The Indian Institute of Culture

Basavangudi, Bangalore
Transaction No. 10
YANTRAS OR MECHANICAL
CONTRIVANCES IN ANCIENT INDIA
By
V. RAGHAVAN, M.A., PH.D.
February 1952 Price: Re. 1/8
THE INDIAN INSTITUTE OF CULTURE
TRANSACTIONS
Many valuable lectures are given, papers read and discussed, and oral reviews of
outstanding books presented, at the Indian Institute of Culture. Its day is still one of small
beginnings, but wider dissemination of at least a few of these addresses and papers is
obviously in the interest of the better intercultural understanding so important for world
peace. Some of these are published in the Institutes monthly organ, The Aryan Path; then
we have two series of occasional papersReprints from that journal, and Transactions. The
Institute is not responsible for views expressed and does not necessarily concur in them.
Transaction No. 10
Dr. V. Raghavau heads the Department of Sanskrit in the University of Madras. He
came to Bangalore to deliver two lectures, on J une 18th and 19th, 1951, under the auspices
of the Indian Institute of Culture. It is the first of these, given under the chairmanship of
Prof. D. D. Kosambi, which we publish here.
Dr. Raghavan's paper admirably complements Dr. H. J . J . Winters study: The History of
Scientific Thought with Special Reference to published as the Institutes Transaction No. 5.
His careful study of this subject has led him to conclusions about ancient India quite
different from the stereotyped concept popular in the West. The idea of a nation of dreamers,
essentially impractical folk, is one which has never been reconcilable with the surviving
records of engineering triumphs and the rare achievements in architecture as well as in art
which have defied the ravages of time and climate through untold centuries. The intellectual,
moral and spiritual heights attained by ancient Indias great seers and sages, to which early
writings and far earlier oral traditions bore witness, were generally recognized in India. With
that recognition may have gone a growing undervaluation of material development that may
have played its part in the neglect for ages to carry further, on the practical side, the high
material civilization attained thousands of years ago, to which the very ancient ruins of
Mohenjo-daro bear witness.
The explanation for the loss of ancient technological knowledge advanced by another
scholar, Shri V. R. R. Dikshitar, the author of War in Ancient India, is the secrecy with
which certain arts and sciences were guarded, lest, he believes, the popular knowledge of
them lead to abuse and disturb the peace of mankind. Certainly the modern world can
appreciate the value of such a sense of responsibility in the possessors of dangerous
knowledge!
But, whatever the cause of the material decline, Dr. Raghavan as well as Shri Dikshitar
is convinced by the textual evidence that ancient India had once attained a high
technological development, even in aeronautics.
YANTRAS OR MECHANICAL
CONTRIVANCES IN ANCIENT INDIA
"To deny to Babylon, to Egypt and to India, their part in the development of science
and scientific thinking is to defy the testimony of the ancients, supported by the discovery of
the modern authorities. L. C, KARPINSKI.
Thus we see that Indias marvels were not always false. LYNN THORNDIKE.
It is indeed in the realms of literature
1
and art, religion and philosophy that ancient
India made its outstanding contributions. While the achievements in the former have gained
world-wide appreciation, those in the latter constitute really the survival value, if any, of the
ancient culture of this country.
2
The skill of execution evident in art, the speculation that
fathomed the depths of the spirit, and the powerful imagination that was an over-all feature
of all this activity, expressed themselves so freely, however, that no bounds were set to the
all-round enfoldment of this culture, and the fecund creative power resulted in unceasing
zest in every department of intellectual activity.
3
The exclusive other-worldliness of this
culture is no longer subscribed to, and the discovery of manuscripts and the advance of
research have both brought to light no insignificant amount of ancient Indian activity in the
fields of positive aspects of life,
4
of subjects of practical interest and scientific value, which,
considering the intellectual level of other nations in those times of antiquity, do justify
Indias claim to the role of teacher of the ancient world.
On this positive side of ancient Indian culture, topics pertaining to major sciences like
medicine or mathematics have always formed the recognized subjects for research or
disquisition. I have picked up an out-of-the-way subject from what may be referred to as one
of the byways in this department of investigation. The enormous scientific advancement
today and our familiarity with marvels of mechanical invention and perfection may reduce
the value of this study; but it must be granted by the moderns that it is the dreams of ages
and the crude experiments of old that have been the forerunners of the recent advances.
To a student of ancient Indian civilization in detail this is a question arousing very keen
enthusiasm and, from the point of view of the general cultured public conversant with
Sanskrit literature, what I am going to present contains much unfamiliar material about
which they are likely to be curious. The whole of this material has not, so far as I know,
been set forth previously at length or in a single place; the literary sources concerned are not
free from textual problems and difficulties of interpretation, a few of them being still in
manuscript; and, on the whole, I feel gratified, and grateful to this Institute that I have this
opportunity to put together data that T have been noting down for some time.
That from ancient times the idea of a yantra was very common is proved by two facts,
the application of the concept to the esoteric sphere, and the way the yantra roused the
imagination of the spiritual writers. In esoteric worship the yantra was a chart which stored

1
His article Hindu Science, The American Mathematical Monthly, 1919, Vol. xxvi, pp, and 29.S-300;
quoted by LYNN Thorndike in his History of Magic and Experimental Science, Six Volumes. (New York, 1923
ff.)
2
THORNDI KE, op. cit. Vol. II. p. 238.
3
See the present writer's Is Hindu Culture Other-worldly? The Twentieth Century, Allahabad, 1937, August,
pp. 1142-1154-, September, pp. 56-65; October pp. 169-179.

4
It may be interesting in this connection to draw attention to the story of the 8 century jain writer Haribhadra
and his tow nephews, hamsa and Paramahamsa, as told in the Prabhavakacarita (IX.48 ff.) where we hear of the
employment of a parachute for escaping. The nephews were confined in an upper storey by their angry
Buddhistic teacher and, to escape further punishments, the brothers spread tow umbrellas, jumped out of the
window, and softly and safely set foot on the ground. (Ibid., ch. IX, Verses 87-89)
th
2
up within its confines spiritual power; drawn on a flat surface or made in relief, it had
components or details which had to be strictly conformed to and, as an instrument for
achieving spiritual power, it eminently deserved the name yantra.
11
In the minds of the
writers, who were essentially men of religious faith and spiritual yearning, the yantra or
machine always suggested a highly apt analogy for the material universe or the mundane
body activated by a God or presided over by a Soul.
The word yantra is derived from the root yam, to control, and has been freely used in
ancient India for any contrivance; some very simple ones are commonly known: the water-
pulley in the well was called Ghatiyantra; an oil-presser was Taila-yantra ; a cane-presser
was I kshu-yantra; ploughs, water- lifts and even weighing balances were referred to as
yantras (Arthasastra II. 19 ; II. 24); and in Tamil even the stone grain-grinder is referred to
by the Tamil form of the same name entiram" These should not lead us to think that very
complicated mechanisms were not evolved by the ancients.
Mechanical skill had produced in ancient India many accessories for scientific
activities, such as surgical instruments in medicine, the pakayantras or laboratory equipment
in medicine, Rasayana, and the astronomical yantras
5
described in J yotisa works. These
belong to a different category. Nor do I propose to touch upon very late material, when
Sanskrit writers translated or reproduced from Persian works, as for instance the
Bharotthapana-yantra-nirmana on weightlifting contrivances, a 17th century work,
translated by Devasimha according to his own statement, from a Persian work.
The yantra as I shall take it here derives much of its interest from the social background
and I, therefore, crave your indulgence for presenting here a whole picture of it, together
with its proper milieu.
One of the best creations of the most ancient architects of this country is the chariot,
Ratha. The Ratha-kara of Vedic times was ever a person of importance, according to the
Vajasaneyi-Samhita, the Sathapatha-Brahmana and the Atharva-veda. To the earliest Vedic
poet the Ratha, finely hewn and fitted, was the very type of a well-wrought thing; his
appreciation of the skill involved in its making made him not only refer to its maker as a
person of high mental equipment, Dhira and Manisin, but several times compare himself and
his own creation in words, the hymn, to the gifted carpenter shaping his chariot.
(Rigveda,130.6; V. 2. 11; 29. 15; 73. 10; X. 39. 14). The poet referred to himself as a Karu,
architect; later, the Great Epic refers to the architect Maya as a Mahakavi, a great poet.
The Ribhus, Visvakarman and Tvashtar of the Vedas and the anonymous Vedic
Takshan are succeeded in the epics by the two great architects of the De~vas and the
Asuras, Visvakarman and Maya. The epics form indeed the great age of the exploits of
Visvakarman and, even to a greater extent of Maya. Both the epics are full of the
magnificence of the architecture for which Maya was responsible. In the Mahabharata we
hear of the Matsya-yantra or the .revolving wheel with a fish which Arjuna had to shoot in
order to win Draupadi in the svayamvara. This has a late echo in the Gadyacudamani and
Kshatracuda- mani of the J ain poet Vadibhasimha of the 12th century, in a similar context of
svayamvara, the test stipulated here being the piercing of three boars placed within a yantra
called Candraka-yanira. In this connection attention may be drawn also to the general
observation in both Kautilya and Kalidasa that one of the uses of the hunt is to develop the
skill to shoot targets which are in constant movement (paricayam cala-lakshya-nipatane).
In Adi 64 (Kumbhakonam edition), the Mah5.bha.rata describes the festival of Indras
banner inaugurated by Uparicara Vasu, which thereafter continued to be celebrated as a great
3
national festival, by the Kings especially. The Ramayana, which refers to Indra's Banner
5
more than once, takes it specifically as a yantra-dhvaja. The Flagstaff representing Indra
was an elaborate affair, with a large number of things hanging about it all around, and its
raising and bringing down after a 10-day festival were impressive sights. The falling down
of Bharata in Ayodhya 77.9 is compared to the yantra-dhvaja of Indra falling down. That the
flag was raised and pulled down by means of fittings and ropes is known from another
reference, in the Yuddhakanda, where Rama and Lakshmana lying down in Indrajit's
Nagapasa are compared to the Indra- banner after the ropes have been let loose. The full
particulars of the erection and dismantling of the Indradhvaja are set forth by Bhoja in a
chapter of over 200 verses exclusively devoted to it in his Samaranganasutradhara, The
central pole, the pedestal, the painted flag itself, the subsidiary fittings, the dolls to be hung
on it, its outstretched arms, the six ropes attached to it and several yantras fitted to it for
raising it and bringing it down are described by Bhoja. In the Harivamsa, a supplement to
the Mahabharata, there is mention of the stone- throwing machine, Asma-yantra, in the
battle with J arasandha (II. 42. 21}.
More interesting references are made by valmiki to yantras on the held of battle, the
continuity of which tradition we see later in the Arthasastra of Kautilya. The fortifications
include equipment in the form of yantras. In Ayodhya 100.53, in the Kaccit-sarga
t
while
enquiring about measures of defence, Rama asks Bharata whether the fort is equipped with
yantras. Lanka, as a city built by Maya, is naturally fuller of the yantras. The city, personified
as a lady, is called yantra-agara-stani, informing us of a special chamber filled with yantras.
(Sundara 3. 18). In his account to Rama of the fortifications of Lanka, Hanuman says in
Yuddha 3.12 that Lanka has four big gates and that each gate is furnished with strong and
huge yantras that can hurl both arrows and stones (Upala-yantras):
||||||||l|||l|||l||!
And over the moats are bridges which are controlled by numerous big yantras (3.16,
17). That such yantras were employed on the field is seen in a description of Kumbhakarna,
in Yuddha 61.32, where his giant figure striding the streets of Lanka is compared to a huge
yantra that has been set up:
Ecrli ulU: xu rlqii xqcNiq!
Mammoth machines turned by a large number of persons and making a terrific noise are
to be seen in a description of Ravana, soon after he got the news of Indrajit's death. As he
gnashed his teeth in fury, the noise was heard as of a big catapult being turned by Danavas.
Slil uSzixixr ri Szlxul:
rlxrurqlxr qWi SluUu! vi. 93.23.
The mention here of Danavas in connection with machines must be noted. Later we see
references to machines, associating the Yavanas especially with them. The reference gains
some significance when we bear in mind the relation of Maya with the Asuras and of the
Asuras with Iran
6
and the near west, and the. Continuous contact which ancient India had
with these neighboring and cognate civilizations on the west.
The Arthsastra of Kautilya is one of the books of culture which throw a flood of light

