Dumoncel: Deleuze Challenges Kolmogorov On A Calculus of Problems

Deleuze Challenges Kolmogorov on a
Calculus of Problems
Jean-Claude Dumoncel University of Caen
Abstract
1
In 1932 Kolmogorov created a calculus of problems. This calculus
became known to Deleuze through a 1945 paper by Paulette Destouches-
Fvrier. In it, he ultimately recognised a deepening of mathematical
intuitionism. However, from the beginning, he proceeded to show
its limits through a return to the Leibnizian project of Calculemus
taken in its metaphysical stance. In the carrying out of this project,
which is illustrated through a paradigm borrowed from Spinoza, the
formal parallelism between problems, Leibnizian themes and Peircean
rhemes provides the key idea. By relying on this parallelism and by
spreading the dialectic dened by Lautman with its logical drama
onto a Platonic perspective, we will attempt to obtain Deleuzes full
calculus of problems. In investigating how the same Idea may be in
mathematics and in philosophy, we will proceed to show how this
calculus of problems qualies not only as a paradigm of the Idea but
also as the apex of transdiciplinarity.
2
Keywords: calculus, Deleuze, problems, rhemes, transcendentals,
I. Introduction
Transdisciplinarity has two conceptual neighbours or challengers
in neighbourhood: pluridisciplinarity and interdisciplinarity. Pluri-
disciplinarity reaches its apex in anthropology: a man falling from a cliff
is a point for mathematics, a body for physics, an organism for biology,
perhaps a candidate for suicide for sociology. Interdisciplinarity, if it
Deleuze Studies 7.2 (2013): 169193
DOI: 10.3366/dls.2013.0101
Edinburgh University Press
www.euppublishing.com/dls
170 Jean-Claude Dumoncel
exists, is constantly in danger of falling prey to fashion. In a congress
of mathematicians, physicists and epigraphists, the rst condition of
interdisciplinarity is that mathematicians make mathematics, physicists
physics and epigraphists epigraphy; but the second condition is that
each also says something in the disciplines about which he or she is
supposed to have a lot to learn. In this sense, interdisciplinarity can
be said to have as many advantages as squaring the circle does. And so
the suspicion is born that mathematicians, physicists and epigraphists
go to interdisciplinary jamborees in the rare periods when they really
have nothing particular to say in mathematics, physics or epigraphy,
respectively.
But what about this tertium datur between the Necessary and the
Impossible that is transdisciplinarity? It is fairly easy to notice that
the whole universe of pluridisciplinarity and interdisciplinarity turns
in the circle of Comtes classication of the sciences: mathematics,
physics, biology, sociology (and other social sciences). In other words,
pluridisciplinarity and interdisciplinarity are by-products of positivism.
Since universities, still bearing the vestiges of their medieval mothers,
currently include a department of philosophy on a par with the faculties
of theology, medicine and law, philosophers are also invited by force
or politeness in the interdisciplinary jamborees. But the status of
their discourse remains a mystery for all the participants, including
themselves.
In the Deleuzian doctrine of Thought, however, we do have a
concept for transdisciplinarity. This is the concept of the Idea, taken
in the sense that the same Idea may be, for example, an Idea in
mathematics, in cinema and in philosophy. In relation, then, to the
positivist encyclopaedia, which circumscribes the whole territory of
interdisciplinarity as well as pluridisciplinarity, we notice that Deleuze
exceeds this Procrustean bed at least in two ways. First, philosophy
acquires, in addition to its de facto status inherited from the medieval
university, a de jure status reminiscent of its role in Platos Academy
or Aristotles Lyceum. Second, the extension of Ideas is not conned
to sciences (even sensu lato) but includes arts, such as cinema. Starting
with this freed space of the Idea, we will focus on the couple
philosophymathematics. With regard to this couple, the relation of
Deleuze to Kolmogorov and the latters calculus of problems offers
more than a paradigm: rather, it opens a royal path, which, incidentally,
also encounters the main difculties surrounding what we will call the
problem predicament.
Deleuze Challenges Kolmogorov on a Calculus of Problems 171
Deleuzes assessment of the calculus of problems in symbolic logic is
contained in two sentences that must be quoted in reverse chronological
order:
The intuitionist school (Brouwer, Heyting, Griss, Bouligand, etc.) is of great
importance in mathematics, not because it asserted the irreducible rights
of intuition, or even because it elaborated a very novel constructivism, but
because it developed a conception of problems, and of a calculus of problems
that intrinsically rivals axiomatics and proceeds by other rules (notably with
regard to the excluded middle). (Deleuze and Guattari [1980] 1987: 570)
The calculus of problems as it is dened notably by Kolmogoroff still
remains traced from a calculus of propositions, in isomorphism with it.
(Deleuze [1968] 1994: 322)
3
The question faced in these two sentences is precisely indicative of
the problem predicament. The rst sentence contains the Deleuzian
synopsis of mathematical intuitionism, which is better, as we shall
see, than its counterparts in standard companions on the foundations
of mathematics.
4
The second sentence is the Deleuzian challenge to
Kolmogorov on the calculus of problems.
