In Massachusetts hundreds applied for citizenship Massachusetts had a direct democracy while Virginians and Massachusetts fought for the right to tax themselves As more people came to Massachusetts a representative democracy was adopted The people strongly wanted self-government Republicanism was born, and democracy had already been for some time Republicanism was already practiced in Puritan churches America seemed to have no supreme government just local ones Puritans settled in compact farms, different than Virginia In Virginia, people took large land for tobacco farming This gave rise to counties in Virginia and meetinghouses in New England The New England town meetings allowed anyone to speak, and all males to vote These events shaped ideas of 1776 4. Black People in a White Peoples Country Slavery only started in the late 1770s Virginia consisted mostly of slave plantations In the 1720s, slavery surpassed servants, but still did not skyrocket Slavery was the cause of racism against all blacks In England, slaves did not cause racism Discrimination began before slavery and grew with slavery Just because someone was different they were racially discriminated The fact that slaves came on a ship and were considered cargo played a large role to discrimination The correct status of slaves was still being built Native Americans were also being used as slaves Virginia and New England were not the first to have slaves: English settlements in Bermuda and the Caribbean already had slave systems and codes As early as the 1630s, the governments were singling out blacks, not allowing them to bea r arms Slaves received harsher punishments than other servants Blacks were also more valuable in trade, as they were worth more than similar white servants (who had limited years left) This fact suggests that blacks were already considered as slaves, as newborns were also born into slavery One case shows that servitude lasted longer than 20 years and slavery status could be inherited However, in 1660, slaves were hardly mentioned in laws However, in the mid-60s, laws directly targeted slaves, as newborns followed the hereditary status of the mother or father Slowly, blacks were considered as slaves: personal property Before blacks were actually considered slaves or were a large portion of the population, they were discriminated against by laws Only blacks were persecuted, even if free and even if slaves were not a big part of the economy Even though records of the importation of blacks are little, they contain information about slaves Even Puritans recognized and used slaves, as captured Indians were often traded for slaves Even there were few slaves in New England; even they were prohibited to bear arms In New England, practice came before law just like in the South; providing good reason to create the laws Discrimination was directed toward all blacks, proving that discrimination came before slavery The discrimination was hardened with the early laws and economic importance of slaves The full implications of the problem would not be realized until the 1800s

Chapter 2: The Awakening of American Nationality 7. All of Us Americans During the Zenger trial, Andrew Hamilton expected the attorney general to stop using English examples in America, even though Americans mostly used British law By the 1740s, Americans believed themselves more and more separate from the British The Americans saw their differences starting from the war with France in the 1740s, in which Britain expected more colonial support Americans saw the British as cruel, while the British saw the Americans as cowards After Quebec fell in 1759, Americans were grouped together more with America than Britain Dutch and Indian influences changed American language Americans also created their own words to match the new environments Some familiar English words took on new meanings American pride grew as they separated themselves from Britain Especially as relations worsened with the Stamp Act, differences enlarged John Morgan considered himself both British and American within a year, and helped establish a medical school Americans believed that their life was better than Englands, which cause more separation Both sides saw America pure and free from corruption Once the French were defeated, some Americans saw independence coming as they didnt need the British anymore Britain debated whether or not to kick out France from all of the Americas, because they believed the Americans might try to revolt if given the freedom to expand In addition to the French conflict, America was becoming ripe with knowledge and power Britains aristocratic ways were separate from the Americans preservation of freedom In the end, America was ready to become independent by the 1760s; the only thing that was needed was something to make them realize the change