5
See Indian Historical Quarterly, Astronomical Instruments of the Hindus. Vol. IV, PP. 256-269
6
The Poona Orientalist, Vol. X. 3-4 (July-Oct. 1945), pp. 79-80
4
on the particular epochs in which they arose
7
. This work of c. 300 B.C, being a treatise on
statecraft, speaks of yantras in connection mainly with battles, but also with architecture to
some extent. An early work, a theoretical treatise and a text of great reputation, the
Arthasastra forms our most valuable document on the subject of yantras.
Before we come to its account of the main yantras of warfare, we shall note some of
the other mechanical contrivances met with in Kautilya's work. In II.
8
, he refers to a dugout,
Bhumigriha, and mentions for it a mechanical staircase which can be thrown in and
withdrawn [Yantra-yukta-sopana). While detailing the exact methods to be adopted for
finishing off enemies and unwanted persons (XII. 5), Kautilya speaks of machines which
could be conveniently pressed into service. When the unwanted person is entering a temple,
from an overhead yantra there could be released on his head a piece of masonry or a stone to
kill him instantly.
It may be recalled here that in the political play of Visakhadatta in which the author of
the Arthasastra is the leading character, Kautilya is made to use this device against
Vairocaka, brother of Parvatakesvara, the unwanted partner; Kautilya gets advance
intelligence of the ruse employed by Rakshasa through an architect named Daruvarman; the
architect had erected a yantra-torana, a mechanically fitted arch, which could be brought
down by the drawing out of one of the fastening rods; this had been set up to kill
Candragupta as he entered the palace for the coronation; and Kautilya offers Vairocaka as a
victim to this yantra-torana. This may be compared to the Visvasa-ghati to be noticed
below. A second ruse mentioned by Kautilya for the same purpose is a bedchamber in which
part of the flooring has a mechanical contrivance; underneath this part of the floor is a deep
cavity or a pit with pikes; and over it is placed the bed of the unwanted person; after he goes
to sleep, the flooring is released and down goes the poor man with his bed.
Yantras for actual warfare are generally-touched upon in several contexts. 3 and 18
mention the need to equip forts with yantras. In X. 4, yantras on the field are said to be
attended to by special laborers and workers. In IX.2, Kautilya deals with counter-manoeuvres
for tackling particular kinds of enemy forces; here, among the things to be used against
elephants yantras or probably Hasti-yantras are included; these are machines in general or
special machines designed to scare elephants; Bhoja, in his Samaranganasutradhara,
mentions that one of the uses of the aerial vehicle is to create a terrific noise and frighten
elephants. In XIII.4, Kautilya advocates the use of yantras for devastating an enemy place
which is full of defence-erections.
The chapter devoted wholly to armoury, Ayudhagara, 11.18, is the main section
speaking of military Yantras; Kautilya divides the yantras into stationary and mobileSthira
and Cala yantras. The former class comprises:
Sarvatobhadra : According to the commentary of Bhattasvamin, this is a sharp-edged
wheel that is placed on a wall and rotated so as to fling big stones all around; according to
others, it is also called 5iddhabhUmirika-yantra and scatters small stones.
Jamadagniya: Bhattasvamin explains it as a big Sara-yantra or mechanical arrow-

7
J ournal of the Roayal Asiatic Society (London) 1915, pp. 77-83.
8
See D. B. SPOONER, "The Zoroastrian Period of Indian History," (J . R. A. S. 1915, pp. 63-89, 405-455); the
theory of Perse politan influence in Mauryan architecture is worked out here. On Asura Maya as Ahura Mazda,
see ibid. pp. 80-89. See also Archaeological Report, Government of India, 1912-13; 1913-14. Grundwell and
BURGESS, Buddhist Art in India, p, 17. On Persepolis as a channel of influence and contact between India and
Assyria, see KENNEDY, Early Commerce of Babylon with India, 700-300 B.C., J.R. A. S. April 1898, p. 283.
5
thrower. It is placed behind a wall and it shoots arrows through crevices in the wall. But the
name signifies a fire-arm.
Bahumukha: This is an elevation and a mount for archers; it is leather- covered and is
as high as the wall to enable archers to shoot all rounds.
Vihasaghati: An iron bar placed across the path in the approaches to the city, which,
manipulated by a mechanical device, falls down and pounds a man. It belongs to the class
mentioned above for killing unwanted persons and the yantra-torana mentioned in the
Mudrarakshasa.
Sanghati means "tied together It was made of wood and used to set fire to enemy
fortifications. It is called an Agni-yantra.
Yanaka or Yanika is a yantra moved on wheels; it discharges batons.
Parjanyaka is an udaka-yantra, a fire-quencher.
9
Bahus are two arm-like pillars which when released from either side by a yantra, press
to death a person between them; this appears to be an instrument of torture.
Urdhvabahu is similarly an overhead column which comes down upon a man and puts
him to death.
Ardhabahu is the same as Bahu, but is of diminutive size.
The Cala-yantras are:
10
Pancalika. Its use is outside the fort walls, in the moat; thrown in the midst of the
water; its sharp protruding points prevent the progress of enemies.
Devadandas are long cylindrical cannon-like things placed on parapet walls.
Bhattasvamin gives them another name also, Pratitaroca.
Sukarika is a huge thing shaped like a pig or bellows, made of bamboo, rope and hide,
filled inside with cotton etc., and is placed on the path as an obstruction and as a buffer to
stop stones, etc., that are flung by the enemy. According to some others, Sukarikas are to
prevent enemies from easily getting up the ramparts; they, on this view, were probably
closely suspended all along the walls to prevent the enemy-scaler from getting a foothold, - -
Musala and Yashti are well-known; Hastivaraka is interpreted as a two- or three-
pronged iron rod, Hastiparigha, for striking at elephants, but may really mean, as seen from
a reference in Dandins Avanyisundari, a machine which hurls heavy iron rods to smite and
demoralize the elephants.
A Talavrinta mentioned is explained as a Vatacakra, the significance of which is
obscure. We may suggest that here was a device to create a tempest which could demoralize
the enemy ranks. The observation of Philostratus, relating to Alexander's invasion of India,
that Indians drive the enemy off " by means of tempest and thunders, as if from heaven,
may, however, be only an echo of the epic Vayavya-astra.
After Mud gar a, Gada, Sphriktala, a picked missile, and Kuddala, are mentioned in the
following:
Asphotima has four feet, is covered by hide, has a projectile and -throws stones.
Udghatima is a machine which demolishes walls with the iron bars fitted to it,
Udghatima is interpreted as the Syena-yantra which uproots and tears up things.