5
Yet there is a crucial
connection between the two: the etc. following the names of Brouwer
and Heyting in the rst sentence must be taken to refer primarily to
Kolmogorov in the second. For, as it is well known, the calculus of
problems, which according to Deleuze is the highpoint of mathematical
intuitionism, had been created by Kolmogorov in 1932. This entails that
the rst sentence, which appears in A Thousand Plateaus in 1980, is
an important correction of the position taken in 1968 in Difference
and Repetition. In the latter, the calculus of Kolmogorov was simply
seen as illustrating a false conception of the category of problem;
accordingly, its value was dismissed (Deleuze [1968] 1994: 322). In A
Thousand Plateaus, however, the calculus of problems has reached the
level of great mathematical importance. As we shall see, this does not
mean that the critical assessment is wholly withdrawn. In fact, the main
reason behind Deleuzes enduring critical stance is his endorsement of
the most celebrated among the Leibnizian dreams, that is, the great
logical dream of a problem calculus. For the locus classicus of this
dream is the paragraph where Leibniz precisely anticipates the effect of
his philosophical grammar on Philosophy as a whole:
Then, between two philosophers, there will be no more need of discussions
longer than between mathematicians, since it will sufce that they seize their
pen, that they sit at their computing table (appealing to a friend if they wish)
and that they say to each other: Let us calculate [Calculemus]. (Leibniz
[1687] 1978: 200)
6
Regarding our question, then, in Difference and Repetition, Deleuze
essentially draws on two tenets:
7
on the one hand, he endorses the
great logical dream of a combinatory or calculus of problems he
ascribes to Leibniz (Deleuze [1968] 1994: 157);
8
on the other, he
says about Carnots Reections on the Metaphysics of the Innitesimal
Calculus that [by] invoking the notions of problem and problem
conditions . . . Carnot opened up for metaphysics a path which went
beyond the frame of his own theory (177). So that with regard to what
we have called the problem predicament, the whole Deleuzian doctrine
may be described as outlining a metaphysical calculus of problems. As
we shall see, this view is maintained until What Is Philosophy? and it is
precisely what subtends the denition of a properly Deleuzian dialectics.
For according to Deleuze, Dialectic is the art of problems and questions,
the combinatory or calculus of problems as such (157). And in this
dialectics, the metaphysical calculus of problems is the spearhead, and
the theory of problems is more specically called problematics.
9
Based on the above, our whole exposition will have two main, though
unequal, parts. In the rst part, which is relatively brief, we shall explain
the Kolmogorov calculus and its discussion by Deleuze. In the second
part, relying on scattered data in Deleuze, we shall disclose, through
their systematisation, his full metaphysical calculus of problems.
II. The Kolmogorov Calculus of Problems
We have a double reason to expound upon and discuss the calculus of
Kolmogorov. We must understand why Deleuze arrived at a positive
assessment of it; and we must also nd in it the target of his lasting critic
on the problem predicament, explaining why the very same calculus falls
short of the great logical dream.
In order to appraise the Deleuzian judgement in its two
pronouncements, we may condense the Kolmogorov calculus of
problems in the four following denitions:
1. A B is the problem of solving problem A and problem B.
2. A B is the problem of solving at least one of problems A or B.
3. A B is the problem of reducing a solution of problem B to a
solution of problem A (conditional problem).
4. A is the problem: assuming a solution of problem A exists,
deduce a contradiction.
Based on the logic so dened, we shall try to answer two questions: rst,
what is the great importance in mathematics of this calculus notably
with regard to the excluded middle? Second, why does it nonetheless
miss, according to Deleuze, the true conception of the category of
problem?
According to the standard story, as concerns the calculus of problems
Kolmogorov is credited with having provided the semantics of
intuitionist logic. This is not false, but when Deleuze asserts that the
calculus of problems intrinsically rivals axiomatics and proceeds by
other rules (notably with regard to the excluded middle) (Deleuze and
Guattari [1980] 1987: 570), he is pointing to a much more important
performance. As we shall see, the main contribution of Kolmogorov to
intuitionist logic is a real foundation of this deviant logic in his calculus
of problems. Taken in this perspective, intuitionist logic is better called
constructive logic.
In order to see this point more clearly, it should sufce to deepen the
comparison between two of the best-known laws in formal logic, here
presented in a Kolmogorov dress. We mean the tertium non datur (or
principle of the excluded middle)
A A
and the modus ponens
(A (A B)) B.
Between these two laws, the universal validity of the tertium non datur
was notoriously questioned by Brouwer; and the rst contribution of
Kolmogorov to intuitionist logic is in his 1925 paper On the Principle
of Excluded Middle. Indeed, in the seemingly homogeneous web of the
propositional calculus where these laws are selected, the Kolmogorov
calculus of problems will reveal an unsuspected break.
Suppose the problem A (A B) has a solution. This means that we
have a solution to problem A and a solution to problem A B. But a
solution of problem A B means that the solution of problem B may
be reduced to a solution of problem A. And, by hypothesis, we have a
solution of problem A. So we have also a solution of problem B. All this
means that the solution of problem B may be reduced to a solution of
problem A (A B) that is, the exact case of (A (A B)) B.
In other words, the modus ponens works in the calculus of problems
exactly like it does in the standard propositional calculus. But with the
tertium non datur, it is a different ball game! Because here we hit at the
difference between
A A
and the crude
p p.
The classical p p, for its part, means only that in any couple p,
p of contradictory propositions one at least is true. But with A
A, it is quite another story because in this case we have either a solution
of problem A or a solution of problem A. And having a solution to
any problem is an epistemic endorsement. Thus, the tertium non datur
which, in a calculus of truth functions is a valid law, reveals itself to be
subject to an impeachment when the calculus of problems enters the
landscape.
10
Let us illustrate the above point with a celebrated example revisited
by Deleuze: Will there be a naval battle tomorrow? (Deleuze [1985]
1989: 130). This is a problem. As Aristotle says, it is necessary that
there will be a sea-battle tomorrow or not (Aristotle, qtd in Anscombe
1956).
11
This gives us an illustration of p p. But A A is
the problem of solving at least one of problems A or A, where
A is the problem: assuming a solution of problem A exists, deduce a
contradiction. So that in this case A A is the problemof having either
a demonstrably true prognostic of a sea-battle tomorrow or a reductio
ad absurdum of such a prognostic. We sublunar mortals are far off this
epistemic performance. In other words, we may say that in the practice
of problems, the transmission of obtained solutions along the channel
of implication can conduce to the detachment of a solution according to
the step of the modus ponens, but that on the fork of a disjunction there
is no adjudication of solutions isomorphic to a tertium non datur (this
alternative adjudication being conned to the truth values).
