1

Couslul Shoreline Defense Slruclures

By Thomas Barnard
Cb|eclives
The purpose of this self-taught education unit is to acquaint the reader with the various types of shoreline
defense structures which are employed in the Chesapeake Bay region and the U.S. in general. There are more
erosion control measures than those explained here but these are the most generally used and accepted within
the marine community. Each structure will be defined and its use along the shoreline will be described. General
design and location considerations will be discussed as well as the general definitions and terminology neces-
sary for each type of structure.
Following completion of this study unit, the reader will be generally acquainted with:
1. Shoreline erosion and its causes;
2. The types of structures most often employed to address shoreline erosion;
3. General design considerations for each shoreline structure;
4. Specific definitions and terminology for each structure.
Inlroduclion
At the present time the Chesapeake Bay and most areas of the east and gulf coasts are experiencing varying
degrees of relative sea level rise. This is defined as the net change in water elevation due to the combined
influence of local land movement (subsidence) and the absolute change in water level. The primary result of sea
level rise is shoreline retreat (erosion) along with other secondary shoreline changes.
Chesapeake Bay sea level rise is approximately one foot per century at present. There is some evidence
that sea level rise is accelerating due to global climate change. This factor has not been completely documented
however, primarily due to the difficulty involved with modelling weather and climate features on a global scale
and determining long term trends in the absence of adequate data.
Erosion or shoreline retreat may be caused on a local scale by differences in erodibility of soils, water
currents, boat wakes etc. Any of these local features, sea level rise or a combination of any and all may be the
reason a structure is employed along a particular reach of shoreline. It may also be present for purely landscape
and/or aesthetic reasons.
The remainder of this educational unit will characterize and describe the following shoreline erosion
defense structure types:
1. bulkheads
2. riprap
3. marsh toe protection
4. breakwaters
5. groins and jetties
6. vegetative control
Se||-!aug|l /Jucal|on Un|l
2
ulkheuds
A bulkhead (Figure 1) is a
vertical wall generally aligned parallel
to the shoreline and designed to retain
granular backfill material (soil, sand)
and to prevent wave-induced erosion.
(Figures 2, 3, 4, 5) Bulkheads are
usually constructed of chemically
treated wood with galvanized fixtures.
Bulkheads are also constructed of
concrete, asbestos plates, steel, alumi-
num and most recently from recycled
plastics. Asbestos is no longer used
and the new recycled products are
presently being tested in a variety of
situations.
In general, a bulkhead is con-
structed of round pilings which are
driven (by pile drivers) or jetted (by
water pressure) into the bottom.
(Figures 6, 7) Vertical tongue-and-
Figure 1. Typical bulkhead cross section. (From Dept. of Conserva-
tion and Recreation, Shoreline Programs Office)
Figure 2. Bulkhead (typical). Figure 3. Oceanfront bulkhead.
Figure 4. Aluminum bulkhead. Figure 5. Design criteria are important!
3
groove sheeting forms the wall and goes into the bottom in the same manner. The structure should be driven
or jetted to a depth at least equal to the height of the structure above the mud line. (Figure 8) Whalers run
horizontally between the pilings and brace the sheeting. Tiebacks, usually galvanized steel rods, pass through
the pilings and the wall adjacent to the bulkhead and are
tied to anchor piles (wooden vertical posts, commonly
called deadmen) which help to anchor the wall. (Figure
9) Screw anchors may be employed in specific situa-
tions where it is not feasible to use deadmen and tie-
backs. Return walls are employed at the ends of the
bulkhead in situations where it does not tie into an
existing structure protecting adjacent property. (Figure
10) Return walls run back to the land, approximately
perpendicular to the wall, and prevent the wall from
being outflanked as erosion continues to occur on
adjacent unprotected property. The landward side of the
entire structure is generally faced with geotechnical
material (filter cloth), a woven synthetic textile which
when placed between the wall and the backfill material,
prevents the washout of soil while allowing water to
Figure 6. Installing sheet piles. Figure 7. Tie back rods.