9
Printed in the J ournal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society, XII, Pt. I. Supplement, P. 150 ff.
10
H.M. Elliot, History of India, Vol. VI, App., P.477
6
And before the Trisula and Cakra, which are known, there occurs the sataghni, the
centicide, which is mentioned in all descriptions of warfare in old literature, but as to the
exact nature of which there is difference bf opinion. Bhattasvamin takes it as & huge,
cannon-like, cylindrical thing with wheels, placed on the parapet.
Bhattasvamin quotes also a verse on yantras in general as of three kinds, Vyadhita,
Bhramita and Bhramita: the first acts by being pressed, the second by rotation and the third
by its sheer weight.
urki pqi cu pUr c MUri!
mQl pqU pUS k rl muii
The J ain Sutras, which may go back in their nucleus to Mauryan times and which
attained their present form in the 6th century A.D., know these yantras. The Bhagavati
Sutra gives a list of eight finalities one of which is the last fight with huge stones thrown
as missiles.
11
The same Sutra describes the war between Kuniya and Chedaga where we
have the expressions Mahasila- kantaka-Sangrama and Ratha-musala-Sangrama; the
correct construction of the first name is a battle in which one is beset by the stone
complex, for the text itself elaborates that such a heavy stone-shower has been in
operation that even if a blade of grass or a piece of wood, a leaf or a pebble struck one,
one got the fright of a stone. The Ratha-musala is described by the text as a mechanical
chariot which ran about without horses or driver and worked carnage in the enemy lines.
11
Hoernle has the following note on these two, Mahasila and Ratha-musala, which are
clearly war-machines: ...the Mahasilakantaka must have been some engine of war of the
nature of a catapult which threw big stones. It created such a panic among the enemy that
all fled... the Ratha-Musala would seem to have been a sort of' scythed chariot'
18
such as
the ancient Persians used to employ in war, but apparently furnished with clubs instead of
scythes. It would also seem to have been provided with some kind of self-acting
machinery to propel it, as it is described as having moved without horses or driver;
though, possibly, as in similar contrivances in the middle ages, it was moved by a person
concealed inside who turned the wheels.''
12
The above marks off one period in the history of these yantras. One of the questions
that naturally agitate ones mind at this stage is that of firearms in ancient India. The
throwing of arrows with fire or with combustibles on them is no doubt very old and forms
one of the things prohibited by Manu in righteous warfare. Some of the other arms and
machines mentioned by Kautilya do appear to be firearms.
13
Writers like Elliot and Oppert have canvassed the subject at sufficient length in favour
not only of the prevalence of firearms in ancient India but also of India being the original
home of gunpowder, the fire meant being not merely naphtha.
Without being able to subscribe to Oppert's early date for the Sukraniti or the
Nitiprakasika of vaisampayana, one feels that there is much to be said in favour of the
findings on the antiquity of firearms in ancient India. Two data cited by Oppert and Elliot
have some significance in relation not only to the use of yantras in battle in the ancient times
but also to the question of the yantras and the Yavanas. As we shall see, Bana, Dandin and
Budhasvamin associate yantras in general and the aerial vehicle in particular with Yavanas.

11
See A.F.R. Hoernles Translation of the Uvasakadasao. (Bibliotheca indica, 1888 App. I, p.7.)
12
Cf. Roger Bacon (Latted part of the 13
th
century A.D.) in his Epistolo de secretis operibus: Also cars can be
made so that without animals they will move with unbelievable rapidity: such we opine were the scythe-bearing
chariots with which men of old fought. (Thorndike, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 654)
13
Hoernle, op. cit., app. III, pp. 59-60.
7
The Yavanas may mean Greeks or Arabs and, at the time when these are mentioned, the 7th-
ioth centuries, both meanings are possible.
Now we have the following corroborative evidence on the use of yantras by these
peoples:
Towards the end of the 7th century the architect Kallinikos of Heliopolis, when Constantinople
-was besieged by Arabs in 668, manufactured big tubes made of iron or of other metals formed like
big beasts with gaping J aws, out of which were thrown iron, stones and combustibles. In
consequence of the havoc caused by these projectiles the siege of the city was raised. The Greeks
kept, it is said, the composition for four centuries when it was betrayed to the Saracens, who availed
themselves of it during the crusades at J erusalem and also at Damietta. (Oppert p. 47)
Elliot says that when the Muhammadan connection with India first commenced, we
find, according to the ancient and authentic historians, that the powerful' engine called
Manjanik was brought into use as a propelling machine. It was a favorite implement with the
Arabs and was probably received from the Persians. Muhammad Qasin used it in the
capture of the port of Daibal (711-712 a.d,). It required 500 men to operate it and it worked
havoc. According to the authority Ibn Kotaibah, this machine was used by J azynah, the
second King of Hyrah, as early as c. 200 A.D.
14
Elliot also collected the fallowing data pertaining to certain mechanical objects used in
warfare is India: the>Majmalu-t-Tawarikh says that the Brahmans, advised their King to
employ on the battle field an elephant of day which, as soon as the enemies were sufficiently
near, would explode and blow them up; more than the mere explosion, the device for timing
it is to be noted here. Firdusi refers to a similar explosive Iron Horse which Alexander was
advised to employ, and blacksmiths and artisans constructed 1,000 of these for Alexander
15
.
In a Chinese account of India, reference is made to the use in Indian warfare of flying
ladders, wooden oxen and rolling horses. One of Muhammad Qasims successors used a
battering ram with horns of great power and demolished with it the walls of the city.
16
The Yavanas referred to being Greeks is rendered probable by two circumstances; one
the antiquity of the yantras, particularly of war, in India, going through Kautilya to the epic
literature itself, and the other, the evidence available on the Greeks and automata; there are
numerous correspondences that can be fully appreciated only after we deal with the material
found in Somadeva and Bhoja, for which reason I have reserved them to the end.
17
The references to machines in classical Sanskrit literature that we may now examine
start with Baca's Harshacarita, the biography of his patron, King Harshavardhana of Kanauj
(606-647 A.D.).
18
When Harsha had decided to go against the King of the Gaudaswho had
been responsible for the death of his sister's husband and of his own brotherSkandagupta,
a loyal friend and courtier of Harsha, expatiates on the need for caution and exhorts the king
to give up his wonted habit of trusting everybody. Illustrating the calamities that befell kings
in the past from unsuspected quarters, Skandagupta narrates a series of anecdotes of kings,
attached to certain recreations or habits, being taken unawares by scheming enemies and
done away with or brought into difficulties.
19
One of the incidents mentioned here records

14
Elliot, op. cit., vol. Vi, App., pp.455-482.
15
G. Oppert, On the Weapons, Army Organization and Political Maxims of the Ancient hindus with special
reference to Gunpowder and Firearms. 1880. See also I. H. Q., Vols. VII and VIII.
16
On the early use of Gunpowder in the East see also M. Akram Makhdoomee, Mechanical Artillery in
Medieval India. (Journal of Indian History, Vol. XV, p.185)
17
Ed. Oppert. (madras, 1882)
18
Ed. Oppert. (Madras, 1882)
19
On Yavanas, even in more ancient references in Sanskrit, being Persians or Iranians, See Spooner, op. cit., pp.
433-34.
8
that one Candipati was always curious about miraculous things and that a Yavana who had
been brought under his control, manufactured a machine-vehicle that could fly, and carried
away the King:
20
mcrMiWs c cUQmi SUQmlirullqil
lpxxjsrrl rlrll mlri Mm!

The mention of a Yavana as the maker of the aerial vehicle must be noted.
Dandin, who came soon after Bana and wrote from Kanci in South India, has much
more and more varied information to give in the autobiography attached to the opening
portion of his prose work, the Avantisundari; this forms the full text of the truncated
Dasakumaracarita, and the introductory portions referred to are still in manuscript. In one
of the introductory verses praising -earlier poets, Dandin introduces yantras; praising the
author of the Mahabharata, he says that, but for the knowledge that Vyasa infused in us, we
would merely be human machines
qirrlw qWiqr qWpUior!
21
mrqx iimu rxixq qlr lq:!!
In Dandins own life-story, a gifted architect Lalitalaya, son of another eminent
22
architect Mandhata, is introduced and the achievements of these two, which form the
subject of the amazed talk of the people, are set forth. It is said here that the father excelled
even the Yavanas, from which we have to deduce that M3.ndhata and his son Lalitalaya
were natives of the soil. Once the father, anxious lest his young son might be hungry, rushed
to him in an aerial car, evidently from a distance where he had been at work ; which shows
how casually the architect took his personal equipment of an aerial vehicle.
The son, who is the actual character figuring in the narrative, and is said to excel his father,
is credited with the following achievements the description o/ which forms a brief treatise
on yantras. Lalitalaya created mechanical men and arranged for the exhibition of a mock-
duel between them; be created an artificial cloud and brought down heavy showers; with
yantras, he exhibited magic; he devised a machine for war from which shafts as stout as
pestles were discharged by him on the heads of elephants.
*2l||l-||l|-||-|7||||-|||l|||||::|7|||||l7|||||!|||
l||l|||||||||||||l||||l+|||!(|l|||||l||||||||!(|l|
-||||-|||||||||l||l|7||l-||||-|-|||l||-||||||l+|l|l|:!||||l|
l|+|||||7||l|||l||7|!|-|l|l|||||||||l|7|||||+|l||||l|l|
||||l+|||l|||!||||||l|l|s||||-||l|l-||||||||||!
Lalitalaya is said to be master of all kinds of yantras; the varieties mentioned in this
connection are six, Sthita, Cara, Dhara, Dvipa, Jvara and Vyamisra. Other texts speak of
the classes of yantras as two and five and give the classifications somewhat differently. The
Sthita or Sthita and Carastationary and mobileis a classification going back to
Kautilya. Dhara is plainly water-works; the manuscript gives the next as Dvipa, which had
been wrongly construed also by some; Dvipa, I think, is an error for Dvipa, meaning
elephant, and refers either to animal-shaped yantras or to special machines, such as we have
already noted, employed against elephants in battle; it , means heat, may refer to machines