The difference between the respective destinies of the modus ponens
and the tertium non datur, when the calculus of problems makes
the difference, is of a huge signicance. It means that formal logic,
on the level of the propositional calculus, is crossed by an essential
heterogeneity. The modus ponens is paradigmatic of the logical
principles as laws of thought. With the tertium non datur we are on
another territory. As the sea-battle predicament shows, the tertium non
datur is a law of being and becoming. The calculus of problems reveals
the objective difference between the two kinds of laws by epistemological
criteria. And when the epistemological considerations are predominant,
as in mathematical intuitionism, the verdict of the epistemological
criteria is promoted to the status of a logical touchstone: so much so
that the principle of excluded middle is rejected as a logical rule.
In all this, as it will be obvious by now, the isomorphism duly
registered by Deleuze has an essential function: it is because the symbolic
formulas of the calculus of problems, literally taken, are indiscernible
from the corresponding formulas in the propositional calculus that the
calculus of problems has a discriminating power on the propositional
calculus. In other words, the calculus of problems detects differences
in the propositional calculus on condition that it is (morphologically)
identical to it. Difference is detected by (literal) repetition. But on the
level of the whole predicament, this means that the Kolmogorov calculus
is a kind of medal, with its reverse and its obverse. For in the Deleuzian
balance, the same isomorphism that motivates the critical attitude on
the calculus is also a key condition of the discriminating power which
constitutes its value. Nevertheless, there is no inconsistency between
the two faces of the medal. On the contrary, the more the Deleuzian
assessment recognises the unquestionable value of the Kolmogorov
breakthrough, the more its reservations are well anchored, with its own
doctrine well erected.
III. The Metaphysical Calculus of Problems
It must be noted that Kolmogorov does not dene the notion of
problem but gives only some examples. These are the paradigmatic
problems according to Kolmogorov. One of these examples is the
following:
Find four positive integers x, y, z, n, suchthat x
n
+ y
n
= z
n
and n > 2.
Here we can already recognise the target of the FermatWiles theorem. A
truly tiny target for a truly titanic proof! But this paradigmatic problem
of mathematics leads us to an exegetic problem in philosophy: where in
Deleuze do we nd an example on the level of Kolmogorovs?
To our knowledge, taking into account that the Deleuzian concept
of a calculus derives in part from the metaphysics of the calculus in
Carnot and that the paradigmatic problem of Kolmogorov is a case of
exponentiation, this is an apax:
12
Hegel shows that variability in the function is not conned to values that
can be changed (2/3 and 4/6), or are left indetermined (a = 2b), but requires
one of the variables to be at a higher power (y
2
/x = P). For it is then that
a relation can be directly determined as differential relation dy/dx, in which
the only determination of the value of the variables is that of disappearing
or being born, even though it is wrested from innite speeds. A state of
affairs or derivative function depends on such a relation: an operation of
depotentialisation has been carried out that makes possible the comparison
of distinct powers starting from which a thing or a body may well develop
(integration). (Deleuze and Guattari [1991] 1994: 122)
These lines from What Is Philosophy? are directly referred to a page
by Hegel in the Science of Logic [1816] (2010).
13
In fact, they are an
abstract of two or three pages of Hegels on the differential and integral
calculus a strange abstract, no less, because it admits of a double
reading.
14
Upon a rst reading, it can be said to follow some lines on
the representation of velocity and acceleration in the famous diagram of
Nicole Oresme, so that we have in two pages a philosophical epitome
of the innitesimal calculus considered in its genesis and evolution,
a subject which Deleuze had studied at length in The History of the
Calculus and its Conceptual Development by Carl B. Boyer.
15
A second
reading is induced by a tiny anomaly of the text. In his abstract of Hegel
on the calculus, Deleuze retains the examples given in the Science of
Logic but with one exception. Hegel begins his series of examples by the
equality 2/7 = 4/14. Without any warning, Deleuze replaces it by the
equality 2/3 = 4/6. Why? We are in a book where Spinoza is proclaimed
the prince of philosophers (Deleuze and Guattari [1991] 1994: 48). So
we can recognise here the proportion 2, 4, 3, 6, taken as example from
the Treatise on the Emendation of the Intellect.
16
And this proportion
illustrates a general request: Three numbers are given it is required to
nd a fourth, which shall be to the third as the second is to the rst.
That is, we are here before a paradigm of the problem. In the Ethics
(II, XL, n. 2), this paradigm is even made both more simple and more
explicit: one, two, three, being given, everyone can see that the fourth
proportional is six. In this version, the paradigm is more simple since it
begins with the three rst numbers; and it is more explicit as a case of
problem since only the given numbers 1, 2 and 3 are named, leaving the
solution of the problem in the dark or, better, as a blank. So, if we put
this paradigm in the same form as 2/3 = 4/6, we obtain
1/2 = 3/ .
This is the Deleuzian paradigm of problem. And now that we have this
paradigm, we may proceed to its dogmatic exposition. It has the nice
form of an ABC.
Problems, Rhemes and Themes in the Procession of a Same Theme
We are also in a chapter of What Is Philosophy? where the rst sentence
declares: The objects of science are not concepts, but functions . . . .
The sequel of this thesis is to be found in the rst page of the following
chapter, where Deleuze, speaking about logic, says that following the
route marked out by Frege and Russell, it wants to turn the concept into
a function (Deleuze and Guattari [1991] 1994: 135). Deleuze adds the
condition of this transgression: Thus a new, specically logical type of
function must be invented, the propositional function. And he gives an
example of propositional function:
xis human.
But this is only the parvis of the temple. Because Deleuze knows as well
the paradigm of the giving in C. S. Peirce (Deleuze [1983] 1986: 197).
He writes it as:
Agives BtoC.
In Peirce we nd the following writing:
gives to (Peirce [1898] 1992: 154)
And Deleuze has adopted this writing by hyphens on the case of the
Other as a paradigm of concept with two components: its concept is
that of an other a subject that presents itself as an object which is
special in relation to the self (Deleuze and Guattari [1991] 1994: 16).