Chapter 3: A New Kind of Revolution Introduction America was the first successful colonial revolution It is amazing that the revolution did not interrupt development 1. Causes Were Consequences The French and Indian War showed the split between Britain and America Although the victory gave Britain power, Britain was in debt because it had to continue to protect the land Before the war, Americans never had to pay for the army, except through the Navigation Acts After the war, The British allowed the French molasses in the West Indies and setup the Stamp and Townshend Acts to gain revenue for the debt The colonists were not asked to pay much, only 1/3 of their own defense and 1/50 of the average British However, the colonists expected to return to the lax lifestyle after the war, and rebelled when they could not The Americans believed only they had the right to tax themselves, especially Britain hadnt taxed them in so long The Americans now saw themselves as separate people, while the British continued to see them as British The Americans continued to make high demands while Britain didnt do anything to crush them Somehow, they believed that Britain planned to crush their liberties, but Britain couldnt even control them Britains mistake is that they themselves did not know what they should do: see them as British or not Since Britain did not know what to do, it allowed America to run itself, a big mistake especially when they tried to regain control after the Boston Tea Party Americans believed that Britain was trying to confine, if not stifle, their economy with mercantilism However, the laws were actually acceptable The colonies felt they were oppressed because the British suddenly changed their taxes from heavy to light The Revolutionary ideas originated from Britain, as all ideas came from Britain The post-war stress forced Britain to tax the Americans, but the Americans were so used to the lax taxes that they finally realized they had become different people America never wanted to break just for the sake of breaking, but had a firm reason to do so Britain had made an attempt to restore old terms; repeal the Stamp, Townshend, and Mutiny Acts, restore trial by jury, and remove restrictions on settlements; but the Americans wanted a break 2. New Governments in Old Charters The new governments of America laid basis for the future and were directly related to the minds of the Founding Fathers John Locke and the Mayflower Compact created the basis for the government Maryland asserted that the powers of government are derived from the compact of the people The Constitutional Convention followed the compact in that it was created by the people; most states required the Constitution to have a separation of powers A few states only changed a little bit of their constitutions, but most added a bill of rights, continuing to follow ideas of the British People believed that only through separation of powers could freedom be secured and it is one of the fundamental ideas of the American Constitution Suffrage remained mostly the same; mostly property holders could vote and only property holders can hold positions of office 3. Revolutionaries Can be Conservative The terms "radical" and "conservative" greatly changed before and after the revolution The pre-1776 radicals were ones who opposed Britain and may even have thought of independence, while conservatives were ones who wanted to get back together with Britain From 1770-1780 radicals were ones who feared a central government because it took local control and threatened freedom while conservatives were ones who feared a central government because it was British After 1780, radicals were ones who wanted more local power and favored the Articles of Federation, while conservatives were ones who wanted a strong central government and favored the American Constitution In the Constitutional Convention of 1787, there were many conservatives, and this is why the Constitution had a strong central government The states were severely restricted as they lost a lot of abilities and the government could directly tax people of the states

In the Shay's Rebellion of 1787, Congress was too weak to do anything, but in the Whisky Rebellion of 1794, the new government was able to crush it with its newfound military power Eventually, even the radicals came to agree with the Constitution, creating stability that lasted for years The new job for the radicals was to stop the government from gaining even more power than it had already by interpreting the Constitution strictly It is ironic that the same problem has lasted through the many years The Jeffersonian were the radical group that stopped the government from gaining more power, just as the radicals did before 1776 As mostly farmers, the Jeffersonians opposed Hamilton's central banking system, in which industrialization had no use to them Although the Jeffersonian fought the Hamiltonians for long, it is good that the Hamiltonians won because the laissez faire strategy of the Jeffersonians would not have gotten the nation far However, Jeffersonian ideology has impacted American a lot as a lot of other groups drew from the idea The Jeffersonians trusted the people's ability to govern themselves When elected in 1800, Jefferson showed that they are willing to compromise by retaining the bank, paying off the debts and buying the Louisiana territory Fisher Ames of Mass. believed that ruling was more a matter of method than principle Both parties agreed that restraints were needed on the people Their disputes were mostly about banks and debts, not basic assumptions like freedom of property and business Both parties did not completely hate the other side and wanted to please everybody The Constitution both allowed personal freedoms as well as sustained a strong personal government The framework of government has remained the same even through these battles 4. Conservatives Can be Innovators Many unforeseen consequences occurred with some of these decisions When the Anglican Church was not supported anymore, Virginia allowed religious freedom, leading to the separation of church and state The Constitution furthered the division between church and state when it prohibited religious tests for holding office Americans changed the trend when it declared that religion would not affect one's protection of laws By 1833, all states had severed their ties with the church and made official by the 14th Amendment which stated that separation was a freedom granted by the Constitution America was not antireligious because religion lived on through the majority of the people America was the first to break the government away from the church and not support the church People began to questions slavery with the Declaration of Independence's statement "All men are created equal" Women's rights also grew after the war, where women received more responsibility during the revolutionary effort After the revolution, women began making demands such as divorce, suing for separation, and property settlements Women began calling for education, too, to raise the new sons and daughters of the Republic properly However, women still did not have other jobs, and a real feminist movement was to come later, where blacks and women both called upon the Declaration of Independence for equality Not only were those words just a popular saying, but the movement to try to achieve that was taking place, too Foreigners praised America's ability to avoid looking at rank at birth Social distinction were falling, and although some people were rich, everyone had the ability to try Regular people began holding office in government and capitals were moved away from established cities The freedom of the American economy began after the revolution, as merchants were able to target new markets Even with all the changes, society remained quite the same No new social classes came to power after the revolution Although many powerful Loyalists were exiled, not all the people of high position left and many new radicals replaced them The signers of the Declaration of Independence were men of power, wealth, and office Most people who held office before the Revolution held office after, too, proving that the Revolution was an uppermiddle class affair Men were moved from a good status before the Revolution to an equal or better status after This created social stability not often thought of

Land seized was mostly given to rich landowners, and took a long time, if at all, to reach the poor farmer Land was sold in order to reduce state debts, but this did not have much impact on social life because most people could get land very easily Usually, land was not given away as it was inherited The abolition of entail did not have a great effect either The Revolution did not affect much: class structure, capitalism, property distribution, and good government remained This is because the colonists under Britain were already quite well-off When Britain disturbed this, the Americans began to design a new way of life With the Ordinance of 1787, America avoided the chaos of accepting new states by allowing them to have equal rights in order to create a united America The combination of the Constitution, leaders, and the people preserved the nation