20
Elliot, op. cit., p.461 ff.
21
Ibid., pp. 475, 476, 463. See also Makhdoomee, op. cit., pp. 189-195
22
The relevant portions are cited here form the transcript of it with the Curator of the Travancore University
Oriental MSS. Library
9
involving the employment of fire. Vyamisra is a yantra,; par taking of the character of all
these.

||+|l+||l|-||l||||-| ||||||||: -|||: |7|-|||-|7||-|||-||-|||-||-
-|||||l||||||||...||-|l|-||7||||||l|||-||l|l|l|7|||||||-||7||||ll|||||:
l-||-|-|| (|)- || (l|)-|-||l|>|-|7|||| |l|||||| ||||| |l||||||| |-
l|7||||||| ||| |l||||||||| -||-|-|||| ||l |7||7||||7| 7|l||+| -|-|
(-||)-||l|+||l|l||||l||*l2l|l2|||+||||||l|7||!
||l-|||(|-||l|||||7|l|||+||l7|||l|7|||,||||*|||||||7||l|l|-||||
||-|!|||7||||8||7||+|l|||||7||-|||l||l|l||||||!

The machines referred to here are confirmed on either side by Kautilya in. his
Arthasastra and Bhoja in the Samaranganasutradhdra. The, mechanical fighters are
included in Bhoja; the artificial rain occurs in Kautilya in the, yantra called Parjanyaka, and
the machine intended to smite the elephants heads may be related to the Hasti-yantra
advocated by Kautilya for use against an elephant corps. From a passage that follows it
would appear that these yantras are dealt with in treatises associated with the authors
Brahma, Indra- and Parasara, and that their vogue had become so reduced by long neglect
that even-humble efforts in the line excited people's wonder.
23
We now proceed to cite some texts on the existence and popularity, of a different
category of yantras, till now we have been dealing with yantras having mainly the
background of war. The yantras we shall now deal with are accessories of pleasure and
entertainment, and more properly come, under household fittings and architectural
engineering. Some of them are for thee reduction of human labor, some for sport and
merriment,toys-and gadgets of miscellaneous kinds for entertainment.
24
We-may begin with Somadeva Suri, an encyclopaedic J ain writer, and his long
religious poem, the Yasastilaka Campu written in South India in 949 A.D. In the first part of
the work, Somadeva describes the hero resorting to the cool yantra-dhara-griha to spend the
hot hours of the summer days. This park, fitted with mechanical fountains; is appropriately
called by the commentator - Kritrima-megha-mandira, the artificial cloud pavilion. It is
erected in the dense garden in an area provided with many canals. There is the stream for
water' sports in the midst of which is a sandbank raised like a pavilion, provided with a
water-bed, Salila-tulika; nearby are numerous vessels containing fragrant water; at one end
here is an yantra-jala-dhara, contrivance producing an artificial Waterfall; the water is
taken through and thrown out of the mouths of figures of elephants, tigers, lions, snakes,
etc.
25
Other artificial works here are figures of celestial trees, Kalpavrikshas, with celestial
damsels seated on them along with their lovers and figures of :cloud-damsels (payodhara-
purandri or Meghaputtalika) giving shower-baths from their bosoms, figures of monkeys
spouting water, statuettes of water- damsels, (jaladevatas); there are wind-damsels (pavana-

23
Kavyamala 70, in two parts. See Part I, pp. 522-32, see also the present writerers gleanings form Somadeva
suris Yasastilaka Campu, J ournal of the Ganganatha J ha Research Institute, Vol. I, Nos. iii-iv (May-Autust
1944) pp. 378-9, 467.
24
The Kalapavriksha is referred to by Bhoja also, and Dandins reference to kalpavriksha-kriya as a work in
which Mandhata excelled must be to this.
25
On the close parallels on this subject between Somadeva and Bhoja, see Note on the same by the present
writer in the J ournal of the University of Gauhati, Vol. III.
10
Kanyakas), wafting breezes with fly-whisks; and figures of ladies, scattering cool sandal-
water all around. Somadeva Suri says of such a figure that if her hands were touched, shi
would emit sprays through her nails; if her face, through the eyes and so on, a description
which, as we shall see presently from its corroboration in "every detail in Bhojas treatise,
pertained clearly to fact and hot to mere imaginative fiction.
That mechanical fountains were constructed as a necessary adjunct to all palaces is
seen even in the casual descriptions in the dramas, the Malavikagnimitra (II. 12) and the
Nagananda (III. 7) for example, describing jala- yantras.
18
The mechanical breeze-lady in
the yantradhara-griha in the park has her .companion within the bedchamber where
Somadeva Sari describes how near -the bed was a yantra-putrika plying a fan for the Kings
relief.

||||||l||l+|||||||||||||||||||-||>||

Many others of this class we shall be meeting in Bhoja.
26
Bypassing chronology a little, I shall now. Take up three available Sanskrit versions
of- the Brihatkatha. The story thesaurus called Brihatkatha is on a par with the two epics,
and can very well be called the great epic of popular fife. The version of Budhasvamin is the
earliest, belonging probably to the 9
th
10
th
centuries, and coming from and based on a non-
Kashmirian area and source. Budhasvamin has important information on aerial vehicles.
Akasa-yantras, as he expressly calls them; it is also to be noted that he explicitly mentions
the Yavanas as the knower of these Akasa-yantras, and the geographical area where he
locates the architect and his exploits is also the part of the country where the foreign tribes
had settled. The names of the architects too bear a strange complexion, suggesting their
foreign origin.
The context where the description of the "yantra occurs is the longing of the pregnant
Vasavadatta; in the Kashmirian version of Somadeva there is only a line saying that her
dohada (longing) was fulfilled by manifold contrivances, yantras, etc., arranged by the
Minister Yaugandharayana. But in Budhasvamin's version
88
the context contains an
elaborate digression devoted to the yantras. Vasavadatta yearned to see the whole world
from above in an aerial vehicle (Sloka 190); Rumanvan, the commander-in-chief, at. once
ordered .carpenters to manufacture a flying yantra (sloka 196). The carpenters say that they
know only four kinds of yantras, made respectively with water, stone, mud and twigs; that it
is the Yavanas who know the Akasa-yantras, and that they, for their part, have not even laid
eyes on them.
|||7||||l||||||:l|||||!
|-||||||||l|||||+|||||l|!!
Thereupon a Brahman told Rumanvan a story to illustrate how in the matter of the aerial
vehicle, architects made a secret of their lore and uttered the falsehood that they knew it not.

26
(A) l|7||||l|||-||l-|l|l7|||+||l|||l|||
(B)||||>|||||l|l|l|||||||||||||
|||||||||||-|||l||||||||!
(c) Prabodhacandrodaya, II. 15 and IV. 27: ||||||||||||||l||||l|||||,which refers to the
water-works being set in action and ||||||||-|l||||+,+||||!
11
With Mahasena, King of Ujjain and father of Vasavadatta, was an architect named
Pukkasaka who once went out to Saurashtra along with the King's camp. There he came
across a young architect, Visvila by name, who was verily the equal of Visvakarman. To
visvilas father, called Maya, Pukkasaka proposal that he desired to give his daughter
Ratnavali in marriage to his son. The proposal wars agreed to and Pukkasaka was waiting for
the arrival of his son-in- law. Once, after attending to his work, Pukkasaka returned rather
late and to his surprise found none in his house eager to attend to his bath and his dinner.
On enquiry, he heard from his wife that a visitor had upset their home.; the. visitor had
come over with some rice and asked that it be cooked for him ; they in the house had been
burning toads of fuel and yet the rice would not even -moisten. Pukkasaka now understood
that his son-in-law had arrived and desired to see the youth. Visvila issued out of the
workshop and when the puzzled Pukkasaka asked him what that so-called rice was, Visvila
revealed that they were fake, fine rice-like chisellings from the white wood of the Karaghata
tree. The marriage of Visvila and Ratnavali was then celebrated. After a time, Visvila learnt
from his brothers-in-law their anxiety about feeding in their house one more family member
in the form of the son-in-law; Visvila at once repaired to the forest, cut down certain kinds of
wood and manufactured out of them yavana-machines,
|||l'||||||-||||||||l|l||!