Figure 8. Loss of backfill and eventual bulkhead
failure is the result of sheeting not driven to sufficient
depth.
Figure 9. Galvanized rod tie-backs.
Figure 10. Steel bulkhead (return wall).
4
pass. (Figure 11) This minimizes the build-up of a
hydraulic head landward of the structure.
Bulkheads should be aligned landward of all
wetlands and should be properly engineered for the
marine environment. Riprap, placed along the seaward
toe of the bulkhead, may be necessary to prevent scour
in front of the structure due to wave energy. A major
problem of bulkheads is that they reflect most waves
striking them. In many cases this results in passing the erosion problem along to the next strip of unprotected
shoreline. (Figure 12) Bulkheads provide minimal habitat for marine organisms and may adversely affect organ-
isms living in adjacent bottom sediments.
Bulkheads can be employed along any type of shoreline and in any land use situation but are most often
used in residential situations where the waterway is narrow and in industrial areas where ships need to be
berthed immediately adjacent to the upland. The expected life span of a properly designed and installed treated
wood bulkhead is twenty to twenty-five years. Untreated wood is subject to destruction relatively quickly in
marine (salt) waters due to wood-boring organisms.
Riprup
A riprap revetment (Figure
13) is a sloping structure consist-
ing of layers of stone or other
material placed along an eroding
bank. (Figure 14) The structure is
generally composed of smaller
core stone placed on filter cloth
and this is covered with at least 2
layers of larger stone, including
an armor layer of the largest
stone needed for the particular
wave conditions at the site.
(Figures 13, 15) Riprap can be
concrete rubble, granite stone or
other material used to build the
revetment.
Figure 11. Note the filter cloth lining the landward
face of this bulkhead.
Figure 13. Representative cross section - riprap revetment. (From Dept.
of Conservation and Recreation, Shoreline Programs Office)
Figure 12. Typical bulkhead end effects.
5
Figure 14. Properly designed riprap revetment. Figure 15. Armor stone set on base of core stone and
filter fabric.
Figure 16. Riprap must be sized for expected wave
height.
Table 1.
Riprap is used to prevent erosion in the same
manner as a vertical bulkhead but has the added
advantage of being able to dissipate most wave energy
rather than merely reflect it as with vertical structures.
In designing a riprap revetment for a particular
site, considerations include the slope of the revetment
(usually 2 horizontal:1 vertical or 2H:1V) and the size
of the armor stone. (Figures 16, 21, Table 1) Each
factor affects the other with the goal to create a
structure which is stable for the particular wave height
expected at the site. Stability refers to movement of
the stone or other material. If waves are able to move
the revetment material around, it is not stable. (Fig-
ures 15, 17, 18)
Additionally, the seaward toe or bottom edge of
the revetment should be buried below the sediment
surface to minimize wave scour
around the structure. (Figures
19, 22) Filter cloth should be
placed under and up the land-
ward face of the wall so that it
is between the wall and the
backfill. Note that a very wide
sheet or several overlapping
sheets of standard width cloth
may be needed to run under and
behind the revetment. The filter
cloth serves the same purpose
as with the bulkhead but with
riprap it also serves as a struc-
tural base helping to distribute
the weight of the structure more
evenly. (Figures 20, 23)
Riprup is divided inlo lhe following cluss sizes in lhe
Virginiu Lrosion und Sedimenl Conlrol Hundbook (1992)
Riprap Weight Requirements for
Class/Type Range* (lbs.) Stone Mixture
Class AI 25-75 Max. 10% 75 lbs.
Class I 50-150 60% 100lbs.
Class II 150-500 50% 300lbs.
Class III 500-1,500 50% 900lbs.
Type I 1,500-4,000 Avg. weight=2,000 lbs.
Type II 6,000-20,000 Avg. weight=8,000 lbs.