Chapter 4: To Make a More Perfect Union Introduction Between The War of 1812 and the Spanish-American War of 1898, most of Americas issues were internal and domestic, concerning settling and taming the land Although vast lands divided the nation, between 1812 and the Civil War, America was able to bond so well that it lasted a rebellion 1. Agrarian Imperialism In 1800, America did not go past the Mississippi River and did not even have Florida Within a short period of time, the nation grew 3 times its size The acquisition of new land was never needed, as there were large areas of land unsettled within the original boundaries of the U.S. It was the appeal of free land of the West that drew Americans to seek land Land just came to the Americans; the French proposed the Louisiana Purchase randomly, marking the beginning of Americas lust for land In the case of Spain, settlers rushed into the area called Mobile, and offered it to the U.S. However, only during the War of 1812 was this officially taken, and only in 1819 was the Florida Purchase Treaty made People soon began to believe that the U.S. was destined to control all of North America In the 1830s, Americans had settled and revolted against Mexico, creating another opportunity for the U.S. When Texas asked to be annexed into the U.S., Mexico agreed to acknowledge their independence as long as they dont do it; however, the U.S. annexed Texas anyways, setting up the stage for war The border dispute between Mexico and Texas also became a problem; Texans argued it was the Rio Grande, Mexicans argued that it was the Nueces Although it was once thought to be slaveholders conspiracy, the acquisition of Mexico is considered to be part of the Manifest Destiny: the goal to have the U.S. reach the Pacific Ocean The Americans could not resist taking land for a such a small cost, and resulted in the creation of California, Nevada, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, and Texas Meanwhile, Polk made a compromise with Britain to extend the northern border of the U.S. to the 49th parallel across the northern border, leaving America looking as it does today This acquisition of land led to an abundance of resources such as wheat and bread producing land, pasture lands for cows, timber, copper, zinc, lead, silver, and gold 2. More Than Sentiment However, there were economic problems in the West that were more important America was larger than all nations except Russia and Austria-Hungary, making travel of people and news slow Without transportation, goods had to remain within the society, leading to mostly subsistence lifestyles As people pushed even farther West, communication became even dimmer The main method of transportation in the 1800s was the Mississippi River, whic h was finally purchased along with the rest of the Louisiana Territory in 1803 to unite the nation This was in fact necessary, was General James Wilkinson and Aaron Burr continually tried to separate the union

The Transportation Revolution laid the basis for emotional national unity The Transportation Revolution was a revolution because in just 50 years it was completed in which there were a few hundred years that there was no transportation It began at the end of the 1700s and ended at the beginning of the 1800s Improved roads and turnpikes were created, and a national effort connected Maryland with Illinois Since before the railroad only animals were used, the Erie Canal was widely successful, leading to a large increase in canal buildings that connected inner rivers The Erie Canal, which connected the Great Lakes states and New York City, largely cut costs Indiana, Ohio, and Illinois were connected to the ocean through either the Erie Canal through the north or the Mississippi River through the south Canals were built in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia and New Jersey The steamboat was adapted into the interior rivers The steamboats were adapted to work in shallow waters and had an extremely powerful engine In 1815-1817, Henry Shreve was able to unlock the full potential of the steamboat, ending Fultons monopoly The riverboat made upstream rivers possible, creating whole economies dependent on its power The other revolutionary invention was the railroad The railroad was the first land transportation that rivaled the steamboats, and its speed made up for its slightly higher costs Importance can be measured by looking at how much governments helped; the Erie Canal was entirely state built, just as the Blue Ridge Railroad of Virginia and the Western and Atlantic of Georgia were, too The main method of creating the railroads were through mixed enterprises, which were funded 60% by private companies and 40% by states Missouri, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts all spent millions of dollars on railroad construction and about 60% of Southern railroads were publicly funded Local communities and cities also gave money, including Baltimore, Cincinnati, and towns in the South This evidence shows that America would much rather get the job done than to worry about economic concerns The railroad outshined even the steamboats, for the sole reason that boats needed water while railroads could be made almost anywhere The economies of states like Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois were expanded north, east, and mostly south Railroads connecting the West and the North allowed an economic alliance during the Civil War and ruined the Souths trade monopoly over the Mississippi River In addition, the telegraph invented by Samuel Morse helped bring a revolution in communication 3. The Factory Comes The Industrial Revolution can be said to have started in 1816, in which the first protective tariff was imposed to protect American manufacturers from cheap British goods after the War of 1812