{Sloka 224)
as also manifold household utensils conducive to health and longevity, according to the
principles laid down in Vrikshayurveda (225); he sold these for thousands of pieces of
money and presented the gains to his father-in-law.
28
Once Pukkasaka sadly told his family of his impending departure for Benaras whither
King Mahasena had ordered him to go to build a temple for his friend King Brahmadatta of
Benaras. Visvila asked leave to deputize for his father-in-law and, with the Kings
permission and accompanied by a retinue, he departed for Benaras. At the end of every
day's journey, however, Visvila would vanish somewhere and slip back inconspicuously
into the camp. At his home, Ratnavali shortly became pregnant, to the surprise and agony of
her parents.
29
That news reached the King who, putting two and two together, explained
that every night, Visvila, according to the report of the men of his retinue, would mount a
machine-cock, Yantra-kukkuta, fly away somewhere and, stealthily and with shrouded face
slip back into his bed in the small hours of the morning. Once he had been forced to return
late in the morning and, confessing to his friends about his nocturnal visits to his wife by an
aerial vehicle, he had begged them not to inform any, architects or laymen, of the secret of
his aerial vehicle, which in fact could not be understood by non-Yavanas; if that knowledge
became public, the Akasa-yantra would become a cheap affair like a cot.
|||7|||l|7|||l|7||||||||

27 It may be mentioned here .that the association of skilled works, with Yavanas had become so well known
that we find it mentioned in Tamil literature also. In the fragmentary Tamil version of the Brihatkatha, by
Konguvel, Yavana carpenters are included among the workmen of many types responsible for a chariot of high
workmanship used by Udayana (I. 58.40}; and in the Buddhistic epic Manimekhalai, in an almost similar list of
workmen mentioned as responsible for a garden house of great architectural charm, Yavana carpenters are again
found (XIX, 108.). .
28
Ed. F. Lacote (Paris, 1908) Canto V, p. 64 ff.
29
The Substitution here of the military head shows the natural connection that these yantras bore to the army.
12
|||||l|7|||l|||||+|||!
||||l+|||7|||||l|||||!

(Slokas 250-2)
That explained how Ratnavali came to bear a child. Soon the temple at Benaras was
finished and Visvila returned.
King Mahasena now pressed Pukkasaka for knowledge of the 'Akasa- -yantra."
Pukkasaka replied that he had not taught Visvila; he, in; fact, did not know it, the Yavanas
being the custodians of that knowledge ;
|-||l|||||l7|l|l+|||||ll|!
(Slokas 261)

The King would not believe his words and pressed him, whereupon Pukkasaka pressed
Visvila. Visvila pretended to reveal the secret, but that night he woke up-his wife and gave
her an ultimatum; by pressing him for knowledge of the flying-machine, her father was
virtually driving him to his own home, that she had to choose between father and husband,
and that, so far as he was concerned, he would give her up rather than the secret. She took
little time to decide and in a moment they were off on the machine-cock:
|||-|-|||||-|||-|+|||||!
||||||7||||-|-|||l|l>||||||!!
Having told the story, the Brahman told the commander-in-chief Ruman- van that
architects made such secrets of their knowledge, that all of them might well be bound and
beaten till they agreed to make the aerial car. As Rumanian was putting that advice into
action, there came a fresh architect who offered to manufacture an aerial car.
3031
The new Silpin asked Rumanvan to collect the materials. When these were assembled
and the work was to start, the old Silpins suggested to the new one that he ascertain from
Rumanvan the seating capacity that was required. The mention of this deserves to be noted,
as also the further observation that there had been cases in the past in which aerial cars had
been made without regard to seating capacity and they had come to ruin, with the result that
their makers had been cruelly dealt with by the Kings:
32

||||||-|||||||||||!
|7|||||(-||||l|||l7|l|||||:!
l|||||>||||l|||l||ll|!!
(Slokas 276-7)
The new Silpin replied that the yantra that he was going to make was of a superior type
quite different from the productions of the stupid architects to whom they referred, and that
the seating capacity of his vehicle was not limited. He made accordingly an aerial car of the

30
And
31
eds. Of T.S. Kuppuswami Sastri (Tanjore), I, pp, 10-11, and Canto I.
32
Available in an incomplete Ms. In the J esalmere Bhandrs; being worked upon by stigmata Kalpalata Munshi;
it is through the courtesy of Muni J inavijayaji and Srimati K. Munshi that I was able to examine this work.
shape of Garuda. Vasavadatta and Udayana mounted it with their retinue, roamed about,
called on Padmavatis brother in Magadha on the eat and on Vasavadattas own parents at
13
Ujjain on the west and returned to Kausambi.
This fulfillment of the Queen's dohada during her pregnancy, for an aerial flight, has
an echo in J ain Kavya literature also; in Vadibhasimhas Gady cintamani and
Kshatrac&gamani
81
, carpenters make a peacock-like aerial car (Mayura-yantra) for the
pleasure flight of Queen Vijaya.
On smaller mechanical objects also we have some information in. the Slokasamgraha
of Budhasvamin (Chapter XIX, p. 287). At Campa, when Naravahanadatta was staying with
Gandharvadatta, they heard the story of the origin of a local water festival. An old King of
Campa had a Queen whos' dohada during pregnancy expressed itself as a desire to move
about in waters' filled with all sorts of aquatic beings. For her sake the King dammed a river,
widened it into a big lake and fitted it with wooden replicas (Daru-yantras) of' crocodiles,
fishes, etc., which moved freely in the water, and there let her sport in a vessel shaped like
an aerial vehicle.
||||l-|-||||||l||l||!
l|||||||||-|||||||||l|||!!
Of the two Kashmirian, versions of the Brihatkatha, Kshemendras is very>brief, and
Somadeva's long enough for us to glean much information about- yantras. These two works
may be noticed together. We have here material
33
bearing on three classes of yantras, dolls
and entertainment pieces, mechanical men and women, and aerial vehicles.
In the course of the Madanamancuka story in VI. 3, Somadeva narrates in his
Kathasarisagara the episode of Somaprabha, the daughter of Maya, who takes a fancy to
Madanamancuka and becomes her great friend; Somaprabha and Svayamprabha, of
Ramayana and Pailcapsaras fame, was two daughters of the Asura architect Maya. One
morning Somaprabha calls on Madanamancuka with a wonder-box full of various kinds of
mechanical dolls. Maya himself had taught Somaprabha how to make these yantras,
mechanical wooden toys;
34
Then follows a description of four of these toy-yantras: By striking, at a, pin, one
makes a yantra jump up in the air and it comes down with a garland; another similarly
comes back with a cup of water; a third dances; and the fourth sits up and gossips. After
entertaining Madanamancuka with these; Somaprabha leaves the box in the former's care
and departs. Next day, when she calls again, Madanamancuka introduces her to her own
parents. The two: then go to the royal park where one of the toys brings forth a Buddha
image and materials for worship. Hearing of this, the parents rush to see the wonder and on
the King asking her about the yantras and how they go into action, Somaprabha. Gives a
short account of the yantras that her father had devised; the treatment here has some
parallels with that in Bhoja's work.
Somaprabha. Says that, just as the universe is made up of five elements, yantras are
also based on the five elements of earth, water, fire, air and ether. The yantra based on earth-
materials (prithvi-pradhana) undertakes activities like shutting doors; a water-based yantra


