Relationship to Thermodynamics

Chapter One
Section 1.3
Alternative Formulations
Alternative Formulations
Time Basis:
At an instant
or
Over a time interval
Type of System:
Control volume
Control surface
An important tool in heat transfer analysis, often
providing the basis for determining the temperature
of a system.
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
(FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS)
At an Instant of Time:

Note representation of system by a
control surface (dashed line) at the boundaries.
Surface Phenomena
,
in out

: rate

energy transfer across the control

of thermal and/or mechanical
due to heat transfer, fluid flow and/or work interactions. surface


E E
Volumetric Phenomena
: rate of due to conversion from another energy form
(e.g., electrical, nuclear, or chemical); energy conversion proc
thermal ener
ess occurs w
gy generatio
ithin the sy e
n
m.

st
g
E
st
energy : sto rate of rage in chang the s e o ys f m. te
E
Conservation of Energy
in out st
st
g
dE
dt
E E E E
+ =
(1.12c)
Each term has units of J/s or W.
APPLICATION TO A CONTROL VOLUME
Over a Time Interval
Each term has units of J.
in out st g
E E E E + = A
(1.12b)
CV at an Instant and over a Time Interval
At an instant
t
dU
q
W
dt
-
=
Special Cases (Linkages to Thermodynamics)
(i) Transient Process for a Closed System of Mass (M) Assuming Heat Transfer
to the System (Inflow) and Work Done by the System (Outflow).
Over a time interval
tot
st
Q E
W
= A
(1.12a)
Closed System
For negligible changes in potential or kinetic energy
t
Q W U = A
Internal thermal energy
Example 1.4: Application to thermal response of a conductor with Ohmic
heating (generation):
Involves change in thermal energy and for an incompressible substance.
t
dU dT
Mc
dt dt
=
Heat transfer is from the conductor (negative ) q
Generation may be viewed as electrical work done on the system (negative ) W
Example 1.4
Example 1.6: Application to isothermal solid-liquid phase change in a container:
Latent Heat
of Fusion
lat t sf
U U Mh A = A =
Example 1.6
(ii) Steady State for Flow through an Open System without Phase Change or
Generation:
( ) flow o w rk pv
( ) enthalp y
t
u pv i +
( )
in out in out
ideal gas constant specific he For an w : at ith
p
i i c T T =

( )
( ) ( )
in out in out
in out
For an : incompressible liqu
0
id
u u c T T
pv pv
=
~

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 2
in
in
out
0
2 2
0
out
For systems with significant heat transfer:
V V
gz gz
~
~

At an Instant of Time:
2
out
0
2
t
m u pv V gz
W
| |
+ + + =
|
\ .

2
in
2
t
m u pv V gz q
| |
+ + + +
|
\ .
(1.12d)
Open System
Surface Energy Balance
A special case for which no volume or mass is encompassed by the control surface.
Conservation of Energy (Instant in Time):
out
in
0 E E = (1.13)
Applies for steady-state and transient conditions.
Consider surface of wall with heat transfer by conduction, convection and radiation.
cond conv rad
0 q q q '' '' '' =
( )
( )
4 4
1 2
2 2 2 sur
0
T T
k h T T T T
L
c o

=
With no mass and volume, energy storage and generation are not pertinent to the energy
balance, even if they occur in the medium bounded by the surface.
THE SURFACE ENERGY BALANCE
Methodology

On a schematic of the system, represent the control surface by
dashed line(s).
Choose the appropriate time basis.
Identify relevant energy transport, generation and/or storage terms
by labeled arrows on the schematic.
Write the governing form of the Conservation of Energy requirement.
Substitute appropriate expressions for terms of the energy equation.
Solve for the unknown quantity.
METHODOLOGY OF FIRST LAW ANALYSIS
Problem 1.57: Thermal processing of silicon wafers in a two-zone furnace.
Determine (a) the initial rate of change of the wafer
temperature and (b) the steady-state temperature.
Problem: Silicon Wafer
KNOWN: Silicon wafer positioned in furnace with top and bottom surfaces exposed to hot
and cool zones, respectively.
FIND: (a) Initial rate of change of the wafer temperature from a value of 300 K,
w,i
T = and (b)
steady-state temperature. Is convection significant? Sketch the variation of wafer temperature
with vertical distance.
SCHEMATIC:

Problem: Silicon Wafer (cont.)
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Wafer temperature is uniform, (2) Hot and cool zones have uniform
temperatures, (3) Radiation exchange is between small surface (wafer) and large enclosure
(chamber, hot or cold zone), and (4) Negligible heat losses from wafer to pin holder.
ANALYSIS: The energy balance on the wafer includes convection to the upper (u) and lower
(l) surfaces from the ambient gas, radiation exchange with the hot- and cool-zones and an energy
storage term for the transient condition. Hence, from Eq. (1.12c),
in out st
E E E =
or, per unit surface area
rad, rad, cv, cv,
w
h c u l
d T
q q q q cd
dt
'' '' '' '' + =
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
4 4 4 4
sur,
sur,
w
w c w u w l w
h
d T
T T T T h T T h T T cd
dt
co co

+ =
(a) For the initial condition, the time rate of change of the wafer temperature is determined
using the foregoing energy balance with
,
300 K,
w w i
T T = =
( ) ( )
8 2 4 4 4 8 2 4 4 4 4 4
0.65 5.67 10 W/ m K 1500 300 K 0.65 5.67 10 W/ m K 330 300 K