There was support for the tariff from all over, including manufacturers and visionaries who wanted an America free from British goods The Industrial Revolution began with textile factories, which women largely controlled Many women went to Lowell, Massachusetts, where they began the fight for lower hours, higher wages, and better working conditions Factories were spreading across the U.S., as Eli Whitney introduced muskets to the factory system Whitney created the idea of interchangeability of parts and the machinery to do so, created cheaper and mass products With a lack of labor and skill, this idea was revolutionary and was picked up by other manufacturers Manufacturing had spread past New England into the Middle Atlantic States, and soon would pose a threat to farming In 1860, less than 60% of the people were in agriculture, and this number would decrease after the Civil War The South had only 15% of the nations manufacturing facilities, which greatly hampered it effectiveness in the Civil War 4. Does Land Make People? It was long believed that the frontier shaped the character of the nation Frederick Jackson Turner was revolutionary when he stated that the frontier shaped the people He believed that democracy came out of the frontier and that it cannot be attributed to European influence, the Susan Constant, the Mayflower, or the Constitution However, Turner gives multiple definitions of the frontier: 1) the area where wilderness meets civilization 2) the western part of the U.S. 3) an abundance of resources 4) a process of settling vacant lands Turner believes that Europeans enter the wilderness, become stripped down to Native Americans, then change the wilderness to something new, the American Tocqueville noticed that you find the same type of civilized person in New York than you do in the wilderness of the frontier, which is what unites America Men on the frontier tried to reproduce civilization as quickly as they could One accepted part of Turners theory is that democracy came from the frontier, as the western states were the first to have universal manhood suffrage, elected officials, etc. However, Kentucky and Tennessee had constitutions as conservative as Pennsylvania, which shows that frontier states just model the east Only a handful of clauses of the state constitutions were original when compared to those of the eastern states The democratic ideas can be traced back to those of the Levellers of 17th century England Considering the fact that the western states were successful in implementing these democratic ideas shows that the frontier did have an impact of creating a clean slate The vast land provided opportunity to practice democratic ideas, but this should not be confused with the fact that the ideas did not actually originate from the frontier as Turner imagined McKitrick and Elkins believed that the newness of the land, the necessity of establishing new communities, and active participation in community affairs is what constitutes democracy, and therefore, the frontier was democratic

The lack of leaders and the need to have common citizens solve problems created the American character of democracy The participation in the affairs of government reinforces self-confidence and self-reliance However, this democracy did not extend to women, who found less opportunity in the frontier than in the cities It was believed that the West was a back-up for the dejects of the East However, this was not true as 1) two historians could not find evidence for workers emigrating to the West, 2) starting a farm had cost 1 and a half years income if they found work 3) workers had to be helped to even get to the West 4) more people moved into the city rather than move to the frontier Rather than look at it this way, it is better to see urban areas as centers to let out farm discontent The frontiers existence as an expanding agriculture improved the wage levels of urban workers Higher wages encouraged workers to use machines, which increased American productivity The American character has been molded by the abundance of land and of industrialization Whether it was true or not, the belief that the West was a safety valve led to an increase in optimism and liberal land laws Therefore, when the frontier was considered closed, people lost motivation in work In the end, the belief had a powerful social influence that separated it from Europe However, some believe that wilderness does not create cultures but just molds them Changes were already implicitly defined in their original cultures, they just had to opportunity to come out When comparing two wildly different cultures who moved into vacant lands, the result is different because the original culture has a large impact on the result This can be seen in the South African Boers and the Russians, who had a czarist regime instead of democracy This can also be seen as the English and the Germans were settling America, as each had a different way of doing things Vacant land allows for the opportunity of social advancement and wealth accumulation of an already existing society Andrew Jackson represented the West, and therefore, also represented democracy

Chapter 5: The Great Experiment Introduction America was known as the great experiment in democracy People became their own rulers, there were many foreigners and the party system was in place 1. Let the People Rule After 1815, Americans expanded suffrage to rest the responsibility of government on everyone who was governed The basis for suffrage was now manhood or citizenship, not property Stake in society theory abolished as all had a right in the government This was drastic because it happened so rapidly and even property requirements to hold office were dropped Governors and other positions were popularly elected instead of chosen by legislatures, surprisingly even some judges During this time, states found it necessary to submit its constitution to the people for ratification Democracy went to such a great extent in trust of man that Jefferson would not have even gone to Faith in the people grew, as they believed that all people cannot do wrong on purpose This is a new concept, as the Democratic-Republicans, Federalists, and Whigs never had this much faith, but after this time it was never challenged again Jackson removed the concept that the same people be reelected into office forever This rotation of public officials proved that any common man can become a state official People took this opportunity and savagely sought office until it had to be controlled This rotation made sure that the officials were always in touch with the people and led to a more democratic government Andrew Jackson and James K. Polk strengthened the executive office Jackson made the president a direct representative of the people by trying to have popular elections and vetoing bills that the public did not favor Jackson asserted the presidents power to control his cabinet Polk used his power as Commander in Chief of the armed forces fully during the Mexican War by appointed generals and making a plan Jackson and Polk also used the veto power liberally when they did not think a law was right It is important to note that no veto was overridden until later, showing that people agreed with the vetoes The veto only became acceptable once the president seemed like a direct representative of the people and was not feared like a monarch People finally recognized the importance of a strong executive, and this popular representation of government lasts even today 2. All Men are Created Equal People saw this time as the fall of the American aristocracy, if one even existed, as aristocracy was scorned and condemned People tried to make an equal society For example, people attacked West Point as an aristocratic institution The standard of living for the average citizen increased Although the imbalance between the rich and the poor was increasing, and there were many poor, it was easy to become rich without displacing the others because the total wealth was always increasing Social classes began to blur together Property was not in danger as property was plentiful 3. Jacksonian Liberalism Andrew Jackson himself became a big personality as he was a common man who became president He was the first president to do many things In the 1830s, the modern party system began, one party headed under Jackson Although the Jacksonian ideology was made up of many thoughts of farming and business from all regions, economic freedom was one belief that remained the same Economic freedom meant that the government would not favor one group over the other For example, the Bank of the U.S. was not rechartered because it was given special privileges other banks were not given Jackson appointed Roger Taney as the new Supreme Court Justice, who followed Jackson and Marshalls principles