34
All this music too was produced by the water-works. Cf. Vitruvius and his blackbirds singing by means of
water-works. (Thorndike, op, cit., Vol I, P. 188)
will be as lively as a living] organism; a fire-yantra emits flames; an air-yantra moves to
and fro; and the element of ether serves to convey the sound generated by these yantras.
14
Somaprabha adds that there is a super-yantra called Cakra-yantra with miraculous powers
which her father did not teach her, but in the description of this there is an obvious mix-up
of mythology. Then, with the parents permission, Somaprabha takes Madanamancuka in an
aerial car (49) to her own father's place, where her sister Svayamprabha is living, and returns
to Takshasila. Kshemendras account of this episode is brief, comprising about a dozen
verses in his Brihatkathamanjari (VII. 195-207).
The other story in which yantras figure mainly is in the Ratnaprabhd- lambaka, VII. 9,
the story of Karpurika in the city of Karpurasambhava, of whom Naravahanadatta has a
dream. The Prince starts out in search of her, in the company of Gomukha. En route, they
come to a Hemapura, where, as Naravahanadatta is going along the bazaar street, he comes
across everything pertaining to a city, shops, things, servants, men and women, but their
speechless movements and activities reveal to him the wondrous fact of their all being
robots (10, 11). He then makes his way to the palace where he finds the only sentient being
sitting on a throne like a king, and, like the soul presiding over the body and senses,
manipulating the mechanical city and being served on all sides by his mechanical servants.
On being asked by Naravahanadatta, the mystery man of this machine city recounts his story
He, Rajyadhara by name, and his elder brother Pranadhara, were originally residents of
Kanchipura where King Bahubala (Mahabala in Kshemendra) was ruling. Both of them
were architects and adepts in the manufacture of magic yantras made of wood, etc., and
devised originally by Maya. It may be noted in passing that, according to Dandin, Kanchi
had some architects who were adepts in the making of yantras. The elder brother sought the
company of courtesans and squandered his as well as his younger brother's property.
Reaching the end of his material resources the elder brother thought of theft and harnessed
his skill in yantras for that purpose. He devised a pair of wooden swans which could move
along a rope-contrivance manipulated from one end. The other end of the rope was tied to
the window of the King's treasury into which, night after night, these swans were- sent; their
beaks, which were put into action, removed the lids of jewel boxes and picked up 9eift
jewels and then the swans were again moved back to their original place. This mysterious
theft; was going on, and the King ordered an all-night vigil to catch the culprits. The swans
were seen doing this dexterous job and were detached from the rope, which suddenly
sagged; the fastening nail became loose and Pranadhara understood at once that the theft had
been found out. He asked his brother to accompany him to a far-off place to escape being
caught as thieves early in- the morning. Pranadhara said that he bad with him an aerial
vehicle that could in a single sweep rocket across 800 yojanas and got into it immediately,
with his family. As the seating capacity of that yantra bad been reach ed by the crowd that
entered it, Rajyadhara left in his vehicle, a vata-yantra- vimana, as it is here styled, which he
himself had made; that machine took him at one jerk over 200 yojanas, and with a second
propelling, over another 200 yojanas.
That brought the younger brother, the narrator, to the city of Hemapura. When he
reached it, it was an abandoned place; he thought of peopling it with, the help of his
mechanical skin and created a yantra-population. Next day, he learnt from Naravahanadatta
the search that the latter was on, and helped him with an aircraft which took him to the city
of Karpurasambhava There the Prince found the heroine of his dream, Karpurika, and
married her. When he desired to return home with his new bride his father-in-law revealed
that he too had a visitor-architect in his city who could provide him with an aircraft.. It
happened that the visitor-architect was no other than Pranadhara, the elder brother of
Kanchi. The vehicle that Pranadhara gave him was a veritable flying fortress, as it could
15
lightly bear a thousand passengers (328), and in that they returned home, touching
Rajyadharas city en route.
35
In Kshemendras brief narration of this story (XIV. 459-508), the thieving swans are
mentioned as many, the elder's aircraft is called a Yantracakra, and the youngers is said to
possess double the speed of the elder's.
There are also two other contexts in the Kathasaritsagara where the aerial yantra
figures (the story of Pushkaraksha and Vinayavati and the story of Somaprabha and the three
suitors).
It now remains for me to deal with two works of Bhoja, one a poetic composition and
the other a technical treatise. The former, which is yet unpublished, is the prose work of
fiction, SringSramaHjaH.
38
In it, Bhoja himself is the hero and, as it is not proper for a
noble soul to indulge in self-glorification, the device is adopted of making a mechanical
figure {yantra-putrika), discharge the function. Confirming almost all the details set forth on
the one side by Somadeva in his Campa and on the other by Bhoja himself in his book on
architecture, this work gives an elaborate description of a yantra-dhara-griha, a fountain
pavilion with manifold mechanical works: there are figures in constant action; there is a
jalayantra-putrika which scatters a fine spray; dharas which fall like slender lotus-stalks,
and in a curve like a bow; mechanical drum-players filling the place with their rhythms; an
artificial lotus pond; toy bees which keep humming; yantra-vriksha or trees, with monkey
figures; a pond filled with replicas of cranes bending over and getting deceived by fishes
which come near and move on; artificial tortoises diving and coming up every now and then;
and yantra-orchestras.
The Samaranganasutradhara ascribed to Bhoja is, in many ways, a rare treatise in
Sanskrit literature; besides the Arthasastra, it is the only theoretical text that has substantial
information on our subject; its value, however, is greater than that of the Arthasastra, as
Bhoja goes into the details of the construction of these yantras and explains at the beginning
the principles under lying, yantras.
36
Chapter 31 of the Samaranganasutradhara is called Yantravidhana and its 224 verses
are wholly devoted to a description of various mechanical constructions. Bhoja opens with
the definition of yantra, that it is so called because it controls and directs, according to a
plan, the motions of things that act each according to its own nature. As we have seen and as
Bhoja explains, it is from the principle of control, yam, that the name yantra is derived (3,
4).
The next topic Bhoja deals with is Bija. Bija means a constituent element. The
constituent elements of a yantra are four: Earth, Water, Fire and Air, Ether being the basis
and medium of action, Asraya {5).
Bhoja then discusses whether Suta or mercury, which is an indispensable ingredient, is
to be held as one of the Bijas along with Earth, Water, etc. Some earlier writers had counted

35
Cf. Alakshya-madhyam in Bhojas description of the wonderful machine called the Uninverse in the
opening verse of this chapter.
36
The Life of Apollonius of Tyana by Philostratus (c. 217 A.D.) has references to Brahmans and the
employment of mechanically contrived figures for service and mechanical singing birds. (Thorndike, op. cit.,
Vol. I, pp. 250-66, especially 252 and 266).
it separately as a Bija. Bhoja says that mercury is essentially Parthiva, i.e., to be brought
under Earth, though one might find it in the liquid state and also possessing a property
16
causing motion, like wind. (6-8).
The machines are then divided into two classes, Svayam-vahaka, automatic and Sakrit-
prerya, requiring occasional propelling; most machines combine these two features (13).
Another classification is: the concealed, Antarita or Alakshya, i.e., the principle of its action
and its motor-mechanism are hidden from public view; the Vahya, or the machine to be
carried by another; and the third, which is really obscure, but may be interpreted as the
distant or proximate, meaning thereby the place from which the machine acts (10-11). Some
move many persons and things while others require many persons to move them (49). That
machine is best whose principle of action is concealed, which achieves manifold purposes
and which excites wonder (12).
After a lavish encomium on the comfort and advantages to be enjoyed through the
machines, Bhoja proceeds to describe the constituent elements called Bijas of each variety,
the Parthiva, Taijas, etc.; while all the elements may be used for a single yantra, it is to be
named after the dominant constituent (21-25, 42 ). Then are mentioned the materials:
metalstin, iron, copper and silverand wood, hide and textiles; the parts and the
principles: the wheels and the rotation; the suspenders and the hangings; the rods, the shafts
and the caps; the tools; and the work: measuring, cutting etc.all these are also to be
included under the Bijas of a Parthiva-yantra (25-27). The application of fire-bijas on earth-
machines comprises heating and boiling; of water, mixing and dissolving, pouring of and
filling with water, and providing a belt of water. Height, size, closeness and motion towards
a higher plane are spatial featured in Parthiva-yantras. The element of air is to be applied
through bellows, fans, flaps, etc. (28-32). Similarly in machines which are mainly jala-
yantras the use of timber, hide and metal forms the Parthiva element and so on. (33-41 As,
however, machines have to take some shape and possess a body, the Parthiva is an
important constitutent (43-44).
The merits of a good machine, yantra-gunas, are as follows;
37
1. Proper, proportionate utilization of the elements constituting it.
2. Well-knit construction.
3. Fineness of appearance.
4. Inscrutability.
5. Functional efficiency.
6. Lightness.
7. Freedom from noise where it is not part of the scheme.
8. A loud noise when noise is intended as an end.
9. Freedom from looseness.
10. Freedom from stiffness.
11. Smooth and unhampered motion.
12. Production of the intended effects (in cases where the ware is of the. category of

37
Cf . i n Vi t r uvi us t he f i gur es t hat dr i nk.
curios).It
13. The securing of the rhythmic quality in motion (particularly in entertainment-
17
wares).
14. Going into action when required.
15. Resumption of the still state when not required (chiefly in cates of
!
the pieces for
pastime).
16. Freedom from an uncouth appearance.
17. Verisimilitude (in the case of bodies intended to represent birds, animals etc.).
18. Firmness.
19. Softness.
20. Durability. (45-49).
Now to the Karman or action of these: Machines are characterized sot only by n action
peculiar to each but also by the particular times when they art to operate. The specialty of
some is sound; of some, height, form or touch; and so on. Action is across, upward,
downward, backward, forward, on either side, speeding and crawling. Another factor is the
time taken for the action. In sound, the factors are variety, the quality of pleasing or the
capacity to terrify. In contrivances for pure entertainment, music, dance, drama and imitation
of different things and beings are the main factors, each, like music and dance, having its sub-
varieties. In motion, going up and coming down. For the reproduction of whole themes in
machinery, Bhoja instances the fight between the Devas and the Asuras, the churning of the
ocean, Nrisimha killing Hiranyakasipu, races, elephant-fights, a mock-army, etc.- (.50-62 ).
Among fittings for utility, beauty and sport, various types of shower- fountains (dhard-
grihas), swings, pleasure-chambers, mechanical carriers and servants, balls and magic (?)
are mentioned. (63-64).
Bhoja now proceeds to describe some of the things that can be accomplished through
yantras:
1. Five storeys could be arranged and the bed placed on the ground floor made to go
up to each higher floor at the end of each watch of the night. (65).
2. Another pleasure contrivance is the couch called Kshirabdhisayana, in which the
serpent-like bed goes up and down by the soft action of air, like that of the serpent's
breathing. (68-69).
As examples of miracles that could be worked through yantras, Bhoja mentions the
production of fire m the midst of water and vice versa; effecting the complete disappearance
of a thing present before one and the projection before one of the view of a thing not present
before him ( 67-68). How these were done is not stated.
In Verses 66-67, a kind of chronometer is described; there is a circular device in which,
in a broad open vessel, there are thirty, probably ivory figures, or tooth-like pieces lying flat
all along the circumference; the whole thing is revolving; in the centre is the figure of a lady,
who wakes up one figure or piece for every Nadika.
Another chronometer-like object is described in Verses 70-71: there is a rider on a
chariot, an elephant or any other animal; for a fixed time, say, a Nadika, the rider on his
mount goes round and at the end of the Nadika, the chronometer strikes.
An astronomical model called Gola is then described (69-70}, in which there are
needles and the day and night movement of planets is shown.
18
Among mechanical contrivances given is a lamp into which, at set intervals, a
mechanical figure goes on pouring oil. An additional feature of this is that the figure keeps
on circumambulating to a definite musical rhythm (71-72).
Other entertaining yantras are speaking, singing and dancing birds, a dancing elephant,
horse or monkey, water going up and descending, a mock-fight and others worked by the
manipulation of air. (73-78).
Bhoja concludes this section with the observation that not only these, but many more
similar contrivances could be invented; even movements impossible in actual life are
possible in yantras. Regarding the actual process of making these, Bhoja says that, though it
is not set forth, the constituent elements and basic principles have been mentioned, so that
men of imagination could easily construct these. Silence on the actual mode of construction
is said to be for preserving this important knowledge, for giving a material advantage to the
architects, and for enhancing curiosity about these yantras. ( 79-81).
38
Another interesting statement that Bhoja makes is that some of the yantras described by
him are those actually seen by him (drishtani); more important is his information that
follows, viz., that he would now proceed to describe some more, handed down from earlier
masters. (82-83):
|||+|||||l|||||||!