Peirce explains this kind of writing in the denition of his concept of
rheme, also written rhema:
If parts of a proposition be erased so as to leave blanks in their place, and if
these blanks are of such a nature that if each of them be lled by a proper
name the result will be a proposition, then the blank form of proposition
which was rst produced by the erasures is termed a rheme. According as the
number of blanks in a rheme is 0, 1, 2, 3, etc., it may be termed a medad
(from jpo, nothing), monad, dyad, triad, etc., rheme. (Peirce [1903] 1998:
299)
In a complete proposition there are no blanks. It may be called a medad,
or medadic relative, from jpo:j,, none, and :o:, the accusative ending
of such words jo :,, ot :,, tj: :,, tctj :, etc. A non-relative name with a
substantive verb, as is a man, or man that is , or s manhood has one
blank; it is a monad, or monadic relative. An ordinary relative with an active
verb as is a lover of or the loving by of has two blanks; it is a dyad,
or dyadic relative. A higher relative similarly treated has a plurality of blanks.
It may be called a polyad. The rank of a relative among these may be called its
adinity, that is the peculiar quality of the number it embodies. (Peirce 1933:
CP 3.465, 294)
But all this means that the rheme of Peirce is exactly the same thing
as the propositional function of Russell as a case of the function of
Frege. A gives B to C is only a notational variant of x gives y to
z. And since the Deleuzian writing of the concept is borrowed from
the Peircean writing of the rheme, the conclusion seems unavoidable:
Deleuze himself has remelted the concept of Concept in the mould of
the function. What Peirce has labelled adinity, now called arity by the
logician, is in the vocabulary of Deleuze a case of multiplicity (Deleuze
and Guattari [1991] 1994: 15).
We must, however, remark that this reasoning does not go without
saying for the Peircean step:
gives to
As we may notice, in the Peircean paradigm of the giving, we have to
distinguish three heterogeneous roles: the donor A, the donee C, and
the gift B. And the juridical difference between the persons and the things
is appropriately marked by a difference between the allotted hyphens
and . This implies that here the limits of formal logic are exceeded,
since the difference donor/donee, for example, pertains to the matter of
the meaning. And such a difference of roles denes, as we shall see, a
stepping stone for the Deleuzian logic of problems.
The key concept, here, is exhumed by Deleuze when, in opposition to
the Kolmogorov calculus, he takes up
17
a notion that Leibniz himself
had borrowed from some logicians of the reformation century: the
concept of theme which immediately divides itself in incomplex theme
and complex theme according to the distinction between ideas or terms
and propositions or truths (Leibniz 1992: IV, i, 2).
In these Leibnizian terms, an incomplex theme is a thing or idea,
such as in love, and a complex theme is a thesis, proposition or truth
such as Candide is in love or Candide is in love with Cunegonde.
As it is well known, from a propositional function such as x has
a daemon, propositions are obtained by what Frege has described
as the saturation of the function, that is, either by the substitution
of constants for the variables as in Socrates has a daemon or by
quantifying on the variables as in x. x has a daemon (There is an
x such that x has a daemon). This means that the conceptual couple
incomplex theme/complex theme is the ancestor of the conceptual couple
propositional function/proposition (x is in love/everybody is in love,
etc.).
But Deleuze quotes the following lines from Leibniz:
There are indeed themes which can be said to be midway between an idea
and a proposition, namely questions. Some of these ask for the Yes or the No,
and these are the closest to propositions; but there are others which ask the
how and the circumstances, and so on, and more must be added to these if
they are to become propositions. (Leibniz 1981: IV, i, 2)
For example, we have the following procession on a same theme:
[a] is inlove
[b] Is Marcel inlove?
[c] Marcel is inlove withAlbertine.
In this paradigm, [a] is a term, [b] is a question (formulation of a
possible problem) and [c] is a proposition. But the procession [a][b][c]
as a whole is on a same theme. From the Deleuzian point of view,
this is the fundamental fact of logic. And in the conceptual conict
with Kolmogorov, this is exactly what challenges the isomorphism so
well exploited by Kolmogorov, for example between p q and A
B. As its name recalls, isomorphism is identity of form. The thematic
identity, on the contrary, is an identity of matter, content or topic. It is
an isohylism or, better, isotopism.
Let us compare the formulas of the following thematic table:
(1) 1/2 = 3/x [1] Pleasure/x = y/z
(2) 1/2 = 3/6 [2] Pleasure/Act = Beauty/Youth in its ower
(3) x/2 = 3/6 [3] x/ Act = Beauty/Youth in its ower
(4) x/y = 3/6 [4] x/ y = Beauty/Youth in its ower
(5) x/y = z /6 [5] x/y = z /Youth in its ower
(6) x/y = z /w [6] x/y = z /w
(7) 2/y = z/w [7] Queen/y = z/w
(8) 2/4 = z /w [8] Queen/Monarchy = z/w
(9) 2/4 = 5/w [9] Queen/Monarchy = President/w
(10) 2/4 = 5/10 [10] Queen/Monarchy = President/Republic
In this table, we must begin with line 6, where (6) = [6], being a
propositional function with four free variables. From this starting point,
we can then proceed either downwards or upwards. If we proceed
downwards, along the series from (5) to (10) or [5] to [10], following
the method recalled by Deleuze when he says that we arrive at f(a) for
a variable x, we shall obtain nally, by the progressive elimination of
all the free variables, a proposition that is true or false such as (10)
or [10]: 2/4 equals 5/10 or The queen is to a monarchy what the
president is to a republic. This is the logical genesis of propositions by
quantication binding the free variables of the propositional function or
by substitution of constants for these variables. Here, it is illustrated by
the second method, the more fundamental one.