Marshall had taken away many state rights through cases like Fletcher vs. Peck and Dartmouth vs. Woodward In one case, the Charles River Bridge Company sued Massachusetts because the bridge set up by the government reduced traffic through the companys bridge Taney went against Marshall, saying states should get the benefit of the doubt when concerning charters However, Taney was still mindful to progress in transportation and the economy Sometimes, Jackson was seen to practice laissez faire, but this is oversimplified as Jackson supported internal improvements Governmental interference was unopposed However, laissez faire was necessary in the case of printing money, which was decided to be printed on a supply and demand basis After 1837, corporations were created more widely and became the dominant form of American business The working class shared the same benefits as businessmen Until the 1830s, governments were extremely hostile to labor organizations In Commonwealth of Massachusetts vs. Hunt in 1842, Lemuel Shaw decided that labor organizations should not be seen as bad and should be allowed so that the working class can get its rights 4. On the Road to Damascus The period was one of change and everything was questioned except democracy People focused upon what was forming the American character People believed that progress was unlimited as they have already seen so much change Reformation was changed in that it affected all people, including the lower classes It also created a sense of pity among people, leading to humanitarianism that lasted forever People today still believe that America is the role model for the world People traced the progress back to the people themselves, believing that they are all chosen The belief that education was the background for democracy and progress grew However, peoples beliefs exceeded their actions as not much was done for education In 1830 and 1840, people decided to reverse this lack of education and created a free school system in the North by the Civil War Children were required to go to school, they were supported by public funds, they were under the authority of states, and religion was kept separate Before, schools were mostly supported by high tuitions In state constitutions, it was soon common that no schools funds would be spent on religion, and therefore, not be included in the curriculum People looked toward schools to help solve the conflicts of the nation Schools increased the social responsibility of the citizen, since they were the ones running the government However, slavery was one issue that could not be decided upon

Chapter 9: Machines, Men, and Socialism Introduction After the Civil War, the U.S. went under huge change 1. Revolutionary Challenge At the end of the century, America was an industrial nation with larger population and more workers Railroads grew drastically 30,000 to 200,000 It was extremely inexpensive to transport materials Geography played an important role in the economic boom America was blessed with great resources: oil, iron, steel, copper, and minerals There was also great political unity to not hinder the market They had some problems, like climate, Indians, etc. Even before the Civil War, the transportation network was laid Government actions after the war increased greatly, lots of subsidies Quid pro quo- railroads furnished government with transportation at cheap cost Investors believed that the railroads held the key to destiny (federal, state governments) Even with this government funding, a lot was done privately, too Many of the government loans were marked with corruption and fraud However, government aid was still hugely important This value cannot be counted in numbers, but more as an atmosphere The great increase in immigration also attributed to growth Many inventions also added to growth (Bessemer process, telephone, steel, refrigeration, typewriter) Machines were readily replacing workers as they were efficient Many machines were of European origin Europeans also helped by investing capital into American businesses There was also an American drive or spirit that made people work Most of the new rich were not from the bottom of the social ladder, they were well-off to begin with However, their personalities cannot be generalized They all had a passion to work Their chance to become big often came early in their careers They were looking for more of a challenge than for profit Either way, a lot of them used corruption or monopoly to get their way There is no way that their actions can be considered ethical In the end, the industrial America was built, and it drastically changed social and human life 2. The Industrial Leviathan Industrialization came with bigness, as people wanted more control and wanted to eliminate opposition The American Steel Corporation was one of the biggest in the time Companies started coming together to form trusts This can be seen in steel, railroads, sugar, beef, oil, money, etc. Investment banking also grew J.P. Morgan gained power by investing into railroads The Money Trust made financial banking formal and powerful These trusts moved away from the ideal of perfect competition Although these monopolies have high output, they have to be balanced with protecting the customer The Interstate Commerce Commission was created to control the economic power of railroads The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 was an answer to protests The ICC tried to regulate the railroads, but it proved ineffective The Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 was another response 3. The Reconstruction That Took The economic revolution was nationwide, but the South did not become just like the North