After speaking again of the Bijas or constituent elements and the wonder and pleasure
of these yantras, Bhoja refers to the Sutradharas or chief architects who do these; their
qualifications are set forth as: (1) traditionally handed- down knowledge, (2) skill combined
with schooling under masters, (3) practice and application, and (4) imagination. (85-87).
Five classes of yantras are then mentioned as constituting the five sections of the science of
yantras, yantra-6&slra-a4hikdra. (86).; the lines not being free from corruption, we are not
able to make out these five classes of yantras to which reference is again made later; but
movement, such as rotary; material, such as wood; purpose, such as the exhibition of
dexterity and the satisfaction of curiosity; utilitarian value and pleasure, as in swings; and
form, as in the round yantras (cakra) is about the best meaning that I can extract out of the
context here.
39
A series of yantras now follows with some details of their manufacture:
40
1. A wooden bird in whose hollow body is placed a copper contrivance one inch long
and one-quarter inch high, of slender cylindrical shape, in two well-joined halves allowing a
hole at the centre along which air passes when the bird moves, creating a pleasing sound
(89-90),
2. The next is actually noted as a bedroom accessory. In the hollow of the bird above
mentioned is placed a small drum-like piece in halves and with an air-passage as in the

38
Cf. Roger Bacon, op. cit.:- Also flying machines can be constructed so that a man sits in the midst of the
machine revolving some engine by which artificial wings are made to beat the air like a flying bird.
(Thorndike, op. cit., Vol. II, pp.654-5).
39
Thor ndi ke, op. ci t . , Vol . I , p. 188.
40
I bi d. , pp. 189- 193.
previous yantra; the interior device is to be loosely hung and as the bird oscillates, a highly
pleasing sound is created which reduces the anger of the ladies who are cross,. (91-92 J .
Other bedroom accessories are various mechanical musical instruments which sound
automatically on the principle of stopping and releasing air according to plan. (93-94}.
19
The third class of yantra described is the aerial vehicle, to which we shall come last.
The fourth category comprises male and female figures designed for various kinds of
automatic service. Each part of these figures is made and fitted separately, with holes and
pins, so that thighs, eyes, neck, hand, wrist, forearm and fingers can act according to the
need. The material used is mainly wood, but a leather cover is given to complete the
impression of a human being. The movements are managed by the system of holes, pins and
strings attached to rods controlling each limb. Looking into a mirror, playing a lute and
stretching out the hand to touch, give pan, sprinkle water and make obeisance (101-4) are the
acts done by these figures. It is one such that provides the mechanical fan in the Yasastilaka
Campu.
Similar robots are used for the palace guard; one such stands at the gate with a baton,
sword, iron rod, spear or other weapon and prevents the entry of outsiders. This can quickly
and quietly kill thieves who break into the palace at night. (106-7).
Bhoja closes this section with a reference to military equipment in forts, bows,
sataghnis and a weapon newly mentioned by Bhoja, the Ushtra-griva (camel's neck),
resembling probably the modern cranes. He also indicates here the classification into
Guptyartha and Kridartha, protective military yantras, and yantras for sport and
entertainment. (108).
The sixth series now taken up by Bhoja in the Kri4drtha class, is the fountain, vari-
yantra, described in some detail by Somadeva, and dealt with by Bhoja not only here, but
also earlier under palace architecture. Movement in. the vari-yantra. is fourfold: (a) a
downward flow from an overhead tank for which a Pata-yantra or waterfall-machine, is to
be used ; ( b) Samanadika is for the release of water at a higher level from tanks placed at
that level; (c) Patasama-ucchraya is a contrivance using bored columns for letting down
water from a height, and then taking it up through columns placed aslant; and (d) the last,
Ucchraya, in which water from a well or in a canal on the ground is sent up by u device.
(110-14).
An artificial object which was probably common in Bhojas time is a wooden
elephant which Bhoja describes twice; earlier he cited it as an example of various
wonderful effects that could be achieved through yantras (72-3). It occurs here again under
yantras based on the principle of sending water upward, Ucchraya (115). This wooden-
elephant drinks water placed in a vessel, any amount of it, and neither the intake nor the
water taken in is
1
perceivable. On the Samaucchraya principle of circulation of water on
the same level is based the underground conduit which brings water to a tank from a
distant source (116). Water conduits in general are described earlier-also in Chapter 18 in
connection with the city and residence.
41
In the class of up-and-down play of water, Bhoja expatiates upon the Dharagriha,
shower-bower, in the garden ; its popularity hag already been noted, and Bhoja has already
given a description of it in Chapter 18; Its great vogue can also be seen from its different