But if we proceed upwards, we penetrate into another territory. First,
we must notice that a formula such as (1)
1/2 = 3/x
is virtually ambiguous. If it is taken in a book of formal logic, it is
probably, as (9), a propositional function with one free variable, on a
par with the Deleuzian example x is human. If it is taken in a book
of mathematics, it is probably a proposition. This proposition may be
formulated, as in Kolmogorov, under the form of an imperative:
Find one integer xsuchthat 1/2 = 3/x.
But it may also take the form of an interrogative proposition:
What is the number xsuchthat 1/2 = 3/x?
In its two forms, the proposition enunciates a problem by an equation.
In a propositional function the variables are dummies disposed of
in order to be clothed by constants. In an equation they are the
unknown variables, here to be suppressed by their solutions. (By
virtually ambiguous, we mean that the ambiguity cannot cause any
misunderstanding since propositional functions with free variables
have no use but only mentions. Consequently, the amphibology is
recommended as an economy!)
The case of 1/2 = 3/x may be generalised. When in our table we
proceed from (6) to (3) and (1) or from [6] to [3] and [1], we obtain
in each column some examples of (soluble or insoluble) problems. The
propositions (2) and [2] contain respectively the solutions of problems
(1) and [1]. Therefore, we arrive at the following conclusion: the arity
or adinity of propositional functions extends to the problems, taking the
form of the number of their unknown variables. In Deleuzian terms, this
means that the multiplicity characteristic of the rhemes extends to the
problems or, better, that the same multiplicity extends indifferently to
propositional functions and to problems. Since problems are naturally
expressed in questions and since the logic of questions is called erotetic
logic (from the Greek erotesis, questioning) we shall call this thesis of a
same arity shared by all themes (in rhemes and problems) the principle
of rhema-erotetic arity.
This thesis must be appreciated in its full signicance. Formal
logic, in its totality, is constituted by the propositional calculus
and quantication theory. But since propositions are nothing but
saturated propositional functions and since quantication is the binding
of variables in propositional functions, the concept of propositional
function is the arch-concept of logic in its totality. The fact that the
arity of propositional functions exceeds formal logic and qualies also
the problems, therefore, may be said the fundamental fact of logic.
In taking from Spinoza the 1/2 = 3/x as paradigm of prob-
lems, endorsing the hyphen symbolism of Peircean rhemes and
recycling the Leibnizian themes, Deleuze has discovered on the path
problemrhemetheme the principle of rhema-erotetic arity as the thesis
of isotopy.
In Kolmogorovs calculus, the only problems at stake are
mathematical problems. But, as the thematic table shows, the principle
of isotopy is not conned to mathematics. As the example from Aristotle
attests, philosophical problems illustrate the same law. The problem [1]
may be rephrased more explicitly:
[1bis] Found a goodanalogy exhibiting the place of pleasure inhumanlife.
In order to reach the full generality of a calculus of problems, how
can we neutralise the difference between philosophy and mathematics?
Following Coquand in his commentary on Kolmogorov,
18
we shall
introduce the conceptual character imagined by Hilbert: Aristide = t
x
A.
The so-called Aristide is dened by Hilbert in the following way: if A
is the predicate to be corruptible, then t
x
A would be a man of such
absolute integrity that, if he happened to be corruptible, all men in
general would be corruptible (Hilbert [1923] 1996: 11401; translation
modied). With such a denition, Hilberts Aristide is obviously an
amphibian between mathematics and philosophy.
But in order to reach such a result, and even if, as Kolmogorov, one
connes the calculus to mathematics, the fundamental fact of logic itself
is not sufcient. Deleuze declares:
Sense is located in the problem itself. Sense is constituted in the complex
theme, but the complex theme is that set of problems and questions in relation
to which the propositions serve as elements of response and cases of solution.
(Deleuze [1968] 1994: 157)
This thesis precedes the reference to Leibniz
19
which leads us to his
division of the concept of theme into complex themes and incomplex
themes. As we have seen, in Leibniz, an incomplex theme is for
example in love or in love with Cunegonde, and a complex theme
is, for example, Candide is in love or Candide is in love with
Cunegonde. That is, in Leibniz, incomplex themes are terms to be
conceived as rhemes or propositional functions, and complex themes
are propositions. But when we penetrate into the Deleuzian dialectics,
the opposition incomplex/complex acquires an entirely new meaning.
In order to understand the Deleuzian dialectics in its full signicance,
we have to enlarge our conceptual apparatus and consider at least the
following conceptual triplet that we shall call the entire dialectic triad:
Problems
Terms = Rhemes = Propositional functions
Propositions
In the dialectic triad, the layer of rhemes represents the level of
incomplex themes. But the main point of Deleuzian dialectics is that,
from this layer of incomplexity, two kinds of logical complexity can be
reached; two kinds that are not only different but entirely heterogeneous.
There is the well-known complexity of propositions, which qualies
them as complex themes in the Leibnizian sense. This is the complexity
obtained by the saturation of rhemes as propositional functions. For
example, from the incomplex
x/y = z/w
there is the increasing complexity of
x/y = z/Aristide
x.x/y = z/Aristide
Etc.
But there is a quite different complexity in the bargain: the complexity
qualifying the problems.
Lautman in Bergsonian territory: incipit Albert Lautman
From here onwards, the Deleuzian doctrine on problems is mainly
borrowed from Lautman.
20
In mathematical philosophy, the Lautman
posture is an apax. On the category of problem, according to Deleuze,
Lautman is grasped in a kind of analogy with the doctrine of Bergson
on intuition, intelligence and instinct. According to Bergson, between
intelligence and instinct we nd the following chiasmatic paradox:
Intelli gence sets problems of whi ch i t has no soluti on.
Insti nct has soluti ons of problems i t has never set.
The function of intuition follows:
Intui ti on has the f uncti on of gi vi ng to the problems of i ntelli gence
the ready-made soluti ons worked out by i nsti nct.