The South became the cotton manufacturing center of the nation The South was more accustomed to towns, but the industries needed labor Usually, whole families were forced to work to earn enough Steel, iron, tobacco, and oil also had big manufacturing in the South In the end, however, the industries barely reached to the Southern way of life 4. Dollars Mean Success The spread of industrialism meant the spread of the belief of social mobility The teaching of the secret to success became a business within itself Some religious preachers still believed in hard work and morality Although the opportunities were few, there were still some Upward mobility was either career related, or generational related There were substantial opportunities to rise It made Americans believe in social equality Businessmen were accepted as friends of the common people and against privilege There were both low levels and high levels and the belief to move to the latter 5. The Workers Response Industrial capitalism created the labor movement The labor movement mirrored the growth of industrial capitalism Labor movements can be considered conservative because they are reactions to the industrialism Capitalism frees land, labor, and capital Land became available rapidly, as it was sold and bought at will, capital grew with banking, and labor finally grew with the end of serfdom and slavery Therefore, labor was still reduced to a commodity in the end This new movement gave men more freedom, but also made them individualistic and without a society The labor union fills this hole and creates a community Although men became a commodity, to increase them for profits also increases them in population Labor is weird in that it is part of the person who sells it Labor unions are conservative because they formed to preserve humanity and social character However, labor unions avoided getting into capitalism and turned to socialism instead The hardest challenge was to stay organized The Knights of Labor and the AF of L were two unions The Knights of Labor were famous for their cooperatives Thus, it conserved the small shopkeeper mentality instead of moving toward big business However, the Knights were as threatening as other labor unions because they only used strikes The Knights were organizing workers on a national scale larger than before The AF of L sought to better the working conditions of all Gompers, the leader of the AF of L, understood its boundaries He made trade unions a business, shown by the long time it lasted The AF of L was for the working man, but did not threaten anyone else 6. Nobody Here but Us Capitalists America had a good chance to become Socialist The American history of staying away from socialism shows conservatism because it stuck with capitalism Socialism required a class-conscious working class, but since no American believed in classes, it never bloomed This is because of the fluidity of the social structure People who hope to rise do not identify themselves with the present class The fact political revolution came before the industrial revolution adds to this, as people saw themselves as citizens and equals before workingmen Immigrants did not support socialism either because they were not included in groups Lastly, the success of capitalism overshadowed socialism

The American Dream also prevented people from turning to socialism Each thing socialism brings was already part of the American culture Chapter 10: Out of Many, One Introduction Around 1900, immigration was larger than it has been ever before 2/3 of the immigrants came to the US, no other country even comes close Only in America are so many nationalities mixed together 1. The Widening Stream America is the frontier of Europe and people who want to take a second chance Immigration constantly increased Old Immigration (1850-1900) Northern/Western Europe New Immigration (1900-) Southern/Eastern Europe The American pull was extremely strong America was seen as a land of opportunity, equality, and hope Some immigrants exaggerated their material possessions in their letters back home Some immigrants returned home, having stories to tell to others The immigrants claimed that they were more acute than before and can notice changes in Europe This bright view of America was instilled into all Europeans 2. Hewers of Wood and Drawers of Water America had an unquenchable thirst for labor Immigrants greatly added to the value of America through their work They performed more work than the native-born even though they had fewer numbers This was because most of the immigrants were in their prime age for working In the new immigration, mostly men came, not families Although most werent, some immigrants added skills such as bakers, tailors, and shoemakers However, unskilled was even more important, although lowly Old immigrants had helped settle the land For example, Wisconsin agriculturally grew mostly because of immigrants Although many were industrial workers, others pushed the frontier and settled in new lands Large percentages of farmers in the Great Plains were immigrants Of the new immigrants, although only few were farmers, others played huge roles in some states North and South Dakota were states that gsreatly grew because of immigration Either way, the typical immigrant was a worker in a factory or mine Although many claim that immigrants displaced native-borns from labor jobs, it actually benifitted them by giving them better jobs This was the case in politics as well They also created a need for industries to mechanize to make the work unskilled so immigrants can do it Still, immigration did not create jobs nor did it stimulate the economy as discussed earlier A drop in immigration always followed a decline in economy, not the other way around 3. Immigrants Have Votes The political influence of the immigrants was strong in addition to the economic influence Only after the First World War were immigrants actually holding large offices Immigrants slowly rose to the top of politics as they learned the ways of the US However, along the way immigrants were a large influence in voting for others Politics was largely influenced by ethnic and religious concerns and values Immigrants often voted for their own kind or people who value their kind The isolationism policy of America was influenced by ethnicity, not geography This love for their homeland also created cultural isolation This also worked the other way, as immigrants wanted political policies that would help their homeland