*In all classes/types of riprap, a maximum of 10% of the stone in the
mixture may weigh less than the lower end of the range.
6
Properly designed and constructed riprap revetments have many advantages, not the least of which is an
unlimited life span in the environment. Adding some stone when differential settling occurs may be needed
from time to time. Riprap also can be molded to the curves of the natural shoreline contours, many times
helping to reduce total length and cost of the structure. Riprap, due to its overall weight, is limited to shorelines
with sediment types which can support its overall structure. (Figure 24)
Figure 17. Underdesigned revetment before storm. Figure 18. Revetment in Figure 17 failed after a
storm.
Figure 19. Riprap buried toe construction.
Figure 22. Toe of riprap revetment/landward of
fringe marsh.
Figure 20. Core stone being placed on filter cloth.
Figure 21. Riprap classification.
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From an environmental perspective, riprap is
favored over vertical structures made of wood or
concrete. Riprap provides habitat where organisms
can hide, feed, rest, attach and grow. (Figure 25) Its
long life span minimizes future disruptions to the
shoreline environment. Like any sediment imperme-
able structure however, it blocks the resupply of
sediments to the shoreline from wave-fastland interac-
tions. This can result in beach narrowing, steepening
and/or drowning immediately seaward of the structure
and on the adjacent shoreline.
Mursh 1oe Proleclion
Marsh toe protection (Figure 26) is a specialized
form of riprap revetment designed to attenuate ero-
sion taking place on the face of a wetland scarp. The
riprap in this case is low profile, meaning the revet-
ment is less than a foot
higher than the marsh
surface and there is no
backfill involved. The
low profile structure
protects the marsh face
from further erosion but
allows tidal inundation
(hydrology) to continue
over and through the stone
revetment. (Figures 25,
26) This maintains the
viability of the wetland
and allows most ecologi-
cal functions to continue
within the system. These
functions include inter-
community interactions
Figure 23. Revetment constructed with filtercloth. Figure 24. Established revetment.
Figure 25. Revetment provides habitat and erosion
protection.
Figure 26. Representative cross section - riprap wedge for eroding fringe marsh.
(From Dept. of Conservation and Recreation, Shoreline Programs section)
8
such as feeding by fish and
birds at different tide
stages, the recycling of
nutrients on the marsh,
and the trapping of sedi-
ments in the water column
by the wetland.
(Figures 27, 28)
For design consider-
ations see the preceding
section on riprap. (Table 2)
reukwulers
A breakwater (Figure
29) is an offshore structure
aligned parallel to the
shoreline. The purpose of
the structure is to intercept and dissipate wave energy before it reaches the shoreline and initiates erosion.
Because the waves are tripped by the breakwater, the area between the breakwater and the shore becomes a
relatively
quiescent, low
energy zone.
(Figure 30)
Sand and other
sediments tend
to settle out in
this quiet area
forming sedi-
ment deposits.
These deposits
may then be
colonized by
marsh grasses
Figure 28. Marsh sill.
Table 2.
Figure 27. Marsh toe protection.
Compurison of Rip Rup Revelmenl und Rip Rup Mursh 1oe Proleclion
Rip Rap
Rip Rap Revetment Marsh Toe Protection
Landward of Channelward
of marsh of marsh
Based on slope-depends Approx. equal to the height
upon location and fetch of the marsh substrate
Protect upland. Protect exposed eroding scarp.
Isolate landward area. Permits interaction of marsh & tides
Always Always, but not above MHW
Figure 29. Representative cross section
- riprap breakwater. (From Dept. of
Conservation and Recreation, Shoreline
Programs section)
Location
Height
Purpose
Filter
Cloth
9
such as saltmarsh cordgrass, Spartina
alterniflora and associated fauna such as
worms, snails, crabs and shrimp to name a few.
Breakwaters are generally considered to be
a softer approach to shoreline protection with
hardened shorelines being those protected by
vertical seawalls and riprap revetments. The
soft approach generally refers to the use of
vegetation (see below) or a structure, which
though it modifies the behavior of the near
shore zone, does not fix it permanently in place.