+
( ) ( )
2 2
8W/ m K 300 700 K 4W/ m K 300 700 K =
3
2700kg/ m 875J / kg K ( ) 0.00078 /
w
i
m dT dt
( ) 104 K/s
w
i
dT / dt =
<
Problem: Silicon Wafer (cont.)
(b) For the steady-state condition, the energy storage term is zero, and the energy balance can
be solved for the steady-state wafer temperature,
,
.
w w ss
T T =
( ) ( )
4 4 4 4 4
,
0.65 1500 K 0.65 330 K
4
w,ss w ss
T T o o +
( ) ( )
2 2
w,ss w,ss
8W/ m K T 700 K 4W/ m K T 700 K 0 =
1251 K
w,ss
T =
To assess the relative importance of convection, solve the energy balances assuming no
convection. With ( )
,
101 K/s and 1262 K
w w ss
i
dT / dt T = = , we conclude that the radiation
exchange processes control the initial rate of change and the steady-state temperature.
If the wafer were elevated above the present operating position, its temperature would
increase, since the lower surface would begin to experience radiant exchange with
progressively more of the hot zone. Conversely, by lowering the wafer, the upper surface
would experience less radiant exchange with the hot zone, and its temperature would decrease.
The temperature-distance relation might appear as shown in the sketch.
<
Problem: Cooling of Spherical Canister
Problem 1.64: Cooling of spherical canister used to store reacting chemicals.
Determine (a) the initial rate of change of the canister temperature,
(b) the steady-state temperature, and (c) the effect of convection
on the steady-state temperature.

KNOWN: Inner surface heating and new environmental conditions associated with a spherical
shell of prescribed dimensions and material.

FIND: (a) Governing equation for variation of wall temperature with time and the initial rate of
change, (b) Steady-state wall temperature and, (c) Effect of convection coefficient on canister
temperature.
535 J/kgK
Problem: Cooling of Spherical Canister (cont.)
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Negligible temperature gradients in wall, (2) Constant properties, (3) Uniform,
time-independent heat flux at inner surface.
PROPERTIES: Table A.1, Stainless Steel, AISI 302: = 8055 kg/m
3
,
p
c = 535 J/kgK.
ANALYSIS: (a) Performing an energy balance on the shell at an instant of time,
in out st
E E E = .
Identifying relevant processes and solving for dT/dt,
( ) ( )
( )
( )
2 2 3 3
4
4 4
3
i i o o i p
dT
q r h r T T r r c
dt
t t t

'' =

( )
( )
2 2
3 3
3
i i o
p o i
dT
q r hr T T
dt
c r r

(
'' =
(

.
SCHEMATIC:
<
Problem: Cooling of Spherical Canister (cont.)
(b) Under steady-state conditions with
st
E = 0, it follows that

( ) ( )
( )
2 2
4 4
i i o
q r h r T T t t

'' =
2
2 5 2
2
10 W/m 0.5m
300K 439K
0.6m
500W/m K
i i
o
q r
T T
h r

| | ''
| |
= + = + =
| |
\ .
\ .
(c) Parametric calculations show a sharp increase in temperature with decreasing values of h < 1000
W/m
2
K. For T > 380 K, boiling will occur at the canister surface, and for T > 410 K a condition known
as film boiling (Chapter 10) will occur. The condition corresponds to a precipitous reduction in h and
increase in T.
Substituting numerical values for the initial condition, find

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 2 5
2 2
3 3 3
3
W W
3 10 0.5m 500 0.6m 500 300 K
m m K
kg J
8055 535 0.6 0.5 m
kg K
m
i
dT
dt
(

(

=
(

(


0.084K/s
i
dT
dt
=
<
<
Problem: Cooling of Spherical Canister (cont.)
Although the canister remains well below the melting point of stainless steel for h = 100 W/m
2
K, boiling
should be avoided, in which case the convection coefficient should be maintained at h > 1000 W/m
2
K.
COMMENTS: The governing equation of part (a) is a first order, nonhomogenous differential equation
with constant coefficients. Its solution is
( )
( )
1
Rt Rt
i
S/ R e e u u

= + , where T T u

,
( )
2 3 3
3 /
i i p o i
S q r c r r '' ,
( )
2 3 3
3 /
o p o i
R hr c r r = . Note results for t and for S = 0.
Second law
For a reversible heat engine neglecting heat transfer effects between the
heat engine and large reservoirs, the Carnot efficiency is
where and are the absolute temperatures of large cold and hot reservoirs,
respectively.
An important tool to determine how heat transfer affects
the efficiency of energy conversion.

SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
out
in in
1 1
C
c
h
Q W
Q Q
T
T
q = = =
c
T
h
T
For an internally reversible heat engine with heat transfer to and from the
large reservoirs properly accounted for, the modified Carnot efficiency is
out out
in in in
,
,
1 1 1
c i
h i
m
Q q W
Q
T
T Q q
q = = = =
where and are the absolute
temperatures seen by the internally reversible
heat engine. Note that and are heat
transfer rates (J/s or W).
, c i c
T T >
, h i h
T T <
out
q
in
q
(1.15, 1.16)
(1.17)
Second law (cont.)
In reality, heat transfer resistances (K/W) must be non-zero since
according to the rate equations, for any temperature difference only a
finite amount of heat may be transferred.
Heat transfer resistances associated with, for example, walls separating the
internally reversible heat engine from the hot and cold reservoirs relate the
heat transfer rates to temperature differences:
( )
, i , n h h i t h
T q R T =
The modified Carnot efficiency may ultimately be expressed as
From Eq. 1.21,






( )
, , out c i c t c
T T q R =
where
tot , ,
in tot
1
c
m t h t c
h
T
R R R
T q R
q = = +

tot
only if could be made infinitely small.
m C
n R q - =
(1.21)
(1.18 a,b)
tot
For situations ( realistic 0), .
m C
R n q - = <
Good heat transfer engineering is a key
to improve the efficiency of heat engines.
-