Mathematics is, among others, a case of this Law of Bergson. In
mathematics, as in other disciplines, the solutions are the affair of an
instinct. And the royal art is the weaving of unforeseeable problems by
intelligence. This is the true story of mathematical intuition.
This paradoxical situation is paralleled by the main relation between
philosophy and mathematics as it is conceived by Lautman. According
to Lautman, philosophy sets latent problems to which it has no solution,
and mathematics offers patent solutions of some problems it has
never set. The task of mathematical philosophy follows: mathematical
philosophy must give to the latent problems of philosophy their patent
solutions in mathematics:
Nowhere better than in the admirable work of Albert Lautman has it
been shown how problems are rst Platonic Ideas or ideal liaisons between
dialectical notions, relative to eventual situations of the existent; but
also how they are realised within the real relations constitutive of the
desired solution within a mathematical, physical or other eld. It is in this
sense, according to Lautman, that science always participates in a dialectic
which points beyond it in other words, in a meta-mathematical and extra-
propositional power even though the liaisons of this dialectic are incarnated
only in effective scientic propositions and theories. (Deleuze [1968] 1994:
1634)
The mathematical philosophy of Lautman, itself, is exfoliated on two
Platonic plateaus: on a rst plateau, Lautman holds that even at the
mathematical level there is a real drama which is played in the
heights, and that it qualies as a logical drama (Lautman [2006] 2011:
167, 189). On a second plateau, this logical drama, played at the level
of mathematics, is in its turn explained by an even more secret history
or action, developing itself at the background of the drama, or, more
exactly, above it. This double doctrine is contained in the following lines:
Mathematics, and above all modern mathematics, algebra, group theory and
topology, have thus appeared to us to tell, in addition to the constructions in
which the mathematician is interested, another more hidden story made for
the philosopher. A dialectical action is always at play in the background . . .
(Lautman [2006] 2011: 91)
One may say that distinct mathematical theories participate to a common
dialectic which dominates them . . . participation of mathematics to a higher
and more hidden reality which, in my opinion, constitute a real world of
ideas. (Lautman, qtd in Cavaills [1939] 1946: 596, 605; also Cavaills 1994:
596, 605; my translation)
This action, which is played above the Lautmanian drama, will be
called the Lautmanian gesta. Corresponding to these two plateaux of
Lautmans theory, Deleuzian dialectics will itself develop in a drama
crowned by a gesta.
The proper complexity of problems, taken in its main lines, is
described by Deleuze as follows: The complete determination of
a problem is inseparable from the existence, the number and the
distribution of the determinant points which precisely provide its
conditions (one singular point gives rise to two condition equations)
(Deleuze [1968] 1994: 163; [1969] 1990: 54).
21
Here we have an
ascending dialectic of four oors:
4th The singular determinant points giving rise to the equations.
3rd The equations of conditions.
2nd The conditions of the problem.
1st The problem.
In this ascending dialectics, the conditions of a problem and the equation
of conditions are borrowed by Deleuze from Carnot (Deleuze [1968]
1994: 175):
after having introduced these quantities in the calculus in order to facilitate
the expression of the conditions of the problem, and having treated them, in
the equations which expressed these conditions, as zero by comparison with
the proposed quantities, in order to simplify these equations, it sufces to
eliminate these same quantities . . . (Carnot [1881] 1970: 11)
The conditions of a problem are a case of dialectical amphibian.
Suppose that the problem is
x = 100 a.
Here, a condition of the problem is that a 100, if we are conned to
natural numbers. But if we have at our disposal the algebraic numbers,
positive or negative, the condition evaporates. And you know that
the same tale may be told for the invention of

2, 0,

1, etc. In
other words, the whole history of mathematics may be rewritten as
the history of superstitious conditions and their successive dissolutions
in the ocean of heroic generalisation. But this positively means that,
since the quadrature of the circle, the problems are the erotetic fountain
from which the whole stream of mathematics ows with the rule and
the compass as paradigm of obsolete conditions for a construction
problem.
At the other extreme of the dialectical spectrum, the same conditions
of a problem are a matter of algebraic routine in the standard cooking
of equations. Here, the paradigm is an interdict in mosaic form: Never
divide by zero (Par zro jamais ne diviseras!). If this condition is not
fullled, this is the problem (set in equation) which evaporates. But in
a descending dialectic, Deleuze relies rst on a paradigm borrowed from
Lautman, with two illustrations of the determinant points:
[a] The cases that we are going to envisage
22
are those of the functions
admitting 3 singular points: the points 0, 1 and . It can still in effect be
obtained by a linear transformation that the singularities are produced at
these points here. (Lautman [2006] 2011: 179)
[b] The points of indetermination
23
where P = Q = 0, constitute the
singularities of the vector eld. (Lautman [2006] 2011: 259)
The main fact here is that the two illustrations lead to the same
conclusion on the singular points:
[a*] the nature of singular points on a domain determines, at each point of the
domain of the variable z, the existence of solutions of the proposed equation.
(Lautman [2006] 2011: 181)
[b*] The existence and distribution of singularities are notions relative to the
vector eld dened by the differential equations. The form of the integral
curves is relative to the solutions of this equation. (Lautman [2006] 2011:
259)
So Deleuze can conclude:
Albert Lautman has clearly indicated this difference in kind between the
existence and distribution of singular points which refer to the problem-
element, and the specication of these same points which refer to the solution-
element. (Deleuze [1968] 1994: 324)
For example, in the theory of differential equations, the existence and
distribution of singularities are relative to a problematic eld dened by the
equation as such. As for the solution, it appears only with the integral curves
and the form they take in the vicinity of singularities inside the eld of vectors.
(Deleuze [1969] 1990: 54)
As for the equations of conditions,
24
when the problem is in the
differential equation
w
+ p
1
(z) w
+ p
2
(z) w = 0
the two alluded equations of conditions
25
are, at the vicinity of the
point z = a on the complex plane C:
w
1
= (z a)
l
1
P(z a)
and
w
2
= (z a)
l
2
P
(z a) +eventually a logarithmic term.