The shoreline responds to natural physical
changes such as storms, sea level rise, etc., but
still retains a measure of protection from ero-
sion due to the structure.
Fixed breakwaters are generally constructed so that their top elevation is one to three feet above mean high
water. Since most erosion is sporadic, occurring during storms, the breakwater must be high enough to allow
for the storm surge. Storm surge is high water which is generally a product of low pressure systems such as
noreasters and hurricanes generated or passing over large bodies of water.
Fixed breakwaters are usually constructed of
stone or concrete rubble. They may also utilize
gabion baskets which are heavy gauge wire baskets
filled with stone or sometimes other heavy materials.
(Figures 31, 32, 33) Gabion baskets are wired to-
gether and filled. They can be stacked and strung end
to end to form a continuous structure. The advantage
of the baskets is that they allow smaller (cheaper)
materials to be used but once placed in the baskets a
total mass is achieved which resists movement during
storms. (Figure 34)
Many fixed breakwaters are designed with open
spaces between sections of the structure. These are
termed gapped breakwaters. (Figures 35, 36) They
have generally been found to form the most stable
Figure 30. Location of
off-shore breakwater.
Figure 31. Gabion basket with stone.
Figure 32. Gabion baskets forming a gapped
breakwater.
Figure 33. Gabion basket breakwater.
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shorelines when properly designed and constructed.
The ideal situation occurs when a tongue of sand,
termed a tombolo, ties each segment of breakwater to
the land and this area is further stabilized by vegeta-
tion. This, of course, requires an adequate supply of
sand in the nearshore system to make up the tombolo.
Sand may also be brought in from upland sources,
spread and vegetated. (Figures 37, 38, 39)
Breakwaters can be floating; that is constructed
of tires, logs, fabricated containers, baffles or other
floating materials. Floating breakwaters depend on
their width, not height, to dampen waves as they try to
move through the structure. Problems with floating
structures range from the attachment of fouling
organisms causing the structure to
sink, to the failure of anchors and
tie materials during storms. (Figure
40)
As with revetments, breakwa-
ters should be used with filter cloth
and should have armor stone
designed to resist movement when
under wave attack during expected
storm severity for the local area.
The design wave that the structure
is meant to attenuate is based on
geomorphology of the basin, fetch,
water depth, exposure and other
factors.
Environmentally, gapped breakwaters are preferred for the same reasons as described under the preceding
riprap discussion but have the further advantage of allowing the shoreline to flex with changing conditions.
Bulkheads and revetments are impermeable, immovable barriers which do not change with changing parameters
such as sea level. Because a wetland or beach, located seaward of one of these structures, cannot migrate
landward as sea level rises, they will eventually be covered with water and disappear.
Figure 34. Revetment made of gabion baskets.
Figure 36. Gapped breakwater.
Figure 35. Breakwater system (From Shoreline Development BMPs,
VMRC 1993.)
Figure 37. Beach before installation of offshore
breakwaters.
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Croins
Shoreline erosion is a problem that has been
around ever since man began settling adjacent to
the water and groins are one of the oldest types of
structures used to deal with the problem. Groins
are structures placed perpendicular to the shoreline which extend into the water a prescribed distance based on
the geomorphology of the shoreline. (Figures 41, 42)
The purpose of the groin is to trap sand moving along the beach with the longshore currents. (Figure 43)
When groins are working properly, sand accumulates on the updrift side of the structure acting to widen and
raise the elevation of the beach. (Figure 44) Incoming waves then dissipate their energy on the accumulated sand
and only attack the fastland during storm events which produce higher than normal water levels. Groins are
generally ineffective in preventing shoreline erosion, but exhibit their most success if there is enough sand
Figure 38. Typical tombolo formation landward of
breakwater.
Figure 41. Groin field with spur. (From Anderson,
Hardaway, and Gunn, 1983.)