41
Cf . Vi t r uvi us: al l machi ner y i s der i ved f r omnat ur e, and i s f ounded on
t he t eachi ng and i nst r uct i on of t he r evol ut i on of t he f i r mament .
types known by distinct names mentioned by Bhoja: (1) Pravarshana, the shower, (2)
Pranala, the pipe, (3 ) Jalamagna, the sub aquatic, and (4) the Nandyavarta, in a special
design. These are constructed only in palaces for the King's pleasure. (117-18).
Regarding their construction Bhoja says: (1) They are to be in the proximity of big
20
reservoirs; (2) They should occupy a site with good scenic possibilities; (3) Pipes have to
be prepared to double and treble the height and other requirements of the fountains; the
pipes should be able to carry water, be free from poise, and smooth inside (119-20).
Naturally architectural erections add to the excellence of the fountain-park and parts of the
structure are themselves used for the different water-works.
Fine and fragrant timber, Devadaru, Sandal, Sal, are to be used for the woodwork,
carved pillars, platforms, projections, windows, cornices, etc. The main items are female
figures and models of birds, animals like monkeys, manifold forms with gaping mouths,
semi-divine and half-human and half-animal forms, Nagas, Kinnaras etc., dancing peacocks,
Kalpavrikshas, creepers and bowers, cuckoos, bees and swans. In the centre of the flowing
stream is to be fixed the main pipe, the exterior of it being made into any charming form
according to one's liking. To the top of it is fitted and fastened strongly with vajralepa,
cement, the devices for taking up water, Scattering and throwing it in a variety of ways
(133). The pond is to be filled, for effect, with yantras of animals and aquatic beings, e.g.,
sporting elephants which do even minute actions like closing their eyes when another throws
water on the face (134); other specimens we saw in the description in the authors
Sringaramanjari. Female figures spraying water from eyes, nails, etc., when those parts are
touched are described here {136-37) as well as in the earlier chapter (XVIII. 47-50).
The Kings seat is right in the centre on a fine stone; he sometimes indulges in a bath,
sometimes enjoys the play of water from these manifold contrivances, the Jala-silpas,
sometimes listens to music and watches dancing here, and, particularly in summer, the
fountain is a necessity {139-141).
More specific descriptions of the four types of Dharagriha now follow: The main
specialty of the first, the Pravarshana, the shower, is that it pours down water. Strong
figures of three, four or seven men should be set up, with curved tubes; the whole
mechanism is fitted with water which is poured out in different ways by these figures (142-
46). Bhoja calls this shower-house a pseudo-cloud, anukaranam ekam jalamucam (148)
(Somadeva Suri's commentator gives it the name kriirima-megha-mandira)a boon in
summer and a feast to the dyes. Kalidasas reference to the yantra-dhara-griha has already
been noted but when he says in his Meghasandesa I. 61 (nesyanti tvam sura-yavatayo
yantra-dhara-grihatvam), that the celestial damsels on the Himalayas would scratch the
cloud with their bangles and convert it into a yantra-dhara-griha; he seems to know also the
name of this type called after the cloud.
The next variety called Pranala is two-storeyed with a single pillar or four, eight or
sixteen, built like a Pushpakavimana with decorative designs. At the centre below is a water-
tank with a big lotus, its pericarp fashioned as the seat of the King; around are female figures
looking at the lotus; when the overhead tank is filled and closed, water is poured by the
figures on the King sitting on the lotus seat.
The third, Jalamagna, is a chamber under water, the idea being that of the submarine
abode of Varuna or Nagaraja. A square chamber is built at the bottom of a big and deep
water-reservoir, the approach to it being through a subterranean passage. A continuous flow
of water above keeps the chamber completely cool and the whole reservoir is full of
mechanical lotuses, fishes, birds etc. When resting in this chamber alone or in private
company, the King can be seen only by select personal friends and urgent visitors of rank
like other Princes or Ambassadors. {157-66).
The last type, Nandyavarta, has, in mid-tank, a-big flower-like structure; all around the
21
central floral design, in mid-water, are placed low walls in Svastika designs, providing a
sufficient screen as well as a passage, the purpose being to permit playing in the water the
game of hide-and-seek (167-72).
The fifth main division of the yantradhikara was mentioned at the beginning as
Rathadola; Bhoja now takes it up. Rathadola is a swing or a merry-go- round in which
people ride in seats, and enjoy the pleasure of wheeling round. That merry-go-rounds were a
common sight is seen also in descriptions like the one we find in the poem Citrabandha
Ramayana of Verikatesakavi (Tanjore Ms. No. 3772, Verse 6) where the courtesans
wheeling round in the Daru-yantra in the palace courtyard are described by the poet as stars
going round Mount Meru. Bhoja devotes as much attention to. it as to the yantra-dhard-
griha; here too types are known with distinct names, but Bhoja's descriptions here, though
detailed, are not as clear as in the case of the fountains. The varieties are called Vasanta,
Madanotsava, Vasantatilaka, Vibhramaka and Tripura, (174) and each subsequent type is
more elaborate and complicated in its mechanism than the previous one.
In the Vasanta type the yantra is planted in a dugout 8 cubits square and 4 cubits deep;
both metal and woodwork are mentioned at the base of the yantra where the rotation'
mechanism is fitted to a platform. A storey is to be raised on twelve posts; on the whole five
machines are to be employed for the rotation, wheel acting upon wheel and the whole
moving the storey, designed like a lotus and accommodating the whirling riders (175-87 ).
In the second, the Madanotsava, there is no dugout or underground construction; the
storey on the main post provides only for four seats and a man standing below operates the
machine (188-94).
In the third, the Vasantatilaka, two storeys are to be constructed the second one with
much decoration; the mechanism is fitted in the first floor and by the action of wheel upon
wheel the top floor revolves (195-200).
The fourth, Vibhramaka, provides for increased accommodation and variety of motion.
At the base here is a solid platform and a square structure with mechanism; over these is a
floor with eight seats, and above these another round of seats; spoked wheels link up the
whole erection; the specialty here is, each floor has its own different movements, creating, as
the name implies, a complex of circular movements (201-8).
The last, Tripura, increases the tiers by one, justifying its name of three cities in air,
each higher floor being of smaller dimensions; a large number of connecting links, small
wheels and steps leading from one tier to the other are mentioned (209-18).
The most curious of the yantras described by Bhoja in this chapter is, of course, the one
that rises and travels in the air. From the previous notices of this aerial machine only the
barest details of its make-up could be gleaned. The only text that gives us some knowledge
of its actual construction is this work of Bhoja. Firstly Bhoja mentions the main material of
its body as light wood, laghu - daru; its shape is that of a huge bird, mahavihanga, with a
wing on each side. The motive force is then explained: In the bowels of the structure, below,
is to be a fire-chamber with mercury placed over a flame. The power generated by the heated
mercury, helped by the concurrent action of the wings which are flapped by a rider inside,
makes the yantra go up and travel far {data) (95-96).
A heavier (alaghu) Daru-vimana is then described (97-98); it contains, not one as in the
previous case, but four pitchers of mercury over iron ovens. The boiling mercury ovens
produce a terrific noise which is put to use in battle to scare away elephants; by strengthening
22
the mercury chambers, the roar could be increased so that by it elephants are thrown
completely out of control. This specific military use of aircraft against elephants tempts one
to suggest that the Hasti-yantra advocated by Kautilya against elephants was something like
the heavier Daru-vimana described by Bhoja.
|||||||l| *7-|l>|2||l|||||-|!
-|||||||||||||||||-|||l||||!!
|||7||-|-||7||||||l+||||l|||!
-||-|||||-||-|7|4||l|||||||l||!!
s|||-||l||-|||||||l|||||!
|||||l|l|||||||-|-|||+||||7+|||!!
||||||l|||l|||+|+||||||!
||||+|l|||+||||l|-|||||-|||7|4||!!
||-|l||||||-||||l|||-||l|||!
7|l|l|||l||||l-|||||l|||l|!
-|||-|-,+|-,+l||l-|-||l||
|-||*-|||||||||l|l|||!
|>|||>|||l|||l||+||l|||
|||||+||||-|l||||||7||l|!!

95-100
There may be some lacunae ii\ the description, and Bhoja does not fail to mention that
some vital knowledge is kept back as a secret, an idea which we noticed in the Brihatkatha
story also. It is, however, clear that mercury vapour ought not to be confused as providing
any lifting power; it was evidently converted into mechanical power, and the machine must
have risen, as is expressly slated here, and implied by the mention of its cock-shape in the
Brihatkatha story, by the flapping of the wings, and further movement must have been due
to the manipulation of the wings and the flow of air itself, on the analogy of the flight of
birds.
42
An important point to be noted in Bhojas treatment is that he discusses the views of
some earlier writers {XXXI.6), expressly mentions some of his yantras as having been
described by the ancients {84), and refers to yantra- sastra-adhikara as comprising five
sections (88), All this implies the existence of a technical literature on the yantras. Dandin,
we noted, mentioned earlier authors on the subject, Brahma, Indra and Parasara.
A further point of interest is that Bhoja speaks of some of these as having been seen
and described on first-hand knowledge of them (yantrani yani drishtani, 82).
The references to yantras found in highly reputed works cannot be held suspect; and
facts mentioned by one writer receive confirmation from another.
Further, the consistent reference to a particular people, the Yavanas, as handling the


Akasa-yantras, not only adds realism to these descriptions, but also sets us on an inquiry
into the history of yantras in the civilizations with which India came into close contact, the
Persian, Greek and Arab. The evidence collected by Elliot and Oppert on the use of fire and
war machines by the Greeks and the Arabs has already been referred to.
23
Reference may also be made to Penzer and the evidence collected by him on the Greeks
and automata. In his translation of the Kathasaritsgara (Ocean of Story) Vol. Ill (1925), in
a separate Note (pp. 56-59) on the automatic toys of Somaprabha and the city of machines of
the architect Rajyadhara, Penzer has presented very valuable information. According to him,
The first scientific inventor of such objects as are mentioned in the Kathasaritsagara,
was probably Archytas (c. 428-347 B.C.), the Greek philosopher of Tarentum He
constructed a kind of flying machine, consisting of a wooden figure balanced by a weight
suspended from a pulley, and set in motion by hidden and enclosed air. The tenth book of
the De Architectura Decent by Vitruvius, the Roman architect of the time of Caesar, is wholly
devoted to mechanical inventions of all kinds: water-raising contrivances, various enter-
taining things like birds singing by means of water-works, figures that drink and move and so
on.
38
Hero of Alexandria of c. 100 a.d. invented numerous complicated drinking animals and
wrote. also treatises on them, like Catoptrica, Pneumatica and Automatopoietica.
Many of his inventions have correspondences to those mentioned by Somadeva and
Bhoja : mechanical birds singing by the air driven through them by the force of water
which remind us that the musical devices of the yantra- dhara-griha are worked ultimately
by water, statues pouring out libations, dancing figures that revolve, those based on suns
heat or warm air, have echoes in our literature. Bhojas automatic lamp has its parallel in the
inexhaustible lamp in this treatise. The reference to many of these producing, sound or acting
by the principle of stopped and released air, and air expanding by heat, remind us of Bhojas
identical statements in the Samaranganasutradhara (XXXI. 40-41 and 78).

-||||-|||||*||l||||||l|!
|ll|||l|||||+||l|||||7|:!!
|l|-||l|-||l||%|7|+|||!
|||||||||||7|||||||||!!
l|7|-||7|||||||+|ll+|!
||>|2|l||||||||(|||||||!!
The prevalence of such automata and robots in the Islamic countries is shown by Penzer
but the references cited by him are later than the Sanskrit works discussed here; for instance,
Al-J azaris Book of the Knowledge of Ingenious Contrivances was written in 1206 A.D.
Not only these corroborative data from the side of the Yavanas, but also some of the
details mentioned in our works with reference to the Akasa-Yantras, such as seating capacity,
traveling range, difference in speed, accidents, materials and methods of manufacture and
various kings curiosity about and fondness for these show that we are no longer in the
regions of the Puranic Pushpakavimana, but in the world of actual fact.
The tradition pertaining to this lore was, however, neglected and lost. The vogue that
these mechanical contrivances had over a sufficiently long period was indeed enough to
foster the development and spread of mechanical technology on a national scale, but it was
just like the civilization of this country not to have taken to it on such a scale. The reason is
not far to seek: the religious and spiritual preoccupation was such that machines, which in
other countries ushered in a civilization that increasingly became materialistic in outlook,
were harnessed in this country to reinforce the idea of God and Spirit.
If material yantras did not take root or multiply, spiritual yantras, which took one to still
24
higher regions, developed and multiplied on a vast scale. And even writers who actually dealt
with the yantras, like Somadeva and Bhoja, saw in the machine operated by an agent an
appropriate analogy for the mundane body and senses presided over by the Soul, and for the
wonderful mechanism of the universe, with its constituent elements and planetary systems,
requiring a divine master to keep it in constant revolution.
||||-|||||||||||!
sl|||l|||||||l|2|||||l-|||!!
+|||l*|7|7|l7|||||+7|-|-
|||l|||||||7||||!
+|||l|||||l||||l|-|||
|:-|||+|||l|-|l||-||||||!!
And, as early as the Gita, the machine became an apt simile for man being but a tool in
the hands of the Almighty that sits in man

s heart and by His mystic power makes man not