4. Melting Pot or Salad Bowl Immigrants also shaped the growth of the city Most immigrants stayed in big cities (not small ones) This made nativists, who were already mostly rural farmers, hate the city even more They most contributed to the growth of nationality ghettos Immigrant cities were the frontier of the industrial expansion The bottom line is that Europeans largely added to the urbanization of America As nationalities converged, immigrants slowly dropped some traditional values and retained others For example, few immigrants stayed with their old religion This mix of races created new denominations and churches However, religions was still divided between Protestant, Catholic, or Jewish Immigrants helped found Catholicism and Judaism in America The Irish dominated the leadership of the Roman Catholic Church By leading this, they also added their own values into the religion Protestantism also reflected these immigrant values Puritanism helped protect immigrants from the strong pull of Americanization Being in a new land strengthened immigrant desires to stick with their old church This created a strong attachment between the people and the Church Similarly, immigrants followed conservatism strongly Do immigrants mix cultures and become a new American identity? Or do many retain their old cultural values? Some do mix, others do keep their old habits 5. Who are Americans There were 2 outburts of nativism starting in 1830 and 1890 The first was the Know-Nothing Party, which mainly tried to stop immigrant influence in politics Most see it as a bad time in the US, but closer examination shows it had some reasons It was a practicals means for welding the opponents of the Democratic Party It did not enact any nativist legislation However, a lot of nativist groups were not this moderate The bottom line of hatred is that immigrants were different than native borns In the end, the Know-Nothing party failed and died as quickly as it came In the 1890s, the nativist movement was under the American Protective Association, which was more severe and tried to attack the Roman Catholic Church A broader movement was taking place at the same time, which tried to restrict the amount and type of immigration Many groups were concerned about this restriction Intellectuals argued that immigration was bad This was also the popular belief at the time The literacy test was installed to weed out people of lesser value However, this was vetoed 3 times by presidents Some people believed restricting by race was the option People did not want some races to stain the American blood In the 1920s, severe reduction in numbers was enacted People believed that the proper ethnic mix was attained, and that no further change was necessary This conservative view stayed for 40 years until the 1960s The US followed practices that were broader than those of other countries In the end, Americans accepted immigrants into their society

Chapter 15: The Making of a World Power Introduction The U.S. was able to escape world affairs at first, but could not avoid it later The change from isolationism to activeness was sometimes painful 1. A New Diplomacy for a New Era The new ideals of America caused it to always exude its difference The Americans always sought to differentiate themselves from Europeans The Americans created a new philosophy that rejected alliances because they were so different From the beginning, the U.S. tried to limit relations with Europe to only trade It only called for cut-off from political relations, not economic However, commercial relations should be encouraged Americans already believed these values, which is why Washingtons Farewell Address was so highly accepted There was another belief that as long as Europe was interested in the New World, U.S. would always be entangled in its affairs Sometimes, the nation aggressively sought new business relations At the time, the Monroe Doctrine didnt say much and only called on the help of the British navy to back it up Only after a long time was the Monroe Doctrine ever called upon or used as a basis of foreign policy There was also an underlying ideology that went further than U.S. protection that included the belief that the hemispheres should be separate and allied There has always been a connection between people and domestic and foreign issues, which led the U.S. to make moralistic decisions This view has been even more exemplified in the 1900s Woodrow Wilson used the American power to advance and sustain idealism Although this idealism is a main ingredient in U.S. policy, there is also realism and self-interest This policy suite the nation well in the 1800s However, with the coming of the 1900s, the U.S. could not keep itself out of foreign affairs 2. Looking Outward The move toward an empire was technically not new It originated from the manifest destiny time period The acquisition of Alaska or Hawaii directly moved the U.S. into extra-continental expansion The Spanish-American War, mostly a domestic issue, started the imperialism The rising recognition at home and abroad that the U.S. was a world power increased its desire for Cuba Influential people such as Alfred T. Mahan and others believed the same thing Some of the desire came from uncertainty and fear Farmers depended on overseas markets Americas capacity to manufacture goods increased significantly in the late 1800s and demanded new markets At this time, the Cubans revolted and gave the U.S. an opportune moment to act The first effect of this imperialism was the reawakened interest in annexing Hawaii Theodore Roosevelts role as Secretary of the Navy also affected U.S. imperialism McKinleys decision to keep the Philippines was a result of the U.S. wanting to be an empire and from economic interests in Asia They were especially interested in trade with China