Figure 39. Breakwater field.
Figure 40.
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moving in the nearshore zone that they
trap and raise the elevation of the
backshore enough that vegetation can
establish and further stabilize the shore-
line.
As recognized above, groins are
dependent on longshore drift and in
general do not achieve their intended
function where sand is not being trans-
ported along the beach. Depending on
wind direction, sand may be trapped on
either side of a groin at any given time.
(Figures 45, 46) Sand may also move
onshore and offshore. The net direction
of movement determines the updrift side
of the groin where the largest amount of
sediment is deposited. In the vast
majority of cases, groins deprive the
immediate downdrift shoreline of sand
causing a loss of beach or notching,
which is accelerated erosion. This
reaction to the groin generally disap-
pears a short distance downdrift of the
structure. (Figures 47, 48)
Groins are primarily constructed of
two materials although others have
been tried with highly variable success.
Timber tongue and groove sheeting
with pilings for stability are used along
the majority of shorelines. These are
either driven or jetted into the bottom,
with driven structures being the most
durable. The second most popular
material is riprap. (Figure 49) It is
Figure 42. Groins function to trap sand.
Figure 43. Movement of sand along shoreline.
Figure 44. Groin trapping sand on updrift side.
Figure 45. Groin trapping sand.
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generally placed on a bed of geotechnical material (filter cloth) and is constructed in a manner to be free stand-
ing and thus is trapezoidal in cross-section. (Figure 50)
In general, groins should be designed to mimic the beach and should be higher at their landward end in
order to build the elevation of the backshore. Length is not critical in most cases, and commonly need only be
extended ten to twenty feet beyond mean low water.
Groins which are too long interfere with the normal
movement of sand in the nearshore area and may
deprive downdrift beaches of sand needed to maintain
equilibrium with erosion forces. Low-profile is the
recommended design for groins of either timber or
stone. Low-profile requires the channelward end of
the groin have an elevation no greater than that of
mean low water (Figures 51, 52). This allows sand to
begin bypassing the groin more quickly once the groin
cell has filled, lessening the period of interrupted
longshore sand movement and minimizing to a
degree, the adverse effects of the groin to downdrift
shorelines. If groins are considered desirable in a
given situation, downdrift sand deprivation can be
Figure 46. Groin with spur. Figure 47. Downdrift erosion at end of groin field.
Figure 48. Beach erosion due to groins.
Figure 49. Riprap groin trapping sand.
Figure 50. Riprap groin placed on filter cloth.
14
minimized by filling the groin cell
artificially from an upland sand
source.
Another method which can be
used in specific situations to minimize
downdrift erosion due to groins is the
attachment of a spur (Figures 41, 53,
54, 55, 56) The spur is generally a
short (12-15 feet) structure of the
same design as the groin which is
attached to the downdrift side and extends out from the groin parallel to the shoreline. The spur may be placed
anywhere along the groin between mean low water and the channelward end, depending on specific shoreline
geomorphology. Spurs generally cause the accumulation of sand landward of their location, helping to mini-
mize downdrift effects of the groin.
Provided that there is sufficient sand in the nearshore zone for groins to be effective, the most important
additional structural and design considerations are two:
1. Groins must be securely fastened to the uplands so that sand cannot get around them at their shoreward
ends. Many groins fail when erosion occurs so quickly that the landward end of the groin is exposed
Figure 52. Low profile groin design.
Figure 53. Sand accumulated on updrift side of groin.
Figure 51. Low profile groin. (From Shoreline Development
BMPs, VMRC, 1993.)
Figure 54. Spur prevents erosion on downdrift side of
groin.
Figure 55. Groin with spurs.
15
before the structure has enough time to build up sand and stabilize the beach. If rapid erosion is a
concern, riprap may be placed adjacent to the point where the groin meets the fastland. (Figure 57)
2. Groins must be solid structures which only allow passage of sand overtop of them or around their
channelward ends. Groins constructed of used tires, well casings or other porous materials are ineffec-
tive because the sand passes through them.