But where is there a drama? This term drama, used by Lautman,
nds its best ratio in Proclus: Proclus denes the problem by means
of the events which come to affect a logical subject matter (sections,
ablations, adjunctions, etc.) (Deleuze [1969] 1990: 54). In proper
Proclean terms:
26
it is in imagination that the constructions, sectionings,
superpositions, comparisons, additions and subtractions take place . . .
(Proclus 1970: 64 [78]). But here, the problems whose complexity is
exhibited by Lautman are typically equations. This means that we
remain in the domain of mathematics. So, we do not see so far how
this description could be valid about philosophical problems. In order,
then, to reach the level on which the Deleuzian dialectics embraces as
well philosophical and mathematical problems, we must move, in its
Lautmanian top, from drama to gesta.
The Lautmanian Gesta and its Themes
Over and above the Lautmanian dialectical drama, what is the
Lautmanian dialectical gesta of problems? The kind of themes providing
the plots of this gesta are described by Lautman in the following terms:
the materials of which the universe is formed are not so much the atoms and
molecules of the physical theory as these great pairs of ideal opposites such
as the Same and the Other, the Symmetrical and Dissymmetrical, related to
one another according to the laws of a harmonious mixture. (Lautman [2006]
2011: xxviii)
This thesis must be labelled the Lautman Law. The great couples of
ideal contraries alluded in the Lautman Law have a celebrated register
in a Pythagorean table:
1. Limit & Unlimited
2. Odd & Even
3. One & Many
4. Right & Left
5. Male & Female
6. Rest & Move
7. Straight & Curve
8. Light & Darkness
9. Good & Bad
10. Square & Oblong
Lautman simply adds to this table two homogeneous lines:
11. Same & Other
12. Symmetric & Dissymmetric
Here we understand why the theory of problems which dominates
mathematics according to Plato and Lautman is called a dialectic by
them. It is a dialectic because it is a doctrine of dualities. But in order to
obtain in this dialectic a calculus of problems at the level envisioned by
Leibniz, that is a calculus covering not only of mathematical but also of
philosophical problems, the great couples of ideal contraries alluded to
by Lautman must extend to the whole register that is due to Plato. This
list is drawn up in a dialogue between Socrates and Theaetetus:
Soc. To which class, then, do you assign being; for this, more than anything
else, belongs to all things? Theaet. I assign them to the class of notions which
the soul grasps by itself directly. Soc. And also same and other [likeness and
unlikeness] and identity and difference? Theaet. Yes. Soc. And how about
beautiful and ugly, and good and bad? Theaet. I think that these also are
among the things the essence of which the soul most certainly views in their
relations to one another, reecting within itself upon the past and present in
relation to the future. (Plato 1921: 186ab)
With this ultimate adjunction:
Soc. Is it possible for one to attain truth who cannot even get as far as being?
Theaet. No. (Plato 1921: 186c, pp. 1635; translation modied)
This is in advance an inventory of the transcendental terms, enumerating
the objects of philosophy. So, with these great couples of ideal
contraries enlisted in their complete enumeration, Lautmanian dialectics
reaches its top level and the calculus of problems can satisfy the
requisites of the Leibnizian programme. Because, from Platos listing
of transcendental terms to a calculus, there is only one step. This can
be shown if we realise that Hilberts Aristide is a kind of Platonic
or Lautmanian Idea. Aristide, as we may recall, is of such absolute
integrity that, if he happened to be corruptible, all men in general would
be corruptible (Hilbert [1923] 1996: 11401; translation modied).
Similarly, according to Plato, the Idea of the Good is of such absolute
goodness that, if it happened to be bad, all things in general would be
bad. Hilberts Aristide, therefore, is only a personalisation of the Platonic
Idea. So, along with Aristotelian or Stoic logic, with its Boolean and
Fregean offspring, Hilbert has forged a Platonic logic. And Lautman,
with his dialectics, has maximised the efciency of Hilberts Aristide.
Consequently, reconsider our paradigm of an amphibian problem:
x/y = z/Aristide.
According to Platos analogy of the line, this paradigm must be vertically
restated.
27
In this new manner it takes the following form:
Aristide
- - - - - - - - - - -
z
=
y
- - - -
x
And on this ladder, at its top rung, since Aristide is only a personication
of the Platonic Idea, he can be replaced by any analogous term, with its
two main species, mathematical and philosophical. In the mathematical
realm, a paradigm is already offered by Plato:
(4th Elevation at the Square)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
3rd Intelligible Square
=
2nd Visible Square
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1st Shadow of Square Body
Here, in mathematics, we follow an ascending dialectics: the stages x,
y and z are given, and the problem is to nd the fourth proportional
= Power2 = ( )
2
. In the philosophical realm, this is the other way round:
in the whole vertical procession, Aristide is given at the top level, and
the xyz series follows by measured participation to the Idea, in a triad of
hypostases. For example, if Aristide = the Other:
Other
- - - - - - - - - - -
x
=
y
- - - -
z
So that, in its Lautmanian empyrean, the calculus of problems permits
the deduction of the Platonic dialectics with its two inverse moves
of ascending and descending dialectics. Accordingly, the metaphysical
calculus of problems in its full development may be exposed in the
following Lautmanian table:
Lautman Spinoza Hilbert in Plato Deleuze
Invisible Dialectics x Aristide Same and Other
Invisible Mathematics 3 a Mathematics
Visible Natural philosophy 2 b Natural philosophy
Visible Physics 1 c Physics
In this table, the essential fact to be read and emphasised is the difference
between the three rst columns and the fourth. In the Lautman column,
physics, natural philosophy, and mathematics are given; the problem,
situated at the level of dialectics, is the determination, as fourth
proportional, of the X which qualies as the object of dialectics. In
the Spinoza column, the x is the algebraic unknown variable to be
found. In the Hilbert and Plato column, Aristide himself, after all, is
only a dummy for Gttingen geometers. But in the Deleuzian column,
all this indetermination is suppressed. With the Same and the Other
(or similar transcendental terms), the Lautmanian dialectics receives its
adequate Object, qualifying it as a philosophical calculus (philosophical,
since Aristide becomes a transcendental term; and calculus since the
entire column retains the algebraic form of its Spinoza counterpart).