American imperialism was different than that of Europe because the U.S. sought access to markets, not control over government Philippines was kept for economic interests, not to subject people, as seen by the decline in desire to acquire more territory in the 1900s and by the Open Door Policy The Open Door Policy stated U.S. interests in China, although the U.S. was not willing to back it up by force and violated it sometimes as well It was an extension of freedom of trade and self-determination The Spanish-American War and colonization marked the traditional policy of isolationism 3. The Most Fateful Step The fact that the U.S. declared neutrality in both mind and state showed that it still had a sense of isolationism from Europe It was American diplomatic tradition to ask for free seas and free trade Wilson had the conception of neutral rights that guaranteed free trade for noncombatant groups The only way Germany could match Britains superior navy was to use submarines and sink merchant ships The Germans knew that this would be bad for international law, but they did not want to give up their advantage The U.S. entered World War I with the sole purpose of protecting neutral rights If it had abandoned its conception of international law and neutral rights, it could have stayed out of the war In WWII, the U.S. readily abandoned their neutrality rights through the Neutrality Acts The real reason that the U.S. entered the war, however, was to maintain the balance of power in Europe and restrict Germany Wilsons reasons to enter the war did not include anything about U.S. self-interest 4. The Flight from Commitment Wilson was disappointed when the U.S. did not join the League of Nations because he expected the world to have new order at the end of the war The defeat of the League did not stem out from deep hatred from Americans It was defeated because the U.S. wanted to return to the old isolationism However, the U.S. was quick to realize that it could not stay out of European conflicts forever, as exemplified by the signing of the Washington Naval Conference It signaled American importance in world affairs The U.S. also became increasingly active economically in Europe This was because the U.S. had a new dominant position in the world and because U.S. bankers sought to stabilize the international economy by working with governments around the world Harding and Coolidge actually expanded American enterprise abroad, even though they abandoned political ideals in foreign policy The Kellogg-Briand Pact was also an instance of U.S. involvement in world affairs However, these examples can also be seen as continuation of past policy This isolationism meant that the U.S. was free to do whatever it please internationally Both isolationism in the past and WWI influenced this new isolationism Isolationists also feared another world war that would shake the stability of the world They were also afraid the nation could not freely act in foreign affairs, which is the reason many rejected the League of Nations Although the U.S. seemed to be out of European affairs, it fell into WWII just the same

The shift in outlook was not sudden or easy The rise of Hitler posed a threat to the balance of power in the new world and Nazis posed a threat to the U.S. The U.S. wasnt justified to declare war on Germany after Pearl Harbor, but luckily they declared war on the U.S. first FDR did not believe the public would follow him into a full-out war with Japan and Germany, which is why he gave full support to Britain Most people believed the U.S. should go to war, especially after Pearl Harbor, whereas most people didnt want war in WWI Another example of a change in isolationism is the fact that most people wanted to join a peacekeeping organization after WWII 5. Challenge and Response WWII did not give enough reason for the U.S. to assert its military power around the world It was the complete destruction of the German Nazis that brought military power to Europe The fear of Russian power was out of proportion Truman did not properly deal with the situation with Russia because of the disparity in power between the 2 powers and the fact that he was inexperienced FDR believed that postwar peace would only happen if the U.S. and USSR had good relations The interests of big powers in the postwar world were understandable to FDR, even if they were not identical FDR was not an idealist; it was completely possible for the U.S. and USSR to lay terms of peace at the time Russias role in postwar Europe was under contention; it believed that all its surrounding states be communist as well This was against American principles of self-determination and freedom They also disagreed about the future of Germany; the U.S. wanted to rebuild it, the USSR believed it was a constant menace And of course, they disagreed about ideology, as the U.S. constantly feared the spread of communist ideology Then, the USSR made a series of actions that deepened these differences Americans saw these actions as ungrateful U.S. reaction to these actions were made clear when the U.S. went ahead and merged its parts of Germany with Britain and France America had a completely different foreign policy toward its dealings with communism The containment policy had two modes of attack; one was to use military force to repel the communists, and the other was to satisfy the demands of countries so that they wouldnt have any reason to support the communists In this context, the Marshall Plan was a success, as shows by the USSRs deep hatred toward it Next, NATO helped western European countries to adequately defend themselves from communism The Truman doctrine, which wanted to repel communists in Greece and Turkey, was drawn to the incident between North and South Korea as well It could be doubted that North Koreas invasion over South Korea was a purely Soviet effort to spread communism to Asia since Europe was now taken The Korean war was the first example of collective security practiced by a formally constituted international organization

For the U.S., it was the first example of resisting aggression outside Europe When the U.S. decided resisting communism militarily and ideologically was necessary, it noticed it had a lot of stuff to do Americas hands-off policy in assisting China came to an end when North Korea invaded South Korea The Americans have the privilege of doing what should be done, and not only what is possible to be done The Vietnam War was a result of the Korean War The U.S. did not help the French take back their colony of Indo-China, and instead established North and South Vietnam Even though the U.S. spent so much money on the effort, they did not win When South Vietnam was overrun, an era in U.S. foreign policy ended In the 1900s, the U.S. newly decided that it was its responsibility to police the natural law originally defined by the Founding Fathers The loss of Vietnam, however, brought this time period to a close There was still some foreign involvement when Jimmy Carter advocated for human rights However, he was not prepared to use military force, like Wilson did in WWI