Old groins with loose or missing timbers fail
for the same reason.
}ellies
Jetties are structures very similar to groins in
design and construction. The difference between the
two is that whereas groins are used on and attached to
any suitable reach of shoreline, jetties generally define
and protect inlets and/or harbor entrance channels
from shoaling by preventing sand from accumulating
in the channel or moving across the channel with
longshore currents. (Figures 58, 59) Jetties may also
function to dampen waves moving across an inlet or
Figure 56. Groin with spur. Figure 57. Groin field flanked by erosion.
Figure 58. Riprap protecting a channel.
Figure 59. Riprap jetty and adjacent wetland. Figure 60. Stone jetties protect channel.
16
entrance channel, making navigation easier and safer.
(Figures 60, 61)
Vegelulive Conlrol
Although not a structural option, per se, using
vegetation to control shoreline erosion can be very
effective in the right circumstances and has the added
benefit of providing highly beneficial habitat to
marine and freshwater systems. (Figure 62) Vegeta-
tive control may be used by itself or in concert with
conventional structures such as gapped breakwaters or
offshore sills.
When vegetation, usually some type of wetland
or submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV), establishes
on a shoreline, its root and rhizome system serves to
stabilize the existing substrate in place and the sub-
aerial shoots baffle water movement causing sediment
particles to be deposited along the shoreline. This action helps to build and maintain the intertidal and subtidal
zone, minimizing the severity of erosion in many cases.
Many types of fringe marshes can be very effective as shoreline stabilizers, with a width of eight feet or
greater width on the shoreline generally being highly effective. Not all situations are suitable for vegetative
control however. Research indicates that shorelines with less than a mile of fetch generally can be stabilized
with wetland vegetation. Freshwater marshes do not generally have the thick root and rhizome systems that
brackish and salt marshes have, so they must be significantly wider to have the same wave baffling effectiveness
that their saltwater cousins have.
Marshes can be established on suitable shorelines using either transplants from established wetlands or
nursery grown stock. (Figure 63) In either case some knowledge of wetland plants is necessary along with
information on planting elevations (the primary factor in successful establishment), fertilization requirements
and plant spacing. This information is available from the Virginia Institute of Marine Science, the Department
of Conservation and Recreation and a number of publications available from libraries and bookstores. (Figures
64, 65)
Many waterfront property owners reject the idea of controlling erosion with marsh plantings as infeasible
because the wetlands cannot be counted on to inhibit erosion on a long term basis. Many fringe marshes, once
established however, may last at least as long as the design life of the average wood bulkhead (i.e. 20 years).
Figure 61. Single jetty protecting channel. Figure 62. Vegetated wetland protecting shoreline
from erosion.
Figure 63. Planting on 18 center grid.
17
(Figure 66) When one considers the lower cost, reduced adverse impact and positive environmental contribution
of this option, it should be considered a viable alternative to structural erosion control. It bears repeating how-
ever, that vegetative control should only be considered for shorelines with less than a mile of fetch. (Figure 67)
A good indicator of potential success is whether wetlands exist in other sections of the same reach of shoreline.
Figure 64. Planted wetland. Figure 65. Planted wetland shown in Figure 66 after
one growing season.
Figure 67. Bulkhead reflecting wave energy. Figure 66. Fringe marsh protecting shoreline.
18
Clossury
Anchor piles These are anchors, usually vertical piles driven into the ground, on the landward side of
the bulkhead, to which the bulkhead is tied by tiebacks or tie-rods (commonly called
deadmen).
Armor This refers to the larger stone used as the outer layers of a revetment which is directly
exposed to waves.
Breakwater A breakwater is an offshore structure which is aligned parallel to the shoreline. A fixed
breakwater refers to one generally constructed of stone or gabion baskets (wire baskets or
mattresses which are filled with stone), placed on the bottom. Floating breakwaters
should be firmly anchored and may be constructed of tires, logs, specially fabricated
boxes and baffles, or other floating materials.