And all this means that the entire table functions as a mathematical
proportion, where the fourth column is the solution, obtained as fourth
proportional: QED.
IV. Conclusion
On the problem predicament, the Kolmogorov calculus of problems was
received by Deleuze as the summit of mathematical intuitionism and as
a challenge to the Leibnizian Calculemus in philosophy. The challenge is
taken up at least in two results:
1. The thesis of isotopy disclosing the procession of a same theme in
the Peircean rhemes and the Leibnizian problems.
2. The deduction of a Lautmanian dialectics where the Hilbertian
Aristide is the variable whose values are the transcendental terms
dening the objects of philosophy.
On the level of transdisciplinarity qua transdisciplinarity, this double
result has a huge signicance. Since the objects of philosophy are
the transcendental terms (esse, unum, verum, bonum and pulchrum),
philosophy transcends all categories, which are the top of all generality.
And since the territory of all theoretical sciences is generality,
philosophy transcends the whole territory of theoretical science. So,
philosophy is transdisciplinary by itself. But in the territory of science,
mathematics is the top of apodicticity. Hence the Leibnizian programme
of the Calculemus: to transport into philosophy the apodicticity of
mathematics. In solving the proportional problem exposed in the
Lautmanian table, Deleuze has accomplished the decisive step in this
transfer.
Notes
1. Special acknowledgements are due to Marjorie Gracieuse, Chryssa Sdrolia and
Masa Kosugi for their kind invitation to the Deleuzian symposium where this
talk took place, for their generous and invaluable help, as well as for the logistics
of our agapistic meeting and the sophisticated predicaments and intellectual
delicacies, which make its growing attractiveness and spell.
2. Chryssa Sdrolia saw immediately that the oral version of my paper was better
than the original written version. The following text is revised according to this
trusty verdict.
3. In this paper, we will follow the alternate spelling Kolmogorov.
4. With the exception of Carl Posy (2005) Intuitionismand Philosophy, in Stewart
Shapiro (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Mathematics and Logic,
Oxford: Oxford University Press, but for very different reasons.
5. When Deleuze wrote that sentence, the unique source he referred to on the
calculus of Kolmogorov was a Note by Paulette Destouches-Fvrier to the French
Academy of Sciences, Rapports entre le calcul des problmes et le calcul des
propositions, published in 1945.
6. Quo facto, quando orientur controversiae, non magis disputatione opus erit
inter duos philosophos, quam inter duos Computistas. Sufciet enim calamos
in manus sumere sedereque ad abacos, et sibi mutuo (accito si placet amico)
dicere: Calculemus (Leibniz [1687] 1978 Scientia Generalis, Characteristica;
my translation).
7. From a genetic point of view, we must recall that Difference and Repetition was
in Deleuzes PhD the thse principale and that its initial subject was the idea
of problem (Dosse [2007] 2010: 11617).
8. Diffrence & Rptition, p. 204; (translation slightly modied).
9. He stipulates that the use of the word problematics as a substantive is an
indispensable neologism (Deleuze [1968] 1994: 323).
10. As Coquand says: The solution of the problemB must be reduced to the solution
of the problem A (A B). So, suppose a solution of this problem is given.
This means that one has both a solution of problem A, and a solution of problem
A B, i.e. one may reduce the solution of problem B to that of problem A.
Hence, as desired, we can solve problem B.
On the other hand, the principle of excluded middle in the form
A A
can not be justied. Indeed, a solution would be a general method which, given
a problem A, would either give a solution or show that a contradiction follows
from the assumption that problem A is solvable. As Kolmogorov states, unless
one is bold enough to consider oneself omniscient, it must be recognized that
there is no solution to this problem Coquand [2004] 2007: 312.
11. Aristotle, On Interpretation, ch. 9, 19a[30], trans. G. E. M. Anscombe, in
Anscombe 1956.
12. As in hpax legmenon (: .cjco).
13. With an erroneous pagination. Deleuze writes: Science de la logique, Ed. Aubier,
II, p. 277. But the page is in volume I of this translation by Sandor Janklvitch.
14. See Hegel [1816] 2010: 21315.
15. Cf. The Logic of Sense, Deleuze [1969] 1990: 339.
16. See Spinoza 1992: 23.
17. See Deleuze [1968] 1994: 322.
18. See Coquand [2004] 2007: 1.1.
19. See Deleuze [1968] 1994: 322.
20. See Deleuze [1968] 1994: 322. Albert Lautman (2006) Les Mathmatiques, les
ides et le rel physique, Paris: Vrin. For a general introduction to Lautman, see
my review of this re-edition (Dumoncel 2008).
21. A problem is determined only by the singular points which express its
conditions (Deleuze [1969] 1990: 54).
22. On the differential equation w
+p
1
(z)w
+p
2
(z)w = 0.
23. On the differential equation dy/dx =Q(x, y)/P(x, y).
24. See Lautman [2006] 2011: 17980.
25. More precisely, these two equations are themselves the two solutions of an
equation.
26. As Deleuze alludes, it is a conception from which Proclus, at least takes his
distance.
27. Cf. J. L. Austin (1979) The Line and the Cave in Platos Republic, in
Philosophical Papers, ed. J. O. Urmson and G. J. Warnock, Oxford: Oxford
University Press; J. C. Dumoncel (1992) La thorie platonicienne des Ides-
Nombres, Revue de Philosophie Ancienne, X :1, pp. 134, reprinted in J. C.
Dumoncel (2002) La tradition de la Mathesis Universalis, Paris: Unebvue-
diteur.
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