Buried toe This is the practice of trenching in the seaward toe of a riprap structure to help prevent
scour and shifting of the structure.
Core The core is the smaller stone used as the base of the revetment which is not directly
exposed to waves.
Fetch Fetch is the distance that wind blows over water prior to its reaching a shoreline.
Generally it is used as an estimate of potential wave energy or stress the shoreline
may expect.
Filter cloth Filter cloth is the synthetic textile placed between sheeting and backfill which prevents
soil loss but is water-permeable.
Groin This is a structure that is perpendicular to the shoreline and extends into the water. They
function in trapping sand moving in the along-shore currents.
Jetting Jetting is a method of sinking structures in substrate where high pressure water washes
the structure down and the hole refills with sediment as the pressurized water is cut off.
Jetty As with groins, jetties are linear structures placed perpendicular to the shoreline and cross
the intertidal zone to deeper water. They function to intercept sand moving along the
shoreline and protect channels and inlets from shoaling and wave energy.
Low-profile This is a recommended design for either timber or stone groins, in which the elevation of
the channelward end of the groin is no greater than that of mean low water. This allows
the sand to bypass the groin more quickly once the groin cell is filled, lessening the
interruption of sediment movement to downdrift shorelines.
Marsh toe This is a low-profile rock structure placed channelward of a marsh, usually being placed
protection directly against an eroding scarp.
Return walls These are walls located at each end of the bulkhead and shoreline, approximately
perpendicular to the bulkhead and shoreline, which tie the bulkhead into the upland and
prevent the bulkhead from being flanked.
Revetment A revetment is a sloped structure consisting of multiple layers of stone or other material
placed along a bank.
Riprap Riprap is the stone used to build a revetment. Frequently, the structure itself is called
riprap.
19
Screw anchors Screw anchors refer to another anchoring method that consists of rods that screw into
the upland.
Sill Sill is a continuous low-profile breakwater structure.
Spur Spurs are attached to the downdrift side of the groin and oriented perpendicular to the
groin, and parallel to the shoreline. The spur may be aligned anywhere between MLW
and the channelward end of the groin. The purpose is to prevent characteristic erosion of
sand immediately downdrift of the groin.
Tiebacks These are rods used to connect the bulkhead to the land anchor pile or deadmen (usually
the horizontal piles connected to the anchor pile).
Tombolo This is the name given to the build-up of sand landward of gapped breakwaters.
Up- & down drift Updrift and downdrift refer to longshore drift, or the movement of sediment along the
shore. Sediment may move in both directions along a particular shoreline. The net
direction of movement determines the net accumulation of sediment by a groin. Groins
necessarily deprive downdrift shorelines of their sand supply, worsening any existing
erosion problems.
Vegetative control Vegetative control is the use of wetlands vegetation to deter erosion, either alone or in
concert with an offshore breakwater or sill. Vegetation may be planted or allowed to
colonize naturally.
Whaler Whaler refers to a structural member of a wood bulkhead or groin which runs
horizontally between pilings and braces the sheeting.
Lilerulure Ciled
Anderson, G.L., C.S. Hardaway, and J.R. Gunn. 1983. Beach response to spurs and groins. In Coastal Structures
1983. Ed. J.R. Weggel. Amer. Soc. of Civil Engineers. New York, New York. pp 727-739.
Virginia Marine Resources Commission. 1993. Shoreline Development BMPs. 54 pp.
Suggesled Reuding Lisl
Hardaway, Scott and Gary Anderson. 1980. Shoreline erosion in Virginia. Educational Series No. 31. VIMS Sea
Grant Advisory Service.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1981. Low cost shore protection...a property owners guide. Norfolk, Virginia.
159 pp.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1990. Chesapeake Bay shoreline erosion study. Feasibility report.
Baltimore and Norfolk Districts. 111 pp.